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Copyright 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin Slide 2 Individual Behavior and Differences Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Processes Chapter 4 Slide 3 4-3 Learning Objectives Define perception and explain its role in understanding and coping with organizational life Describe how self-efficacy can influence an employees behavior Discuss why increasing diversity of the workforce requires the adoption of a different approach/style of managing employees Compare the meaning of the psychological contract from employee and employer perspectives Explain why its difficult to change an attitude Slide 4 4-4 Understanding Behavior Variables that influence behavior Abilities and skills Background Demographic variables Can any manager modify, mold, or reconstruct behaviors? This is much debated among behavioral scientists and managerial practitioners Slide 5 4-5 Individual Behavior Framework The Environment The Individual Behaviors Outcomes Slide 6 4-6 Individual Behavior To understand individual differences, managers must Observe and recognize the differences Study variables that influence individual behavior Discover relationships among the variables Slide 7 4-7 Individual Behavior Research finds that behavior Is caused Is goal directed Can be observed Is measurable Is motivated Behavior that is not directly observable is also important in accomplishing goals Slide 8 4-8 Individual Behavior Questions that help managers pinpoint performance issues Does the employee have the skill and ability to perform the job? Does the employee have the resources to perform the job? Is the employee aware of the performance problem? Slide 9 4-9 Individual Behavior Questions (continued) When did the performance problem surface? How do the employees co-workers react to the performance problem? What can I do as a manager to alleviate the performance problem? Slide 10 4-10 Individual Differences Poor performance Even highly motivated employees may not have the abilities or skills to perform well Ability A biological or learned trait that permits a person to do something mental or physical Skills Task-related competencies Slide 11 4-11 Individual Differences Job analysis Defining and studying a job in terms of behavior Specifying education and training needed to perform the job Used to take some of the guesswork out of matching jobs to people Matching people with jobs is often a problem Slide 12 4-12 Matching People to Jobs Matching people to jobs involves Employee selection Training and development Career planning Employee counseling Managers must examine Job content Required behaviors Preferred behaviors Slide 13 4-13 Skills and Abilities Mental ability examples Flexibility Fluency and verbal comprehension Inductive reasoning Associative memory Span memory Number facility Deductive reasoning Spatial orientation and visualization Slide 14 4-14 Skills and Abilities Physical skill examples Dynamic strength Extent flexibility Gross body coordination Gross body equilibrium Stamina Slide 15 4-15 Demographics Among the most important demographic classifications Gender Race Cultural diversity Slide 16 4-16 Demographics White male research results should not influence Decisions Prescriptions Techniques Faulty generalizations lead to Improper assumptions Inadequate solutions Inaccurate rewards and evaluations Slide 17 4-17 Psychological Variables Perception Attribution Attitudes Personality Emotional Intelligence Slide 18 4-18 Perception Perception is based on five senses Sight Touch Hearing Taste Smell Perception helps individuals Select, organize, store, and interpret stimuli into a meaningful and coherent picture of the world. Slide 19 4-19 Differing Perceptions A manager believes employees have opportunities to judge how to do the job The employee feels there is no freedom to make judgments A workers response to a request is based on what she thought she heard It was not based on what was actually requested A manager considers a product to be of high quality The customer feels it is poorly made Slide 20 4-20 Perceptual Differences & Behavior Freedom worker is given Managers perception Worker has lots of freedom to make decisions Managers behavior No concern about freedom given to worker Managers behavior Puzzled by the absence record of worker Workers perception I am not given freedom to make decisions Workers behavior Feeling of being left out Staying home Workers behavior Belief that no one really cares Slide 21 4-21 Stereotyping Over-generalized, over-simplified belief about peoples personal characteristics Most people engage in stereotyping Applies to both people and occupations Self-perpetuating Affects promotions, motivation, job design, or performance evaluation Situational factors, needs, emotions can affect perceptual accuracy Slide 22 4-22 Stereotyping Stereotyping is perpetuated by Selective perception The managers characteristics Situational factors Needs Emotions Slide 23 4-23 Attribution The process of perceiving the causes of behavior and outcomes Slide 24 4-24 Attribution Dispositional attributions Emphasize some aspect of the individual Situational attributions Emphasize the environments effect on behavior Before deciding if behavior is due to the person or the situation, consider Consensus Distinctiveness Consistency Slide 25 4-25 Attribution Types of attribution errors Attributional bias Fundamental attribution error General positivity (the Pollyanna principle) Self-serving bias Slide 26 4-26 Attitudes A positive or negative feeling or mental state of readiness Learned, organized through experience Influences a persons response to people, objects, and situations Components of an attitude Affect Cognition Behavior Slide 27 4-27 Outcomes of Attitudes Work factorsComponentsResponses Job design Manager style Company policies Technology Salary Benefits Affect Cognition Behavior Emotional Perceptual Action StimuliAttitudes Outcomes Slide 28 4-28 Cognitive Dissonance A mental state of anxiety Occurs when theres a conflict among an individuals various cognitions after a decision has been made Slide 29 4-29 Cognitive Dissonance Organizational implications Helps explain the choices made by someone with attitude inconsistency Can help predict a persons propensity to change attitudes If one is required to do or say things that contract personal attitudes An attitude may be chosen that is more compatible with what theyve said or done Slide 30 4-30 Attitudes Changing employee attitudes Can hinder job performance Factors that affect attitude change Trust in the sender The message itself The situation Slide 31 4-31 Attitudes and Values Values The conscious, affective desires and wants that guide behavior Once internalized, values Become a standard for guiding ones actions Affect the perceptions of appropriate ends and the appropriate means to those ends Slide 32 4-32 Attitudes and Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction Attitude individuals have about their jobs Results from their perception of the jobs Dimensions linked to job satisfaction Pay Job Promotion opportunities Supervisor Co-workers Slide 33 4-33 Satisfaction-Performance Views 1. Job satisfaction Job Performance causes The satisfied worker is more productive. 2. Job satisfaction Job Performance is caused by The more productive worker is satisfied. 3. Job satisfaction Job Performance There is no specific direction or relationship. Slide 34 4-34 Job Satisfaction Comparison Prottas and Thompson findings Self-employment is a better career choice than organizational employment Higher levels of job satisfaction Lower job stress Higher levels of job autonomy satisfaction Lower levels of job pressure Slide 35 4-35 Job-Customer Satisfaction Most businesses in developed countries are service oriented Only satisfied customers return Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty Job satisfaction and customer satisfaction flow in both directions Rude, unhappy customers can result in dissatisfied employees Slide 36 4-36 Personality Characteristics, tendencies, and temperaments Determines commonalities and differences in peoples behavior Slide 37 4-37 Personality Personality is influenced by Hereditary factors Cultural factors Social class and other group membership forces Family and environment Slide 38 4-38 Ego Defense Mechanisms Some ego defense mechanisms Rationalization Identification Compensation Denial of reality Slide 39 4-39 Theories of Personality Trait Personality Theories Predispositions direct the behavior of an individual in a consistent pattern Psychodynamic Personality Theories Freudian approach (id, superego, ego) Emphasis on subconscious determinants of behavior Humanistic Personality Theories Emphasis on growth and self-actualization Slide 40 4-40 Measuring Personality Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Statements to which one responds True, False, or Cannot Say Covers health, psychosomatic symptoms, neurological disorders, social attitudes, phobias, delusions, and sadistic tendencies Slide 41 4-41 Measuring Personality Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Assesses personality or cognitive style Extroverted or introverted, sensory or intuitive, thinking or feeling, perceiving or judging Slide 42 4-42 Big Five Model Big Five personality dimensions Conscientiousness Extraversion-Introversion Agreeableness Emotional Stability Openness to Experience Slide 43 4-43 Self-Efficacy Believing that you can perform adequately in a situation Slide 44 4-44 Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy has three dimensions Magnitude Strength Generality A person with high self-efficacy is motivated toward achievement Machiavellianism Negative connotation associated with political maneuvering and power manipulation Slide 45 4-45 Creativity The generation of novel ideas that may be converted into opportunities Should be a core competency The first step in the innovation process Slide 46 4-46 Developing Creativity Buffering Look for ways to absorb the risks of creative decisions made by employees Organizational time-outs Give people time off to work on a problem and think things through Intuition Give half-baked or raw ideas a chance Slide 47 4-47 Developing Creativity Innovative attitudes Encourage everyone to solve problems Innovative organizational structures Let employees see and interact with many managers and mentors Slide 48 4-48 Emotional Intelligence The ability to accurately perceive, evaluate, express, and regulate emotions and feelings Slide 49 4-49 The Psychological Contract An implied understanding of mutual contributions between a person and an organization Slide 50 4-50 The Psychological Contract Violation A person perceives that the organization has failed honor one or more obligations Common obligations Job security and feedback Childcare benefits Merit-based pay raises Job autonomy Computer training Promotion