copyright © 2008 the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. all rights reserved. 1 adolescence 8th edition by...

Copyright © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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AdolescenceAdolescence8th edition8th edition

By Laurence Steinberg, Ph.D.By Laurence Steinberg, Ph.D.

Chapter Six:Chapter Six:

SchoolsSchools

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Chapter 6 OverviewChapter 6 Overview The context of secondary education in AmericaThe context of secondary education in America

What should schools teach? What should schools teach? What are the problems specific to inner-city schools?What are the problems specific to inner-city schools?

The social organization of schoolsThe social organization of schools Which is more important: school size or class size?Which is more important: school size or class size? Should students be put in special tracks?Should students be put in special tracks?

Why does the climate of the classroom matter?Why does the climate of the classroom matter? Beyond high school: college and non-college-bound Beyond high school: college and non-college-bound

studentsstudents What are the main characteristics of a good school?What are the main characteristics of a good school?


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Secondary EducationSecondary Education Middle schools, junior Middle schools, junior

highs, and high schools highs, and high schools are all forms of are all forms of secondary educationsecondary education

The proportion of the The proportion of the 14- to 17-year-old 14- to 17-year-old population enrolled in population enrolled in school increased school increased dramatically between dramatically between 1910 and 19401910 and 1940

Today, nearly 95% of Today, nearly 95% of individuals this age are individuals this age are in schoolin school


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Origins of Compulsory Origins of Compulsory Education in AmericaEducation in America

IndustrializationIndustrialization Many families could make Many families could make

ends meet without the labor ends meet without the labor of their adolescentsof their adolescents

Greater need for skilled and Greater need for skilled and reliable (adult) workersreliable (adult) workers

Urbanization and Urbanization and ImmigrationImmigration Rapid population growth led Rapid population growth led

to overcrowding, slums, crimeto overcrowding, slums, crime Compulsory secondary Compulsory secondary

education was a means of education was a means of social control, to improve social control, to improve lives of poor and working lives of poor and working classesclasses


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The Rise of the The Rise of the Comprehensive High SchoolComprehensive High School

Before secondary education was compulsory, high Before secondary education was compulsory, high schools were for the socioeconomic elite schools were for the socioeconomic elite

By 1920s, educators called for curricular reform to By 1920s, educators called for curricular reform to match changes in social composition of schoolsmatch changes in social composition of schools Focus on intellectual training Focus on intellectual training New focus on preparing youth for life in modern society New focus on preparing youth for life in modern society

(roles of work and citizenship)(roles of work and citizenship) Comprehensive high schoolComprehensive high school

General education, college preparation, vocational General education, college preparation, vocational education all housed under one roofeducation all housed under one roof


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School Reform: School Reform: What Should Schools Teach?What Should Schools Teach?

1970s1970s RelevanceRelevance

1980s1980s Back to Basics: Math, science, Back to Basics: Math, science, readingreading

Early 1990sEarly 1990s Critical/Higher-Order ThinkingCritical/Higher-Order Thinking

Late 1990sLate 1990s Rigorous Academic Standards: Rigorous Academic Standards: Emphasize High Tech trainingEmphasize High Tech training

TodayToday Standards-Based ReformStandards-Based ReformNo Child Left Behind (2002)No Child Left Behind (2002)


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School Reform: School Reform: What Should Schools Teach?What Should Schools Teach?

Current debate over whether education should focus Current debate over whether education should focus on traditional academics or on preparing young people on traditional academics or on preparing young people for adulthoodfor adulthood

1980s1980s––Back to Basics movement resulted from Back to Basics movement resulted from American students faring poorly in international American students faring poorly in international comparisons comparisons

Late 1980sLate 1980s––movement toward increasing amount of movement toward increasing amount of critical, higher-order thinking in schoolscritical, higher-order thinking in schools

Late 1990sLate 1990s––movement toward Standards-Based movement toward Standards-Based reform, combination of more higher-order thinking and reform, combination of more higher-order thinking and better performance on standardized testsbetter performance on standardized tests


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School Reform:School Reform:What Should Schools Teach?What Should Schools Teach? No Child Left Behind Act (2002)No Child Left Behind Act (2002)

Mandates that all states ensure that all students, Mandates that all states ensure that all students, regardless of economic circumstances, achieve academic regardless of economic circumstances, achieve academic proficiency on standardized annual testsproficiency on standardized annual tests

Schools that repeatedly fail face losing funding, being Schools that repeatedly fail face losing funding, being forced to closeforced to close

Addresses problem of social promotionAddresses problem of social promotion Advancing students regardless of their academic competence or Advancing students regardless of their academic competence or

performanceperformance

Introduces problem of teaching to the test for Introduces problem of teaching to the test for teachers who are under pressure to get kids to pass teachers who are under pressure to get kids to pass annual examsannual exams


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School Reform: School Reform: Education in Inner CitiesEducation in Inner Cities

Some have argued that low American academic Some have argued that low American academic achievement was concentrated among achievement was concentrated among poor/minority youth in inner citiespoor/minority youth in inner cities

Why has school reform failed in urban schools? Why has school reform failed in urban schools? Increasing concentration of poverty in certain inner-city Increasing concentration of poverty in certain inner-city

communities has led to a population of students with very communities has led to a population of students with very grave academic and behavioral problems grave academic and behavioral problems

Urban school districts are burdened by administrative Urban school districts are burdened by administrative bureaucracies that impede reformbureaucracies that impede reform

Students report less sense of belonging to their schoolsStudents report less sense of belonging to their schools Erosion of job opportunities: Little incentive to remain in Erosion of job opportunities: Little incentive to remain in

school or put effort into academic pursuitsschool or put effort into academic pursuits


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The Organization of Schools:The Organization of Schools: School SizeSchool Size

Schools grew larger to offer a wider range of courses Schools grew larger to offer a wider range of courses and services to studentsand services to students

Student performance and interest in school improve Student performance and interest in school improve when schools are more intimate when schools are more intimate Schools within schoolsSchools within schools

Smaller school size encourages participation Smaller school size encourages participation Ideal size: Between 500 and 1,000 studentsIdeal size: Between 500 and 1,000 students In larger schools, students tend to be observers rather than In larger schools, students tend to be observers rather than

participantsparticipants Especially important for students whose grades are not very Especially important for students whose grades are not very

good to begin withgood to begin with


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The Organization of Schools:The Organization of Schools: Class SizeClass Size

Classroom sizeClassroom size Research findings Research findings

misinterpreted by politicians misinterpreted by politicians who began emphasizing who began emphasizing importance of small classesimportance of small classes

Does Does notnot affect scholastic affect scholastic achievement during achievement during adolescence, except in adolescence, except in remedial coursesremedial courses

Adolescents learn as much Adolescents learn as much in classes of 40 students as in classes of 40 students as in classes of 20 studentsin classes of 20 students

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Age Grouping and Age Grouping and School TransitionsSchool Transitions

Early 1900sEarly 1900s Two-school systemTwo-school system Elementary School (6 or 8 Elementary School (6 or 8

grades)grades) Secondary School (6 or 4 Secondary School (6 or 4

grades)grades) Compulsory Secondary Compulsory Secondary

EducationEducation Introduction of Junior HighsIntroduction of Junior Highs

More recent yearsMore recent years Introduction of Middle SchoolsIntroduction of Middle Schools

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As children move into middle school or junior highAs children move into middle school or junior high School grades and academic motivation dropSchool grades and academic motivation drop Scores on standardized achievements tests do not declineScores on standardized achievements tests do not decline Student motivation and changes in grading practices may Student motivation and changes in grading practices may

be changing, not student knowledgebe changing, not student knowledge

Schools can combat these changes by reducing Schools can combat these changes by reducing anonymity, hiring teachers with training in adolescent anonymity, hiring teachers with training in adolescent development, and strengthening ties between the development, and strengthening ties between the school and communityschool and community


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Classroom environment in middle school/junior high Classroom environment in middle school/junior high is different than elementary schoolis different than elementary school Teachers hold different beliefs about studentsTeachers hold different beliefs about students Teachers also hold different beliefs about their own Teachers also hold different beliefs about their own

teaching abilitiesteaching abilities Developmental mismatch between what adolescents Developmental mismatch between what adolescents

need and what they get from teachersneed and what they get from teachers Junior high school students in more personal, less Junior high school students in more personal, less

departmentalized schools do better in school than departmentalized schools do better in school than their peers in larger and more anonymous schoolstheir peers in larger and more anonymous schools

No uniform effects on all students during transitions No uniform effects on all students during transitions (individual differences)(individual differences)


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Social Organization of Schools:Social Organization of Schools: TrackingTracking

Separating students, by academic ability, into different Separating students, by academic ability, into different classes within the same schoolclasses within the same school

Proponents argue that ability-grouping allows teachers Proponents argue that ability-grouping allows teachers to design class lessons that are more finely tuned to to design class lessons that are more finely tuned to students’ abilitiesstudents’ abilities

Critics argue tracking leads to problemsCritics argue tracking leads to problems Students who are placed in the remedial track generally Students who are placed in the remedial track generally

receive a poorer quality education, not just a different receive a poorer quality education, not just a different educationeducation

Socialize only with peers from same trackSocialize only with peers from same track Difficult to change tracks once in place, especially for minority Difficult to change tracks once in place, especially for minority

studentsstudents


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Social Organization of Schools:Social Organization of Schools: TrackingTracking

Sex and gender differencesSex and gender differences Girls score higher on math tests in elementary school, yet Girls score higher on math tests in elementary school, yet

are less likely to be placed in high math track are less likely to be placed in high math track Gifted studentsGifted students––score 130 or higher on IQ testscore 130 or higher on IQ test Learning disabled studentsLearning disabled students

Actual academic performance less than expected from IQ Actual academic performance less than expected from IQ tests, no emotional explanation for discrepancytests, no emotional explanation for discrepancy

Assumed to have neurological problemsAssumed to have neurological problems Mainstreaming of gifted and learning disabled Mainstreaming of gifted and learning disabled

students into regular classroomsstudents into regular classrooms Big-Fish-Little-Pond effect for gifted studentsBig-Fish-Little-Pond effect for gifted students Problematic for learning disabled studentsProblematic for learning disabled students


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The Organization of Schools: The Organization of Schools: Ethnic CompositionEthnic Composition

Landmark U.S. Supreme Court rulings legally ended Landmark U.S. Supreme Court rulings legally ended segregation of schools (segregation of schools (Brown v. Board of Education of Brown v. Board of Education of TopekaTopeka 1954; 1955) 1954; 1955)

How does desegregation affect school achievement? How does desegregation affect school achievement? Research findings mixed: Research findings mixed: Desegregation has little impact on achievement levels of Desegregation has little impact on achievement levels of

either minority or white adolescentseither minority or white adolescents Minority youngster’s self-esteem is higher when they attend Minority youngster’s self-esteem is higher when they attend

schools in which they are in the majorityschools in which they are in the majority African Americans who attend desegregated schools more African Americans who attend desegregated schools more

likely to graduate and continue education in collegelikely to graduate and continue education in college


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Public Schools Public Schools vs.vs. Private SchoolsPrivate Schools

To encourage better schools and To encourage better schools and competition among schools for better competition among schools for better students, parents given more choices of students, parents given more choices of where to send their childrenwhere to send their children

Government-subsidized education Government-subsidized education vouchers vouchers Used to “purchase” education at a school of Used to “purchase” education at a school of

one’s choosingone’s choosing––private or public schoolsprivate or public schools Charter schoolsCharter schools

independent public schools that operate as independent public schools that operate as they wishthey wish


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Public Schools Public Schools vs.vs. Private SchoolsPrivate Schools

Recent research has suggested that private schools Recent research has suggested that private schools aren’t necessarily more effective than public schoolsaren’t necessarily more effective than public schools Family background is more important influence on Family background is more important influence on

achievement than school qualityachievement than school quality True even for charter schools in urban areas, hoped to be True even for charter schools in urban areas, hoped to be

the solution to public school problems in the citiesthe solution to public school problems in the cities Exception is Catholic (private) school:Exception is Catholic (private) school:

Climate is different from public schoolsClimate is different from public schools Strong community values promote social capital, give Strong community values promote social capital, give

students additional resourcesstudents additional resources Most private school students feel more safe than public Most private school students feel more safe than public

school studentsschool students


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The Climate of the ClassroomThe Climate of the Classroom

How teachers interact with How teachers interact with students, use class time, and students, use class time, and the expectations they hold for the expectations they hold for students all influence learning students all influence learning and academic achievementand academic achievement

Students achieve more when Students achieve more when attending schools that are attending schools that are responsive and demanding, responsive and demanding, where teachers are supportive where teachers are supportive but in controlbut in control

Similar to the authoritative Similar to the authoritative family environmentfamily environment


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The Climate of the ClassroomThe Climate of the Classroom Comer School Development ProjectComer School Development Project

Improving student achievement by changing Improving student achievement by changing broader school climate, not on individual broader school climate, not on individual classroomsclassrooms

Unique components:Unique components: School Planning and Management TeamSchool Planning and Management Team Social Support TeamSocial Support Team Parent TeamParent Team

Evaluations of this intervention have provided Evaluations of this intervention have provided mixed resultsmixed results Worked well in Chicago elementary schoolsWorked well in Chicago elementary schools No differences in Maryland middle schoolsNo differences in Maryland middle schools


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School ViolenceSchool Violence One in four American high school students has been One in four American high school students has been

the victim of violence in or around schoolthe victim of violence in or around school Violence more common in overcrowded schools in poor Violence more common in overcrowded schools in poor

urban neighborhoodsurban neighborhoods Asian Americans targeted because of perceived teacher Asian Americans targeted because of perceived teacher

preference toward these studentspreference toward these students Zero-tolerance policiesZero-tolerance policies

Lethal school violenceLethal school violence Widely publicized but rare, school shootings declined since Widely publicized but rare, school shootings declined since

1990s1990s Increase in number of school-shooting related deaths Increase in number of school-shooting related deaths

because of automatic weaponsbecause of automatic weapons Impossible to predict which students will commit these actsImpossible to predict which students will commit these acts


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Beyond High School: Beyond High School: The College BoundThe College Bound

19001900 4% 18-21 year 4% 18-21 year

olds in collegeolds in college TodayToday

75% of high-75% of high-school graduates school graduates enroll in college enroll in college (two-thirds do so (two-thirds do so immediately after immediately after high school) high school)


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Beyond High School: Beyond High School: The College BoundThe College Bound

College in the United States relative to other College in the United States relative to other countriescountries More diverse and accessibleMore diverse and accessible Wider variety of liberal arts, technical, Wider variety of liberal arts, technical,

vocational, preprofessional schoolsvocational, preprofessional schools Rates of graduation lag far behind rates of Rates of graduation lag far behind rates of

enrollment enrollment Only 50% of all students who enroll in a 4-year Only 50% of all students who enroll in a 4-year

college complete their degree within 6 yearscollege complete their degree within 6 years


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Beyond High School: Beyond High School: The Non-College-BoundThe Non-College-Bound

Secondary schools are geared almost Secondary schools are geared almost exclusively toward college-bound exclusively toward college-bound youngsters, even though one third of youngsters, even though one third of adolescents do not go on to collegeadolescents do not go on to college

Rise in minimum-wage service jobs Rise in minimum-wage service jobs means less chance of making decent means less chance of making decent living without college experience living without college experience

Critics argue we should ease Critics argue we should ease transition to adult world of work for transition to adult world of work for those not interested in college by those not interested in college by providing apprenticeship and providing apprenticeship and advanced skilled job trainingadvanced skilled job training

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What Do Good What Do Good SchoolsSchools Look Like? Look Like?

Emphasize intellectual activities over athletics or Emphasize intellectual activities over athletics or social activitiessocial activities

Employ teachers who are strongly committed to Employ teachers who are strongly committed to students and have enough freedom to teach students and have enough freedom to teach effectivelyeffectively

Constantly monitor the students and the school itself Constantly monitor the students and the school itself in order to make policy changes and function betterin order to make policy changes and function better

Links with the communityLinks with the community––Schools are well integrated Schools are well integrated into the communities they serve (e.g., with local into the communities they serve (e.g., with local colleges and employers)colleges and employers)

Composed of classrooms with good climate, where Composed of classrooms with good climate, where students are active participants who are challenged to students are active participants who are challenged to think criticallythink critically


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Schools and Schools and Adolescent DevelopmentAdolescent Development

Low SES studentsLow SES students Rates of academic Rates of academic

progress during the progress during the school year are equal to school year are equal to high SES studentshigh SES students

Scores decline in the Scores decline in the summer summer

Summer school may Summer school may prevent widening of prevent widening of achievement gap achievement gap between affluent and between affluent and poor studentspoor students


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Schools and Schools and Adolescent DevelopmentAdolescent Development

Most schools are Most schools are not structured to not structured to promote promote psychosocial psychosocial developmentdevelopment

For most For most adolescents, school adolescents, school is the main setting is the main setting for socializing for socializing

copyright © 2008 the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. all rights reserved. 1 adolescence 8th edition by...

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