copyright © 2004 the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. permission required for reproduction or display....

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Discussion of paper requirementsSocial CognitionEgocentrismTheory of mindPreschool Social WorldErikson’s Autonomy versus GuiltFrustration ToleranceDelay of gratificationSelf constancySex-typed behaviorGender-role conceptGender constancyPeer relations. FriendshipEmotional regulationAggression and prosocial behaviorPlay and role playingParent’s rolesCoherence and Behavioral Development


Final paper will address the following:A summary of the claim(s) of the popular articleAn evaluation of the popular articles claims based on the research you reviewed. This should be a critical review. If the articles have contradictory results or differing conclusions, present hypotheses about why this might be soA proposal for the kind of additional research that should be done to increase our understanding of the topicReferences for all works cited in your paperWhen you turn in your final paper you will attach as appendices:Your analysis of the popular article or web site postingA grading sheet that is the second page of this document

Part 1 of paper Introduction

Introduce the major topic or area about which you are going to write

Describe the claims and conclusion from your popular article

Describe the plan of your paper


II. Review the methods and results of the research articles you read.

Evaluate the claims in the popular article based on the results from the research articles.

Propose the kind of research that you believe should be done in the future to advance our knowledge in this area.


1. Description of the area of developmental psychology that your paper addresses (10%) 2.

2. Description of popular article claims that you will be evaluating (10%) 3. 3. Summaries of at least 2 research articles (40%)

(, results, and conclusions, and connection to popular claims)

4. . Conclusions about the claims in the popular article (15%)

5. Proposal for future research (10%.) 6. Required addendum: First part of the paprer that

summarizes the popular article, this grading sheet (5%)

7. Quality of writing (10%)


Understanding of the social world.

Social cognition:

• Deals with the impact of children's cognitive skills on their social relationships and the role of social interaction in supporting cognitive development.

• Children start to learn how other people think and feel, what their motives and intentions are, and what they are likely to do.


Egocentrism in Preschoolers

Egocentrism

Inability to understand others’ perspectives.

Perceptual egocentrism

Not differentiating one’s own perceptual experience from someone else’s.

Cognitive egocentrism

Failing to take into account someone else’s cognitive perspective.


Egocentrism in Preschoolers

Overcoming egocentrism Knowledge of existence: Realizing

other people have thoughts, viewpoints, & desires that differ from the child’s.

Awareness of need: Realizing it can be useful to consider another’s perspective.

Social inference: Reading another person’s actions and imagining that person’s point of view.


The Child’s Theory of Mind

In developing a theory of mind, children come to understand 5 principles:

1. Minds exist.2. Minds have connections to the physical

world.3. Minds are separate and different from the

physical world.4. Minds can represent objects & events

accurately or inaccurately.5. Minds actively interpret reality &

emotional experiences.

Theory of mind:An understanding of the mind & mental operations.Theory of mind:An understanding of the mind & mental operations.


Communication and the Declineof Egocentrism

Egocentric speech is seen both when children talk to themselves while playing and in collective monologues.

Preschoolers often have difficulty communicating information to a listener in a nonegocentric way, especially abstract thoughts.

Preschoolers do show some evidence of adjusting their speech to the needs of their listeners under certain circumstances.


Preschool Social & Emotional DevelopmentChildren between ages 21/2-5 experience:

Dramatically expanding world. Notable developments in self-

reliance, self-control, & self-regulation.

Exploration of adult roles.

A major theme of this chapter is the organization and coherence of preschoolers’ behavior.


Some Hallmarks of Early ChildhoodSocial & Emotional DevelopmentThe Child’s Expanding World Through day-care, nursery school, and

kindergarten experiences, children come into contact with peers.

Peer relationships formed in these settings play an important role in children's social and emotional development.

Sibling relationships become increasingly important during this period.

All of these new developments influence each other.

Erikson Autonomy versus Guilt

Child learning to be independent, on his or her own

Guilt, a response to growing internal standards



Moving Toward Greater Self-Reliance

Greater self-reliance is supported by several capacities of 3- & 4-year-olds:

motor skills such as climbing & manipulating objects language & other cognitive abilities that enable

them to think, plan, solve problems growing ability to tolerate delays & frustrations emerging capacity for imagination & fantasy play

Initiative: A child’s sense of independent purposefulness (Erikson).

Initiative: A child’s sense of independent purposefulness (Erikson).

Self-efficacy:The sense of being able to do things effectively on one’s own (Bandura).

Self-efficacy:The sense of being able to do things effectively on one’s own (Bandura).


Self-Control & Self-RegulationEffortful control:Ability to suppress some strong behavior, such as: slowing down when running talking more quietly

Self-regulation includes: effortful control ability to direct their own activities adjusting behavior & emotional

expression to fit the situation

Luria studies Press one bulb if green light, a second if

red light. Press/don’t press Mother may I game


Delay of Gratification One candy now, more if the child waits Individual differences Stevenson study of reflective/impulsive

kids as a function of SES/ethnicity



The Developing SelfChanges in Self-Understanding more comprehensive sense of self observe their own behavior have trouble understanding they’re the

same person when they feel different

Self-constancy:A sense that the self endures despite

temporary disruptions in relationships.

Self-constancy:A sense that the self endures despite

temporary disruptions in relationships.


Gender and the Self

Sex-typed behavior:Actions that conform

to cultural expectations about what is appropriate for boys and for girls.

Gender-role concept:

Knowledge of cultural stereotypes regarding males and females.


Changes in Sex-Typed Behavior Sex-typed behavior develops gradually. By age 2, children show gender-related

preferences in toys. By age 3 to 4, sex-typed behavior

increases. Parents and peers generally support

gender-”appropriate” play and show disapproval of gender-”inappropriate” play during this time.

Mothers are often more accepting of “cross-gender” play.


Developing Gender-Role Concepts By 4-5, children start learning more

abstract cultural beliefs about gender -- gender-role concepts.

The male role is more instrumental and the female role is more expressive.

Gender segregation appears in the preschool classroom and among friends.


Gender constancy:

Understanding that gender is permanent despite superficial changes.

related to concepts of conservation


Examining Sex-Typed Behaviorand Gender-Role Development

Social learning theorists explain these developments partly in terms of rewards and punishments for appropriate and inappropriate behavior.

Cognitive theorists see gender-role learning as one example of children’s emerging understanding of categories, scripts, and schemas.

Gender schema theory: combines elements of cognitive and social learning

theory holds that children form concept or schema or male

and female characteristics, with content based on the child’s social and learning history.

Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes developmental changes in relationships with parents.


Social Development:The New World of Peers

Competence with PeersDuring the preschool period children

begin to interact: sustained coordinated highly complex

Social competence = good peer relations.


Early Friendships By about age 4, children have the

capacity to maintain friendships through their own efforts.

Children who are friends behave differently with each other than they do with non-friends. More frequent positive exchanges More cooperative in problem-solving tasks Disagree more often Conflicts are less heated, result in fairer

solutions, and do not lead to separation


The Importance of Peer Relationships

The peer group helps children learn about concepts of fairness, reciprocity, and cooperation.

Learn to manage interpersonal aggression

Cultural norms and values Greatly affects self-concept and future

interactions.


Emotional DevelopmentYoung Children’s Understanding of

EmotionBy age 6, children understand:

good sad jealous proud embarrassed miserable


The Growth of Emotional RegulationEmotional regulation

Capacities to: control & direct emotional expression maintain organized behavior be guided by emotional experiences

Delay of gratification

Ability to forego an immediate reward in favor of a better reward at a later time.

Ego resiliency

Ability to modify self-restraint to adapt to changing circumstances.


Internalizing Standards Once the child internalizes standards, he

or she will comply with parents’ prohibitions even when parents aren’t present.

By age 4, children view moral transgressions (e.g., hitting or not sharing) as more serious than conventional transgressions (e.g., eating ice cream with your fingers).


The Self-Evaluative Emotions

Guilt and pride involve evaluating the self against internalized standards.

Guilt no longer arises only from fear of punishment.

True pride is distinguished from toddlers’ joy in mastery because it is based on self-evaluation.


Emotional Development, Aggression,and Prosocial Behavior

Aggression:Negative acts intended to harm

others or their possessions.

Prosocial Behavior:Positive feelings & acts toward

others, with intention of benefiting them.


Developmental Changes in Aggression

During late preschool and early elementary school years, overall level of physical aggressiveness declines because of a drop in instrumental aggression.

Instrumental aggression

Aggression used as a means to get something.

Hostile aggression

Aggression aimed solely at hurting someone else.Clip art copyright © 2003 www.arttoday.com. Used with permission.


The Development of Empathy & Altruism

Empathy underlies altruism. When empathy is aroused, children

are more willing to be helpful to others.

Empathy Ability to experience the emotions of another person.

Altruism Acting unselfishly to aid someone else.


The Development of Empathy & Altruism

Phases in empathy & altruism1. Primitive capacity for empathy (infancy)

2. More purposeful helping behaviors (toddlerhood)

3. Capacity to take others’ perspectives and respond to others’ needs (early childhood)

Preschool children's prosocial behavior is greatly influenced by their parents' style of caregiving.

Considerations include:– Consequences for the victim

– Principles and expectations regarding kindness

– Conveying the entire message with intensity of feeling about the issues involved


The Role of Play inPreschool Development

Play serves a variety of cognitive, emotional, & social functions, providing opportunities for:

dealing with conflict and fear working through developmental

issues trying out social roles


Play and Mastery of Conflict

Play becomes the child’s tool for: dealing with conflict mastering what is frightening or

painful working through ongoing

developmental issues confronting problems actively

Stages in the Development of Play Solitary play Onlooker behavior Parallel play Cooperative play (dramatic play)



Role Playing

Role playing provides opportunities to:

try out social roles try out cultural values play as mommies, daddies, doctors,

police officers, or robbers act out aspirations as well as fears


The Parents’ Role inEarly Childhood Development

Important Aspects of Parenting in the Preschool Period: Consistency in the parents' approach to

discipline Agreement between the parents concerning

child-rearing practices Gradually giving the child more responsibility,

while still being available to help if needed Displaying clear roles and values in their own

action Showing the flexible self-control they hope to

promote in their child


Authoritative parenting

A parenting style in which the parents are nurturant, responsive, and supportive, yet set firm limits for their children.

Permissive parenting

A parenting style in which parents fail to set firm limits or to require appropriately mature behavior of their children.

Authoritarian parenting

A parenting style in which parents are unresponsive, inflexible, and harsh in controlling behavior.


Identification with Parents

Identification:The process by which children strive to be

like their parents in thoughts and feelings as well as in actions.


Psychoanalytic theory holds that children strive to be like their parents in actions, thoughts, and feelings.

Allows children to internalize control previously provided by parents, along with parental values and other characteristics.

Cannot take place until the child has the cognitive ability to understand parents' feelings and attitudes.

Security of attachment during infancy and toddlerhood is important.

Coercive techniques may get child to comply, but more positive approaches bring more enthusiastic cooperation.

Identification with Parents


The Coherence ofBehavior & DevelopmentThe Coherence of the Self Children's behavior reflects a coherent

underlying self. Clusters of characteristics tend to go

together in a logical, consistent way. Self-esteem Self-control Empathy


The Coherence of Behavior Over Time

Preschoolers with a history of secure attachment in infancy tend to have certain positive patterns of behavior.

Very different, negative behavioral profiles are associated with preschoolers with a history of anxious/resistant attachment.

Those with anxious/avoidant attachment are often hostile and aggressive toward others or emotionally isolated.


Explaining Developmental Coherence Children are becoming consistent forces

in their own development. They tend to elicit certain reactions from

others. Those reactions reinforce how the child

tends to think and act.


Explaining Developmental Coherence

Preschool teachers tend to: Respond in ways that reinforce the emerging

personalities of young children. Be warm and accepting with well-managed, self-reliant,

and sociable children. They directly promote the acceptance of these children by

peers. Be quite controlling of children who are timid or

impulsive, and are more likely to make allowances.

In other words, they tend to reinforce the behavior pattern a child already showed.


Stability & Change in Individual Behavior

Secure attachment promotes self-worth and abiding sense of relatedness or connectedness to others, which Erikson calls basic trust.

Subsequently, parents of securely attached children develop a control system for exerting control over their children without stifling exploration and autonomy.

Fundamental change in children is always possible.

However, it becomes more difficult as personality increasingly stabilizes.

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