coping with chapter organizational life: emotions...

Chapter Outline

� Understanding Emotions and Mood

� The Role of Emotions and Mood in Organizations

� Managing Emotions in Organizations

� The Basic Nature of Stress

� Major Causes of Stress in the Workplace

� Adverse Effects of Organizational Stress

� Reducing Stress: What Can Be Done?

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish between emotions and moods.

2. Explain how emotions and moods influence behavior in organizations.

3. Describe ways in which people manage their emotions in organizations.

4. Identify the major causes of organizational stress.

5. Describe the adverse effects of organizational stress.

6. Identify various ways of reducing stress in the workplace.

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Preview Case■ How to Beat Call-Center Stress

Although the concept of stress is somewhat less visi-ble in Asia than in Europe and North America, this

does not necessarily mean that it is less prevalent.Indeed, when the demands of a career clash with thoseof raising a family, this can be a recipe for stress. Manyglobal companies have located their call centers in India,and workers there can earn above-average wages,although a 12- to 14-hour day can be the norm.

In 2005, a stress survey was conducted forDataquest magazine. This survey focused mainly onbusiness process outsourcing (BPO) call centers. The twomost significant stressors were insufficient time off andtravel time, which were cited by 31.2 percent and 30.9percent of respondents, respectively. Travel time hasbecome much more important due to the location ofBPO call centers, and the nature of the work means thatmany employees have to work on holidays. The repeti-tive nature of the work (28.4 percent) and work timing(27.6 percent) were also highly significant stressors. Onereason that the BPO industry has been so successful isthe time difference between India and Westerneconomies; however, this has accounted for the highlevel of dissatisfaction from those surveyed. Naturally,these factors should not be considered in isolationbecause a combination of factors often leads to stressand burnout.

Some companies from the West have benchmarkedtheir flexible working practices when they have expandedinto other parts of the world. For example, Microsoft was

recently voted the best company to work for in India (2007)in a Business Today survey. Two of the flexible workingpractices offered to employees by Microsoft are a freebroadband connection to enable telecommuting and afacility to job share. Other companies such as Cisco are mak-ing telecommuting a reality in India. In addition, PepsiCohas taken a proactive approach to detecting problems thatcould lead to stress by establishing a confidential help linefor employees to report any incidents (such as harassment)that violate PepsiCo’s code of conduct.

One Indian company that has been recognized for itscaring approach to employees is Mind Tree, the IT andR&D services company founded in 1999. Innovative flexi-ble working practices, such as one year of leave out ofevery six for women to balance work and domestic com-mitments and the addition of a baby day-care center,have enhanced employee satisfaction. This has enabledthe company to boast a 15.7 percent attrition rate in2008, compared to an industry average of 25 percent. Thecompany also provides an in-house clinic and gym as wellas fitness and lifestyle classes. In addition, mentoring onwork–life balance can be provided. Tata Consultancyservices is another company that tries to mitigate theeffects of stress and boost retention by organizing clubsfor trekking, fitness, music, and community services.This clearly demonstrates the contribution of work–lifebalance to a contented workforce, but it is also importantto consider whether the nature of your chosen careerlends itself to flexible work arrangements.

There’s no mistaking the efforts of companies like Mind Tree to combat stress, and this shouldraise its profile in many areas of the world. If managers doubt the seriousness of the problem,they need to consider this: The workplace is the single greatest source of stress in people’s lives.And annual cost to American organizations is a staggering $300 billion annually, roughly$7,500 per employee.1 Stress makes a difference in how well people perform, the number oferrors they make, and even whether or not they show up for work or remain on their jobs at all.Given that stress plays such an important role in the behavior of people in organizations, itclearly warrants the attention we devote to it in this chapter.

To understand stress fully, it helps to look more broadly at the wide range of emotions thatpeople feel in everyday work situations and their reactions to them. Whether your experiences arepositive (e.g., getting a raise), negative (e.g., receiving a poor performance appraisal), or neutral(e.g., doing your job as usual), these everyday feelings—emotions and moods—play an importantrole in how we think and act. If emotions and moods seem to be trivial, it’s simply because theireffects are so widespread that we take them for granted. However, their impact on the way wework can be considerable.2 Accordingly, we will examine them in this chapter as well.

We begin this chapter with an overview of emotions and mood in organizations, describingtheir basic nature and the important roles they play in organizations. Following this, we examinethe nature of stress on the job, focusing closely on specific steps that can be taken to minimize itsoften harmful effects.

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CHAPTER 5 • COPING WITH ORGANIZATIONAL LIFE: EMOTIONS AND STRESS 175

Understanding Emotions and MoodConsider, for a moment, the following situations. Put yourself in the places of these characters,imagining how you would feel if you were them.

� After a gloomy winter, a beautiful, sunny day finally arrived, making Maria happy.She was inspired to come up with lots of new ideas for her clients.

� Hector was so upset about not making any progress on his sales report that he couldn’t takeit anymore. He left the work piled up on his desk and went to the gym to work out.

� It was a special day for Patricia. She was so excited that Demond had asked her to marryhim that she made her way through her delivery route in half the usual time—and with alively spring in her step.

There’s nothing special, here, right? Maria is happy, Hector is upset, and Patricia is excited.These are everyday situations to which people have typical reactions. You have them all the timeyourself. But don’t let these rather ordinary feelings mislead you into thinking that they areunimportant, especially on the job. Indeed, scientists acknowledge that people’s feelings at anygiven time are quite important. They also recognize that two different kinds of feelings areinvolved—emotions and moods. These states, as you will see, have far broader consequencesthan you might imagine, and they operate in highly complex ways.

Properties of EmotionsBy definition, emotions are overt reactions that express feelings about events. You get angry whena colleague takes advantage of you. You become sad when your best friend leaves to take a new job.And you become afraid of what the future holds when a larger firm merges with the company inwhich you’ve worked for the last 15 years. These are all examples of emotional reactions. To under-stand them, we now consider the various properties of emotions and the different forms they take.

EMOTIONS ALWAYS HAVE AN OBJECT. Something or someone triggers emotions. For example,your boss may make you angry when she falsely accuses you of making a mistake or a change incompany policy that prohibits overtime may leave you feeling worried. In each case, there issomeone or something that caused your emotional reaction.

THE SPREAD OF EMOTIONS IS CONTAGIOUS. A key trigger of emotions in people is the emotionsof others with whom we interact. This is described using the term emotional contagion, definedas the tendency to mimic others’ emotional expressions, converging with them emotionally.3 Youmay think of it as “catching” the emotions of others. This phenomenon is prevalent on the job,where workers frequently display the same emotional responses of the higher-ranking otherswith whom they interact (see Figure 5.1).4

EXPRESSION OF EMOTIONS IS UNIVERSAL. People throughout the world generally portray particularemotions by using the same facial expressions. In fact, even people living in remote parts of the planettend to express the same emotions in the same manner.5 As a result, we can do a pretty good (but notperfect) job of recognizing the emotional states of others if we pay attention to their facial expressions.We have to be careful, however, because as we will point out later, people do not always express theemotions they really feel. When they do, however, we are fairly good at recognizing them.

CULTURE DETERMINES HOW AND WHEN PEOPLE EXPRESS EMOTIONS. Although people through-out the world generally express their emotions in the same manner, informal standards govern thedegree to which it is acceptable for them to do so.6 These expectations are known as display rules.For example, Italian cultural norms accept public displays of emotion (e.g., hugging good-bye atthe airport, or yelling at one another in public), whereas cultural norms frown on such public dis-plays in Great Britain, encouraging people there to “tone down” their emotional displays. Forsome interesting national differences in willingness to express emotions, see Table 5.1.7

Types of EmotionsDespite what you might think, people do not have an infinite (or even a very large) number ofunrelated emotions. Rather, people’s emotions may be categorized in a few different ways.Depending on how you categorize them, different features of emotion are highlighted. We nowdescribe two such ways of categorizing emotions.

emotionsOvert reactions that expressfeelings about events.

emotional contagionThe tendency to mimic theemotional expressions ofothers, converging withthem emotionally.

display rulesCultural norms about theappropriate ways to expressemotions.



TABLE 5.1 National Differences in Expressivity

In a survey of more than 5,000 people in 32 nations, researchers found that people in some countries are more inclined to express theiremotions than those in other countries. Listed in order from most expressive (rank 1) to least expressive (rank 32), the findings aresummarized here. The scores shown are an index created by the scientists to reflect each country’s level of expressivity (higher scoresreflect higher degrees of expressivity).

Rank Nation Score Rank Nation Score Rank Nation Score

1 Zimbabwe 523 10 tied India 495 22 Greece 452

2 Canada 520 13 Mexico 485 23 tied Italy 451

3 United States 519 14 Georgia 478 23 tied Croatia 451

4 Australia 510 15 tied Poland 477 25 South Korea 449

5 Nigeria 506 15 tied Portugal 477 26 tied Switzerland 446

6 Denmark 505 17 People’s Republic 26 tied Malaysia 446

7 New Zealand 502 of China 471 28 Israel 442

8 Belgium 498 18 Czech Republic 468 29 Russia 432

9 Netherlands 496 19 Turkey 467 30 Bangladesh 422

10 tied Brazil 495 20 Japan 464 31 Indonesia 420

10 tied Hungary 495 21 Germany 455 32 Hong Kong 399

Source: Based on data reported by Matsumoto et al., 2008; see Note 7.

SELF-CONSCIOUS EMOTIONS VERSUS SOCIAL EMOTIONS. A useful way of distinguishingbetween emotions is by comparing those that come from internal sources with those that comefrom external sources. This is the essence of the distinction between so-called self-consciousemotions and social emotions (for a summary, see Figure 5.2).

Self-conscious emotions refer to feelings that stem from within. Examples include shame,guilt, embarrassment, and pride.8 Scientists believe that self-conscious emotions developed within

self-consciousemotionsFeelings that stem fromwithin, such as shame,guilt, embarrassment,and pride.

FIGURE 5.1

Emotional Contagion in the WorkplaceThe emotions we display tend to be picked up by others, resulting in a convergence of emotions. Thisso-called emotional contagion occurs regularly in the workplace, where emotions are easily spreadfrom person to person. Can you think of situations on the job in which you “caught” the emotions ofothers with whom you came into contact? How about occasions in which you “spread” your emotionsto others?

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Pity

Envy

Jealousy

Scorn

Shame

Guilt

Embarrassment

Pride

Outside person

Inside person

SELF-CONSCIOUS EMOTIONS SOCIAL EMOTIONS

FIGURE 5.2

Self-ConsciousEmotions VersusSocial Emotions: A SummaryAs indicated here, self-conscious emotions stemfrom within individuals,and social emotions referto feelings stemming fromoutside individuals. Notethe four examples in eachcategory.

people to help them stay aware of and regulate their relationships with others. For example, we feelshame when we believe we have failed to meet expectations, and in such cases we are likely tohumble ourselves to others, allowing them to have the upper hand. So, if we have done somethingto harm a coworker, we are likely to demonstrate—and express—feelings of embarrassment andshame, which help appease the relationship with that individual.9 Interestingly, research has shownthat our brains are involved closely in this process: People who have suffered damage to theorbitofrontal portions of their brains tend to be less effective at experiencing self-conscious emo-tions and at regulating the behaviors they guide than those whose brains are intact.10

Social emotions refer to people’s feelings based on information external to themselves.Examples include pity, envy, jealousy, and scorn. For example, a worker may experience envy ifshe covets something that another has (e.g., a better work assignment) or pity if she feels sorryfor someone else (e.g., someone who was hurt in an accident). These are all emotions likely to beexperienced in the workplace.11

THE CIRCUMPLEX MODEL OF AFFECT. A popular way for scientists to differentiate between emo-tions has been by combining two different dimensions—the degree to which emotions are pleas-ant or unpleasant, and the degree to which they make one feel alert and engaged (a variableknown as activation). This two-dimensional perspective is known as the circumplex model ofaffect (see Figure 5.3).12 This diagram illustrates how various emotions are interrelated withrespect to these two dimensions. Four major categories result.

To understand how to read this diagram (hence, to understand the circumplex model ofaffect), look, for example, at the upper right portion of Figure 5.3. It shows that being elated is apleasant emotion (because it makes us feel good) and that it also is a highly activated emotion(because it encourages us to take action). They fall into the activated positive affect category. Thesame applies to the two other emotions in that part of the diagram (enthusiastic and excited).Within the diagram, any emotions that lie directly opposite each other are characterized in theopposite manner. So, following through on our example, being bored, tired, and drowsy are emo-tions considered opposite to enthusiastic, elated, and excited. They are at the opposite ends of thetwo main dimensions—that is, they generate unactivated negative affect.

The Basic Nature of MoodIn contrast to emotions, which are highly specific and intense, we also have feelings that aremore diffuse in scope, known as moods. Scientists define mood as an unfocused, relatively mildfeeling that exists as background to our daily experiences. Whereas we are inclined to recognizethe emotions we are feeling, moods are more subtle and difficult to detect. For example, you maysay that you are in a good mood or a bad mood, but this isn’t as focused as saying that you areexperiencing a certain emotion, such as anger or sadness.

social emotionsPeople’s feelings based oninformation external tothemselves, such as pity,envy, jealousy, and scorn.

circumplex model of affectA theory of emotionalbehavior based on thedegree to which emotionsare pleasant or unpleasantand the degree to whichthey make one feelactivated (i.e., feeling alert and engaged).

moodAn unfocused, relativelymild feeling that exists asbackground to our dailyexperiences.



ACTIVATED

UNACTIVATED

• aroused

ActivatedNegativeAffect

ActivatedPositiveAffect

UnactivatedNegativeAffect

UnactivatedPositiveAffect

• astonished• stimulated

• enthusiastic• elated• excited

• happy• cheerful• delighted

• unhappyUNPLEASANT PLEASANT• sad

• gloomy

• relaxed• content• calm

• bored• tired• drowsy

• quiet• tranquil• still

• distressed• fearful• jittery

FIGURE 5.3

The CircumplexModel of AffectThis conceptualizationsummarizes emotions in terms of two keydimensions: activated–unactivated andpleasant–unpleasant. Theemotions within eachgrouping are similar toone another. Those acrossfrom one another in thisdiagram are consideredopposite emotions.

Source: Based on Huelsmanet al., 2003; see Note 12.

Moods fluctuate rapidly, sometimes widely, during the course of a day. Whereas favorablefeedback from the boss may make us feel good, harsh criticism may put us in a bad mood. Such tem-porary shifts in feeling states—short-term differences in the way we feel—are only partly responsi-ble for the moods that people demonstrate. Superimposed over these passing conditions are alsomore stable personality traits—consistent differences between people’s predispositions towardexperiencing positive or negative affect, as we discussed in Chapter 4. Mood, in other words, is acombination of both who we are, personality-wise, and the conditions we face (see Figure 5.4).13

Not surprisingly, then, the moods we experience can be based on our individual qualities (e.g., being depressed), as well as the general characteristics of our work groups or organizations (e.g., the extent to which they are upbeat, energetic, and enthusiastic). With this in mind, many compa-nies today, including most of those appearing regularly on Fortune magazine’s list of the “100 BestCompanies to Work For,” go out of their way to ensure that their employees have fun while on the job.14

FIGURE 5.4

Moods MatterGreatlyBeing predisposed towardnegative affect is only onedeterminant of people’smoods. In addition to thisstable trait, mood also isdetermined by morevariable states, temporaryconditions experiencedthat leave us feelingcertain ways.

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The Role of Emotions and Mood in OrganizationsAmerican statesman and inventor Benjamin Franklin is said to have observed that, “TheDeclaration of Independence only guarantees the American people the right to pursue happiness.You have to catch it yourself.” This raises a question: What happens when people do, in fact,“catch” happiness? We certainly enjoy being happy, of course, but does this have any effect onwork performance? We now consider these questions.

Are Happier People More Successful on Their Jobs?To appreciate the answer to this question, let’s clarify what we mean by happy. To most socialscientists, individuals considered happy are those who frequently experience positive emotionsin their lives. With this in mind, can it be said that people do better on their jobs when they arehappy? The answer is yes—happy workers do indeed enjoy several advantages over their lesshappy counterparts.15 Research shows that this takes two major forms.

JOB PERFORMANCE. Happier people tend to outperform less happy people in several differentways. To begin, they tend to get better jobs—that is, ones that give them higher levels of auton-omy, meaning, and variety.16 Then, once on their jobs, they perform them more successfully.17

This has been found to occur among people in jobs ranging from dormitory resident advisor tocricket player.18 Interestingly, this same effect also occurs at the highest echelons of organizations.Happier CEOs of companies tend to have happier employees working for them. And, importantly(as we will describe in Chapter 6), happy employees are inclined to remain on their jobs and notto seek new positions elsewhere.19 In part because of this, organizations populated by happy indi-viduals tend to be more profitable than those consisting of less happy people.20 Obviously, theimportance of happiness cannot be overstated when it comes to job performance.

INCOME. Do happier people earn higher incomes? Yes, they do. Research has found this to be thecase in countries throughout the world. For example, high correlations between happiness andincome were found among people in Germany and Russia.21 This same relationship was foundeven among indigenous Malaysian farmers whose only income was the value of their property andbelongings.22 In these cases, because the relationships are correlational, it’s unclear whether peoplemake more money because they’re happy or people become happy because they make more money(see Appendix 1). In either case, this connection is worth noting because it is quite strong.

Why Are Happier Workers More Successful?What is behind these strong connections between happiness and work success? As in most OBphenomena, there are several answers.

DECISION QUALITY. Research has found that people showing high positive affectivity do a betterjob of making decisions than those showing high negative affectivity.23 Specifically, peoplemake decisions that are more accurate and more important to the group’s effectiveness, and theyhave greater managerial potential. This ability to make better decisions is a particularly good rea-son why happy people tend to be successful.

EVALUATION. Mood also biases the way we evaluate people and things. For example, people reportgreater satisfaction with their jobs while they are in good moods than while they are in badmoods.24 Being in a good mood also leads people to perceive (and admit to perceiving) the positiveside of others’ work. Because being in a good mood keeps managers from perceiving their subordi-nates’ good behavior as bad (as might occur if they are biased or extremely tough), it leads them tooffer the kind of encouraging feedback likely to help subordinates to improve (see Chapter 7). Bycontrast, managers whose bad moods lead them to evaluate their subordinates in an inappropriatelynegatively fashion are unable to help those subordinates improve their work. This, of course, inter-feres with the performance of those workers and the effectiveness of their managers.

MEMORY: ACCURACY OF SHORT-TERM RECALL. Mood is related to memory in an interestingmanner. Although the effects of mood on memory tend to be subtle, the form of this relationshipis somewhat counterintuitive. Specifically, people who are in negative moods have better short-term memories (i.e., capacity to recall information that was encountered recently) than those whoare in positive moods.



Evidence to this effect was reported in a recent experiment conducted on days that were eithercloudy and rainy (assumed to create negative moods) or sunny (assumed to create positive moods).25

Participants in the study were randomly selected shoppers who made purchases at a conveniencestore where 10 assorted small toys were displayed at the checkout counter. After leaving the store,these individuals were approached by a research assistant who invited them to complete a question-naire. Responses to this instrument confirmed that people tested on sunny days were, in fact, in better moods than those tested on cloudy, rainy days. The questionnaire also assessed shoppers’memories for the items at the checkout counter by giving them a list of 10 items that were presentand another 10 items that were not present. The results summarized in Figure 5.5 reveal the negativeeffect of mood on memory. Specifically, compared to shoppers in positive moods, those in negativemoods recalled more of the correct items and indicated seeing fewer of the incorrect items.

Why did this occur? One explanation is that people who are in good moods want to preserve them,and can do so by investing fewer of their cognitive resources on attending to the world around them.And because they are less observant, they cannot recall the things they see particularly well.26 Anotherinteresting explanation is that as a species, people have evolved in a manner that helps us adapt to nega-tive moods in an unconscious manner that is adaptive. Specifically, we may have learned to respond tonegative moods by interacting with our environments carefully by observing what’s there so that wecan respond to situations appropriately. This type of thinking, referred to as accommodativeprocessing (bottom-up processing), would account for the superior memory of people in bad moods.In contrast, people in good moods have less need to be especially attentive to their environments andtherefore process information in a less effortful manner by merely using the knowledge they alreadyhave at their disposal instead of taking in new information. This type of thinking, referred to asassimilative processing (top-down processing), would account for why people in good moods wouldnot remember things they just saw and believe they saw things they didn’t really see.

Before moving on, a word of caution is in order. It would be a serious mistake to take thesefindings as evidence that we should avoid putting people in good moods so as to guard againstfailing memories. Keep in mind that these effects reflect what occurs only when people are nottrying to commit things to memory, in contrast to conditions on most jobs, where people go outof their way to focus on what’s important. Under such circumstances, the subtle effects of mooddemonstrated in this study are likely to be overridden by conscious efforts to process informationappropriately. Would such deliberate effects also be influenced by mood? Surely, the minormood changes induced by natural variation in weather would not make a difference here.However, major changes in mood, such as those induced by the death of a loved one or bywinning large awards in the lottery, surely might impose sufficient distractions as to interferewith memory. In conclusion, the relationship between mood and memory is a complex one thatis of considerable importance to understanding the behavior of people in organizations.

accommodativeprocessing (bottom-up processing)A way of processinginformation in whichpeople carefully observewhat’s going on aroundthem so that they canrespond to situationsappropriately.

2.50Correctitems

Incorrectitems

2.00

People in positivemoods recalled moreincorrect items thancorrect items

People in negativemoods recalled morecorrect items thanincorrect items

Aver

age

num

ber

of it

ems

reca

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People in positive mood People in negative mood

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00

FIGURE 5.5

The NegativeImpact of Mood on MemoryAn experiment found thatpeople in negative moods(due to cloudy, rainyweather) demonstratedbetter short-term recallthan people in positivemoods (due to sunnyweather).

Source: Based on datareported by Forgas et al.,2009; see Note 25.

assimilative processing(top-down processing)A way of processinginformation in whichpeople rely on theknowledge already attheir disposal instead oftaking in new information.



JobPerformanceIMPROVES

JobPerformance

DECLINES

Discouragesextra effort

Negativememories

Encouragesextra effort

PositivememoriesPositive

Mood

Negative

FIGURE 5.6

The Effects of Mood CongruenceThe concept of mood congruence suggests that people’s memories match their emotions. For example,people experiencing positive moods are inclined to have positive memories. This, in turn, encouragespeople to put forth extra effort, thereby improving their job performance. Just the opposite occurs inthe case of negative moods.

MEMORY: WHAT WE RECALL? Thus far, we’ve focused on the extent to which mood influencesthe accuracy of what is recalled. It’s also important to note that mood impacts the nature of whatis recalled as well. Specifically, it has been established that being in a positive mood helps peoplerecall positive things, whereas being in a negative mood helps people recall negative things.27 Thisidea is known as mood congruence.

As an example of mood congruence on the job, suppose you go to work while you’re in aparticularly good mood. This is likely to lead you to recall things that happened on the job that putyou in a good mood there (e.g., the friendly relationships you have with your coworkers). Likewise,someone who is in a bad mood is likely to recall any negative things associated with work, such as arecent fight with the boss. This is important because of its potential effects on job performance.To the extent that focusing on positive things encourages people to put forth extra effort (which theywould be unlikely to do when focusing primarily on how bad things are), they would be inclined toperform at higher levels than those focusing on negative aspects of the job (see Figure 5.6).

COOPERATION. Mood strongly affects the extent to which people help each other, cooperatewith each other, and refrain from behaving aggressively (forms of behavior we will discuss inmore detail in Chapter 11). People who are in good moods also tend to be highly generous andare inclined to help fellow workers who need their assistance. People who are in good moodsalso are inclined to work carefully with others to resolve conflicts with them, whereas people inbad moods are likely to keep those conflicts brewing. This is yet another reason why being in agood mood enhances job performance.

Clearly, people’s moods and emotions have profound effects on their performance inorganizations, and for a variety of reasons. Given this importance, it’s not surprising thattoday’s organizational scientists have been devoting a great deal of attention to this topic.28

One way they do this is by developing theories to help explain the nature of moods andemotions. We now consider one particularly influential theory in this regard.

Affective Events TheoryIn recent years, one of the guiding forces in the study of emotions in organizations has beenaffective events theory (AET).29 This theory identifies various factors that lead to people’s emo-tional reactions on the job and how these reactions affect those individuals (see Figure 5.7).30

mood congruenceThe tendency to recallpositive things when youare in a good mood and torecall negative things whenyou are in a bad mood.

affective eventstheory (AET)The theory that identifiesvarious factors that leadto people’s emotionalreactions on the job andhow these reactions affectthose individuals.



Beginning on the left side of Figure 5.7, AET recognizes that people’s emotions are deter-mined, in part, by various features of the work environment. For example, the way we feel islikely to be determined by various characteristics of the jobs we do (e.g., we are likely to feelgood about jobs that are interesting and exciting), the demands we face (e.g., how pressured weare to meet deadlines), and by requirements for emotional labor.

The concept of emotional labor refers to the degree to which people have to work hard to dis-play what they believe are appropriate emotions on their jobs. People in service professions (e.g.,waitresses and salesclerks), for example, often have to come across as being more pleasant thanthey really feel. As you might imagine, having to do this repeatedly can be very taxing. (We willreturn to this idea on pages 183–184, in connection with the concept of emotional dissonance.)

These various features of the work environment are likely to lead to the occurrence of certainevents. These include confronting daily hassles, unpleasant or undesirable events that put people inbad moods (e.g., having to deal with difficult bosses or coworkers). They also include experiencingmore positive events known as daily uplifts. These are the opposite—namely, pleasant or desirableevents that put people in good moods (e.g., enjoying feelings of recognition for the work they do).

As Figure 5.7 reveals, people react to these various work events by displaying emotional reactions,both positive and negative. However, as the diagram also shows, the extent to which this occursdepends on (or, as scientists say, is “moderated by”) each of two types of personal predispositions:personality and mood. As we noted in Chapter 4, personality predisposes us to respond in varyingdegrees of intensity to the events that occur. In keeping with our discussion, for example, a person whohas a high degree of positive affectivity is likely to perceive events in a positive manner, whereas onewho has a high degree of negative affectivity is likely to perceive those same events more negatively.

Mood also influences the nature of the relationship between work events and emotionalreactions, as Figure 5.7 suggests. This is in keeping with the point we made earlier—that themood we are in at any given time can exaggerate the nature of the emotions we experience inresponse to an event. So, for example, an event that leads a person to experience a negativeemotional reaction (e.g., having a fight with a coworker) is likely to make that individual feeleven worse if he or she is in a bad mood at the time.

Finally, as the theory notes, these affective reactions have two important effects. First, theypromote high levels of job performance. This should not be surprising, given that we already

emotional laborThe psychological effortinvolved in holding backone’s true emotions.

WORK ENVIRONMENT

WORK EVENTS

Characteristics of jobPositive Emotional Reactions On-the-Job

ReactionsNegative Emotional ReactionsJob demands

Requirements for emotional labor

•

Daily hassles•Daily uplifts•

•

Job satisfactionJob performance

••

Personal Predispositions

PersonalityMood

••

•

FIGURE 5.7

Affective Events TheoryAccording to affective events theory, people’s job performance and job satisfaction are influenced by theirpositive and negative emotional reactions to events on the job. These events, in turn, are influenced byaspects of the work environment and various events that occur on the job. People’s emotional reactions tothese events depend on such individual characteristics as their moods and aspects of their personalities.

Source: Based on suggestions by Ashkanasy & Daus, 2002; see Note 28.

daily hasslesUnpleasant or undesirableevents that put people inbad moods.

daily upliftsPleasant or desirable eventsthat put people in goodmoods.



noted that happy people perform their jobs at high levels. Second, AET also notes that affectivereactions are responsible for people’s job performance and job satisfaction—that is, the extent towhich they hold positive attitudes toward their jobs (we will discuss this in detail in Chapter 6).Indeed, research has established very strongly that people who are inclined to experience posi-tive emotions are likely to be satisfied with their jobs.31

Putting this all together, consider the following example. You have been employed happily asa software engineer at a high-tech firm for about a year. You find the work pleasantly challengingand in line with your talents. Over the course of your workdays, you experience many enjoyableencounters with others. On this particular occasion, your boss just gave you a big pat on the backin recognition of your latest revenue-generating suggestion. And, because you have a high degreeof positive affect and you are already in a good mood when this happened, you experience a verypositive reaction to this event. As a result, you are strongly motivated to perform your job at a highlevel and you very much enjoy your work, taking pride in it as well.

Although AET contains many individual ideas, and it is relatively new, it already hasreceived considerable support from researchers.32 Its importance rests on two key ideas—one forscientists and one for practicing managers.33 First, unlike many other theories of OB (such as theothers described in this book), this approach recognizes the important role of emotions. Second,AET sends a strong message to managers: Do not overlook the emotional reactions of youremployees. They may be more important than you think. In fact, when they accumulate overtime, their impact can be considerable. Thus, it is clear that anyone in a supervisory capacity hasto pay attention to managing emotions in the workplace. We now turn to this topic.

Managing Emotions in OrganizationsAs we discussed in Chapter 4 when describing emotional intelligence, emotions are important onthe job. People who are good at “reading” and understanding emotions in others, and who areable to regulate their own emotional reactions, tend to have an edge when it comes to dealingwith others.34 As we now will describe, this is only one possible way in which people managetheir emotions in organizations.

Emotional DissonanceImagine that you are a flight attendant for a major airline. After a cross-country flight with rudepassengers, you finally reach your destination. You feel tired and annoyed, but you do not have theoption of expressing how you really feel. You don’t even have the luxury of acting neutrally andexpressing nothing at all. Instead, you are expected to act peppy and cheerful, smiling and thank-ing the passengers for choosing your airline and cheerfully saying good-bye (more like “b’bye”)to them as they exit the plane (see Figure 5.8). The conflict between the emotion you feel (anger)and the one you are required to express (happiness) may take its toll on your well-being. Thisexample illustrates a kind of situation that is all too typical—one in which you are required todisplay emotions on the job that are inconsistent with how you actually feel.

This phenomenon, known as emotional dissonance, can be a significant source of work-related stress (the major topic that we will discuss in the second half of this chapter).35 Emotionaldissonance is likely to occur in situations in which there are strong expectations regarding theemotions a person is expected to display by virtue of his or her job requirements. Our flight atten-dant example illustrates this point. The same applies to customer service representatives, banktellers, entertainers—just about anyone who provides services to the public.

When emotional dissonance occurs, people often have to try very hard to ensure that theydisplay the appropriate emotions. As we noted earlier, the psychological effort involved in doingthis is referred to as emotional labor. If you ever find yourself “biting your tongue”—that is,holding back from saying what you want to say—then you are expending a great deal ofemotional labor. Actually, not saying what you really think is only part of the situation.Emotional labor also is invested in saying things you don’t really feel. For example, you wouldhave to invest a great deal of emotional labor when confronting a coworker who comes to youasking you how you feel about her awful new hairdo. You don’t like it at all, but you struggle tokeep your feelings to yourself (and not even to “leak” them nonverbally; see Chapter 9). Whenpressed to say something, you engage in “a little white lie” by telling her how very flattering it is.

emotional dissonanceInconsistencies between theemotions we feel and theemotions we express.



FIGURE 5.8

Emotional Labor and Emotional Dissonance in ActionWhen people make an effort to display emotions they don’t really feel, they are likely to be engagingin emotional labor. The more these displayed emotions differ from the ones someone actually feels, themore he or she is said to experience emotional dissonance. It’s not uncommon for people who deal withthe public, such as this flight attendant, to expend high amounts of emotional labor to cover up feelinggrumpy and fatigued after a long flight and with uncooperative passengers.

Although this is a form of dishonesty, it is considered widely appropriate to keep from hurtingpeople’s feelings by saying the polite thing.

This discussion underscores an important point: The emotions people actually experience,known as felt emotions, may be discrepant from the emotions they show others, known asdisplayed emotions. This is not at all surprising. After all, our jobs do not always give us theluxury of expressing how we truly feel. To do so, such as by expressing the anger you feel towardyour boss, is likely to lead to problems. As sociologists tell us, social pressure compels people toconform to expectations about which particular emotions are appropriate to show in public andwhich are not. As we noted earlier, such display rules vary among cultures. But they also appearto differ as a function of people’s occupational positions.

It is an unspoken rule, for example, that an athletic coach is not supposed to be openlyhostile and negative when speaking about an opponent (at least, when doing so in public). It alsois expected that people considered “professionals,” such as doctors and lawyers, demonstrateappropriate decorum and seriousness when interacting with their patients and clients. Shouldyour own doctor or lawyer respond to your difficult situation by saying, “Wow, I sure wouldn’twant to be in your shoes,” you may find yourself looking for someone else to help you.

Controlling Anger (Before It Controls You)Quite often, behaving appropriately in business situations requires controlling negative emo-tions, particularly anger. After all, to be successful we cannot let the situations we face get thebetter of us. It’s perfectly natural for anyone to get angry, particularly on the job, where theremay be a great deal to anger us. We can be made angry, for example, by feeling unfairly treated(see Chapter 2), by believing that we are disrespected by others, by feeling that we are beingattacked or threatened in some way, and the like.

Although we all know what anger is, and we have experienced it many times (perhaps too many),a precise definition is in order. By anger, scientists are referring to a heightened state of emotional

felt emotionsThe emotions peopleactually feel (which maydiffer from displayedemotions).

displayed emotionsEmotions that people showothers, which may or maynot be in line with their feltemotions.

angerA heightened state of emotional arousal (e.g., increased heart rate,rapid breathing, flushedface, sweaty palms, etc.)fueled by cognitiveinterpretations of situations.

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arousal (e.g., increased heart rate, rapid breathing, flushed face, sweaty palms, etc.) fueled by cogni-tive interpretations of situations. Anger reactions can run the gamut from irritation to outrage and fury.

Importantly, there are situations in which displaying anger can be purposeful and construc-tive. For example, to get a subordinate to take immediate action in a dangerous situation, a super-visor may express anger by raising her voice and looking that person straight in the eye. Thiswould be the case should a military officer display her anger purposely to express urgency whenordering a soldier under her command to move immediately out of a combat zone. Because of itsconstructive and highly controlled nature, anger of this type is not problematic. In fact, it can bequite valuable. Where anger can be dangerous, however, is when it erupts violently and is out ofcontrol. We need to be concerned about this because aggression is a natural reaction to anger.

The challenge people face is to control their anger appropriately. This is the idea behind thepractice of anger management—systematic efforts to reduce people’s emotional feelings ofanger and the physiological arousal it causes. Because we often cannot eliminate, avoid, or alterthe things that anger us, it’s important to learn to control our reactions. For some suggestions asto how to go about doing so, see the OB in Practice section above.

The Basic Nature of StressStress is an unavoidable fact of organizational life today, taking its toll on both individuals and orga-nizations. According to one survey, 90 percent of American workers report feeling stressed at leastonce a week, and 40 percent describe their jobs as very stressful most of the time.37 What stressesthem? Lots of things, but having too much work to do and fear of being laid off are among people’smost common concerns. As you might imagine, these sources of stress are both harmful to individualworkers and costly to their organizations. In fact, about half of all American workers report that stresshas adversely affected their health.38 Not surprisingly, stress on the job has been linked to increases

anger managementSystematic efforts to reducepeople’s emotional feelingsof anger and the physiolog-ical arousal it causes.

OB in Practice

Managing Anger in the Workplace

People often say that “it’s good to let it all hang out” byexpressing one’s anger fully. The American PsychologicalAssociation advises, however, that this is a dangerous mythbecause people sometimes use this belief to grant themselveslicense to explode and take things too far.36 And this, of course,does nothing to alleviate the source of your anger. In fact, exces-sive displays of anger are likely to make things worse.

This raises a critical question: What, precisely, can we do tocontrol our anger? Although it’s not always easy to keep ouranger in check—and indeed, there are professionals who oftenare hired to help people do this (although rarely in the formtaken in the 2003 Adam Sandler and Jack Nicholson film, AngerManagement)—we all can do various things to control our-selves. Some of the key ones are as follows.

1. Practice relaxation. People who display dangerous amountsof anger often find it difficult to relax. As a result, they getfrustrated easily and are inclined to “fly off the handle.” Bylearning to relax, however, such individuals are better able totake control of their emotions. So, how can we do this? Aswe mention later in this chapter, meditation is especiallyhelpful for getting people to keep their anger in check.

2. Change the way you think. When we get angry, we tendto think irrationally, making things worse than they reallyare—and this, of course, will not help. Being logical aboutthe source of your anger is what’s needed, and this involves

getting clear facts and thinking things through. So, insteadof screaming your head off the next time you’re angry, tryto figure out exactly what’s going on. And if you cannotdo so yourself, get someone to help you—a friend, forexample, can be useful in pointing out any irrationalthoughts you may have.

3. Use humor. There’s nothing like humor to take the edgeoff your fury. Being silly can diffuse anger, keeping it incheck. So, the next time you find yourself thinking thatsomeone is a “dirtbag,” don’t come out and say so.Instead, think about exactly what a bag of dirt looks like.Imagining that person’s head atop a burlap sack of topsoilmay give you pause, making you chuckle. And thismomentary relief may help you regain your composure.

4. Leave the room. When you feel anger welling up inside,move to another room or even leave the building. Changingyour surroundings may help you escape whatever or who-ever is causing you to be so angry. Even such temporaryavoidance may be enough to keep you from saying or doingsomething that might make you sorry. Additionally, the timespent moving elsewhere also can help by distracting youfrom the immediacy of the situation.

If there ever was a time to refer to something as “easier saidthan done,” this is it. However, if there ever was something that“must be done, or else,” this also is it. Because so much is ridingon the proper management of anger, efforts to put this advice towork for you are sure to pay off in the long run.



stressThe pattern of emotionaland physiological reactionsoccurring in response todemands from within oroutside an organization.See stressor.

in accidents, lost productivity, and of course, phenomenal boosts in medical insurance. Overall,work-related stress has been estimated to cost American companies $300 billion annually.39

Considering these sobering statistics, it is clearly important to understand the natureof organizational stress. Formally, scientists define stress as the pattern of emotional and physi-ological reactions occurring in response to demands from within or outside organizations. Inthis portion of the chapter, we will review the major causes and effects of stress. Importantly,we also will describe various ways of effectively managing stress so as to reduce its negativeimpact. Before doing this, however, we will describe the basic nature of stress in more detail,beginning with an overview of stressors.

Stressors in OrganizationsWhat do each of the following situations have in common?

� You are fired the day before you become eligible to receive your retirement pension.� You find out that your company is about to eliminate your department.� Your boss tells you that you will not be getting a raise this year.� Your spouse is diagnosed with a serious illness.

The answer, besides that they are all awful situations, is that each situation involves externalevents (i.e., ones beyond your own control) that create extreme demands on you. Stimuli of thistype are known as stressors, formally defined as any demands, either physical or psychologicalin nature, encountered during the course of living.

Scientists often find it useful to distinguish stressors in terms of how long-lasting they are.This results in the following three major categories (see Figure 5.9):

� Acute stressors are those that bring some form of sudden change that threatens us eitherphysically or psychologically, requiring people to make unwanted adjustments. For exam-ple, you may be assigned to a different shift at work, requiring you to get up earlier in themorning and to eat meals at different times. As your body’s equilibrium is disrupted, yourespond physiologically (e.g., by being tired) and emotionally (e.g., by being grouchy).

� Episodic stressors are the result of experiencing several acute stressors in a short period oftime, such as when you “have one of those days” in which everything goes wrong. In otherwords, you are experiencing particularly stressful episodes in life. This would be the case,for example, if within the course of a week you have a serious disagreement with one ofyour subordinates, you lose a major sales account, and then, to top it off, the pipes burst inyour office, causing water to ruin your important papers and your computer. For a list ofsome of the most common episodic stressors, see Table 5.2.

� Chronic stressors are the most extreme type of stressor because they are constant andunrelenting in nature, having a long-term effect on the body, mind, and spirit. For example,a person experiences chronic stressors if he or she is in a long-term abusive relationshipwith a boss or spouse or has a debilitating disease (e.g., arthritis or migraine headaches)that adversely affects his or her ability to work. In recent years, in which layoffs have beencommon, people have suffered stress due to considerable uncertainties about their future.

stressorAny demands, eitherphysical or psychologicalin nature, encounteredduring the course of living.

acute stressorStressors that bring someform of sudden change thatthreatens us either physi-cally or psychologically,requiring people to makeunwanted adjustments.

Acutestressors

Episodicstressors

How long does the stressor last?BriefDuration

LongDuration

Chronicstressors

FIGURE 5.9

Different Types of StressorsWhereas acute stressors tend to be of brief duration, chronic stressors endure for a long period of time.Episodic stressors generally last for intermediate periods of time.

episodic stressorThe result of experiencingseveral acute stressors in ashort period of time.

chronic stressorThe most extreme type of stressor, constant andunrelenting in nature, andhaving a long-term effect onthe body, mind, and spirit.



The Cognitive Appraisal ProcessThe Roman emperor and philosopher Marcus Aurelius Antonius (A.D. 121–180) is quoted assaying, “If you are distressed by anything external, the pain is not due to the thing itself, but toyour estimate of it; and this you have the power to revoke at any moment.” This observation is astrue today as it was some 2,000 years ago, when first spoken. The basic idea is that the mere pres-ence of potentially harmful events or conditions in the environment is not enough for them to bestressors. For an event to become a stressor to someone, he or she must think of it as a stressorand acknowledge the danger and the difficulty of coping with it. As you think about the events orconditions you encounter, some may be considered especially threatening (warranting yourconcern), whereas others pose less of a problem to you (and can be ignored safely). Your assess-ment of the dangers associated with any potential stressor is based on cognitive appraisal—theprocess of judging the extent to which an environmental event is a potential source of stress.Let’s consider this process more closely.

On some occasions, people appraise conditions instantly. Suppose, for example, you arecamping in the woods when a bear looks like it’s going to attack. You immediately assess thatyou are in danger and run away as fast as you can. This is a natural reaction, which biologists calla flight response. Indeed, making a rapid escape from a dangerous situation occurs automati-cally. So, without giving the matter much thought, you immediately flee from a burning officebuilding because you judge the situation to be life-threatening. The situation is extreme, so youappraised it as dangerous automatically. In the blink of an eye, you recognized the danger andsought to escape. Although you may not have deliberated all the pros and cons of the situation,you did engage in a cognitive appraisal process: You recognized the situation as dangerous andtook action instantly.

Most of the situations managers face are neither as extreme nor as clear-cut. In fact, thevast majority of would-be stressors become stressors only if people perceive them as such. Forexample, if you are an expert at writing sales reports and really enjoy doing them, the prospectof having to work extra hours on preparing one is not likely to be a stressor for you. However,for someone else who finds the same task to be an obnoxious chore, confronting it may well bea stressor. Likewise, the deadline might not be a stressor if you perceive that it is highly flexibleand that nobody takes it seriously or if you believe you can get an extension simply by asking.The point is simple: Whether or not an environmental event is a stressor depends on how it isperceived. What might be a stressor for you under some circumstances might not be at othertimes or even for someone else under the same conditions. Remember, it’s all just a matter ofhow things are appraised cognitively.

As you might imagine, it is important to appraise potential threats as accurately as possible.For example, to think that everyone in your department is happy when, in fact, they are all plan-ning to quit surely would be a serious mistake. Likewise, interpreting a small dip in sales as asign of economic collapse would cause you needless worry and may spark panic in others. Assuch, it is important to recognize what you can do as a manager to ensure that you and those

cognitive appraisalA judgment about thestressfulness of a situationbased on the extent towhich someone perceives astressor as threatening andis capable of coping with itsdemands.

TABLE 5.2 Common Episodic Stressors in the Workplace

Many of the most commonly encountered stressors in organizations are episodic in nature. If you thinkabout these, it’s not difficult to recognize how they actually are composed of several different acutestressors. For example, fear of losing one’s job includes concerns over money, threats to self-esteem,embarrassment, and other acute stressors.

� Lack of involvement in making organizational decisions

� Unrelenting and unreasonable expectations for performance

� Poor communication with coworkers

� Fear of losing one’s job

� Spending long amounts of time away from home

� Office politics and conflict

� Not being paid enough given one’s level of responsibility and performance

flight responseAn automatic rapid escapefrom a dangerous situation.



around you are assessing potential stressors accurately. For some recommendations in thisregard, see Table 5.3.

Bodily Responses to StressorsWhen we encounter stressors, our bodies (in particular, our sympathetic nervous systems andendocrine systems) are mobilized into action, such as through elevated heart rate, blood pressure,and respiration.40 Arousal rises quickly to high levels, and many physiological changes take place.If the stressors persist, the body’s resources eventually may become depleted, at which pointpeople’s ability to cope (at least physically) decreases sharply, and severe biological damage mayresult. These are the patterns of responses that we have in mind when we talk about stress.

To illustrate this, imagine that you are in an office building when you suddenly see a fireraging. How does your body react? As a natural, biological response, your body responds inseveral ways—including immediately after experiencing the stressor, a few minutes later, andafter repeated exposure (see Figure 5.10).

For example, certain chemicals are released that make it possible for us to respond.Adrenaline boosts our metabolism, causing us to breathe faster, taking in more oxygen to helpus be stronger and run faster. Aiding in this process, blood flows more rapidly (up to four timesfaster than normal) to prime the muscles, and other fluids are diverted from less essential partsof the body. As a result, people experiencing stressful conditions tend to experience dry mouthsas well as cool, clammy, and sweaty skin. Other chemicals are activated that suppress the partsof the brain that control concentration, inhibition, and rational thought. (By the way, this is whypeople in emergency situations don’t always think rationally or act politely.) In short, whenexposed to stressors the body kicks into a self-protective mode, marshalling all its resources topreserve life. However, when this happens frequently, the chronic responses can be dangerous.

To the extent that people appraise various situations as stressors, they are likely to havestress reactions. And often these can have damaging behavioral, psychological, and/or medicaleffects. Indeed, physiological and psychological stress reactions can be so great that eventuallythey take their toll on the body and mind, resulting in such maladies as insomnia, cardiovasculardisease, and depression. Such reactions are referred to as strain, defined as deviations fromnormal states of human function resulting from prolonged exposure to stressful events.

By nature, some people are less likely to be affected adversely by strain. Such persons are saidto be highly resilient. The quality of resiliency refers to the extent to which one is able to “bounceback” from potentially stressful situations without being harmed by them. As you probably haveseen in dealing with different people in your own lives, some individuals are far more resilient thanothers. To see how you fare in this regard, complete the Individual Exercise on page 202.

TABLE 5.3 Tips for Assessing Potential Stressors Accurately

It is important to recognize potential stressors and to take appropriate action. However, it can be very disruptive to assume mistakenlythat something is a stressor when, in reality, nothing is wrong. With this in mind, here are some useful guidelines for appraisingpotential stressors accurately.

Suggestion Explanation

Check with others. Ask around. If others are not concerned about a situation, then maybe neither should you be concerned.Discussing the situation with people either may alleviate any feelings of stress you may have had or itmay verify that something should, in fact, be done (perhaps even more than you planned).

Look to the past. Your best bet for deciding what to do may be to consider what has happened over the years. You maywant to be concerned about something that has caused problems in the past, but worrying about condi-tions that haven’t been problems before might only make things worse by distracting your attentionfrom what really matters.

Gather all the facts. It’s too easy to jump to conclusions, seeing problems as situations that really aren’t so bad. Instead ofsensing a problem and assuming the worst, look for more objective information about the situation.

Avoid negative mental Too often, people talk themselves into perceiving situations as being worse than they really are, thereby monologues. adding to stress levels.You should avoid such negative mental monologues, focusing instead on the positive

aspects of the situations you confront.

strainDeviations from normalstates of human function-ing resulting fromprolonged exposure tostressful events.

resiliencyThe extent to which one isable to “bounce back”from potentially stressfulsituations without beingharmed by them.



ImmediateResponses

(to build strengthto escape danger)

• Lungs take in more oxygen

• Heart rate and blood pressure increase

• Muscles tense

DelayedResponses

(changes made a fewminutes after perceiving

stressor)

• Immune system infection-fighting capacity is diminished

• Fat stored in liver is created into fuel

• Adrenal glands secrete cortisol to regulate metabolism

ChronicResponses

(harms the body ifactivated too often)

• Decreased blood flow in intestines creates vulnerability to ulcers• Elevated blood pressure can harm the elasticity of blood vessels, harming circulation, creating vulnerability to heart attacks

Stressorperceived

FIGURE 5.10

The Body’sReactions to StressAs summarized here, thehuman body responds tostress in various waysinvolving several differentphysiologicalmechanisms. Theseresponses differ based onwhether they occurimmediately afterperceiving a stressor, afew minutes later, or afterrepeated exposure tostressors.

Sometimes people find themselves worn down by chronic levels of stress. Such people areoften described as suffering from burnout—a syndrome of emotional, physical, and mentalexhaustion coupled with feelings of low self-esteem or low self-efficacy, resulting fromprolonged exposure to intense stress and the strain reactions following from them.41 Fortunately,some of the signs of burnout are clear, if you know what to look for. The distinct characteristicsof burnout are summarized in Table 5.4.42

Let’s summarize where we have been thus far. We have identified physical and psychologicalcauses of stress known as stressors. Through the cognitive appraisal process, these lead to various

burnoutA syndrome of emotional,physical, and mental exhaus-tion coupled with feelings oflow self-esteem or low self-efficacy, resulting from pro-longed exposure to intensestress, and the strain reac-tions following from them.

TABLE 5.4 Symptoms of Burnout

Burnout is a serious condition resulting from exposure to chronic levels of stress. The symptoms of burnout, summarized here, areimportant to recognize so as to avoid making an already bad state of affairs even worse. Anyone experiencing these symptoms shouldseek medical attention.

Symptom Description

Physical exhaustion Victims of burnout have low energy and feel tired much of the time. They also report many symptoms of physical strain, such as frequent headaches, nausea, poor sleep, and changes in eatinghabits (e.g., loss of appetite).

Emotional exhaustion Depression, feelings of helplessness, and feelings of being trapped in one’s job are all part of burnout.

Depersonalization People suffering from burnout often demonstrate a pattern of attitudinal exhaustion known asdepersonalization. That is, they become cynical, derogating others and themselves, including theirjobs, their organizations, and even life in general.

Feelings of low personal People suffering from burnout conclude that they haven’t been able to accomplish much in theaccomplishment past and assume that they probably won’t succeed in the future.

Source: Based on information in Bakker et al., 2000; see Note 40.



physical and mental stress reactions. With prolonged exposure, physiological, behavioral, andpsychological strain reactions result. Ultimately, in some cases, burnout occurs. For a graphicoverview of this important process, see Figure 5.11.

Major Causes of Stress in the WorkplaceStress is caused by many different factors. For example, stress may be caused by personal factorssuch as problems with family members, financial problems, and illness. Stress also may becaused by societal factors, such as concerns over crime, terrorism, and downturns in theeconomy. However, in this book, we are concerned mostly about job-related stress. What causesstress in work settings? Unfortunately, as you will see, the list is quite long. Many differentfactors play a role in creating stress in the workplace.

Occupational DemandsSome jobs, such as emergency room physician, police officer, firefighter, and airline pilot, exposethe people who hold them to high levels of stress. Others, such as college professor, janitor, andlibrarian, do not. This basic fact—that some jobs are generally (but not always) much more stress-ful than others—has been confirmed by the results of a survey involving more than 130 differentoccupations.43 For a listing of some of the most and least stressful jobs, see Table 5.5.

What, precisely, makes some jobs more stressful than others? Research has shown that sev-eral features of jobs determine the levels of stress they generate. Specifically, people experiencegreater stress the more their jobs require:

� making decisions� constantly monitoring devices or materials� repeatedly exchanging information with others� working in unpleasant physical conditions� performing unstructured rather than structured tasks

The greater the extent to which a job possesses these characteristics, the higher the level of stressthat job produces among individuals holding it. Nurses and long-distance bus drivers perform jobsthat match this profile—and, not surprisingly, people in these occupations tend to show many of theadverse signs of stress. This is not to imply that people do not experience stress in every job. In fact,as you can see from Table 5.5, a variety of sources of stress can be found in different types of jobs.44

Conflict Between Work and NonworkIf you’ve ever had to face the demands of working while at the same time trying to raise afamily (or if you know someone who has been in this situation), you are probably well aware ofhow very stressful this can be. Not only must you confront the usual pressures to spend time at

CognitiveAppraisal

Threateningsituation

Stressors(physical)

Stressors

Stressors(psychological)

•

Beyondcontrol exposure

Prolonged

Strain(physiological)

Strain(behavioral)

Strain(psychological)

•

AdverseReactions

Physicalailments

•

Emotionalailments

•

Impairedjobperformance

•

FIGURE 5.11

Stressors, Stress, and Strain: Recognizing the DistinctionsStimuli known as stressors (which are both physical and psychological in nature) lead to stress reactionswhen they are cognitively appraised as being threatening and beyond one’s control. The deviations fromnormal states resulting from stress are known as strain. Both physical and emotional ailments as well asimpaired job performance result from strain.



TABLE 5.5 Top Ten Most Stressful and Least Stressful Jobs In America

Although very stressful situations can be found on just about any job, the ones shown here tend to havethe highest and lowest overall levels of stress associated with them. As you review this list, you’re likelyto notice that the most stressful jobs contain high levels of the stress-inducing characteristics indicated inthe bullet list on page 190. For example, air traffic controllers have to monitor devices, and police officershave to make decisions in unpleasant working conditions. (These are generalizations, of course; in somecases conditions may vary, making particular jobs more stressful or less stressful.)

Top 10 Most Stressful Jobs Top 10 Least Stressful Jobs

1. Inner-city high school teacher 1. Forester

2. Police officer 2. Bookbinder

3. Miner 3. Telephone line worker

4. Air traffic controller 4. Toolmaker

5. Medical intern 5. Millwright

6. Stockbroker 6. Repair person

7. Journalist 7. Civil engineer

8. Customer service worker 8. Therapist

9. Secretary 9. Natural scientist

10. Waiter 10. Sales representative

Source: Health Magazine.

work while concentrating on what you’re doing, but you also must attend to the demands placedon you by members of your family (e.g., to spend time with them). When people confrontsuch incompatibilities in the various sets of obligations they have, they are said to experiencerole conflict (see Chapter 11). As you might expect, when we experience conflicts between ourwork and nonwork lives, something has to give. Not surprisingly, the more time people devoteto their jobs, the more events in their nonwork lives (e.g., personal errands) adversely affecttheir work lives (e.g., not being able to complete assignments on time).

The stressful nature of role conflicts is particularly apparent in one group whose membersare often expected to rapidly switch back and forth between the demands of work and family—asource of stress known as role juggling. This is an especially potent source of stress in one verylarge segment of the population—working parents.45 Indeed, the more people, such as workingmothers and fathers, are forced to juggle the various roles in their lives, the less fulfilling theyfind those roles to be, and the more stress they suffer in their lives. (To see what one company isdoing to minimize this problem, see Figure 5.12.)

Sexual Harassment: A Pervasive Problem in Work SettingsThere can be no doubt that a particularly troublesome source of stress in today’s workplace issexual harassment—unwanted contact or communication of a sexual nature, usually againstwomen. The stressful effects of sexual harassment stem from both the direct affront to thevictim’s personal dignity and the harasser’s interference with that employee’s capacity to do thejob. After all, it’s certainly difficult to pay attention to what you’re doing on your job when youhave to concentrate on ways to ward off someone’s unwanted attentions! Not surprisingly, sexualharassment has led to voluntary turnover, but it also has caused some people to experience manysevere symptoms of illness, including various forms of physical illness.46

Unfortunately, this particular source of work-related stress is shockingly common.Indeed, when asked in a New York Times/CBS News poll whether they had ever been theobject of unwanted sexual advances, propositions, or sexual discussions from men whosupervise them, 30 percent of the women surveyed answered yes. And this is not a one-sidedperception: When asked if they had ever said or done something at work that could be con-strued by a female colleague as harassment, 50 percent of the men polled admitted that theyhad, in fact, done so.47

There’s good news, however. These days, many companies are training employees in waysto avoid sexual harassment. In fact, beginning in 2006, California law required employers toprovide two hours of sexual harassment training and education to all supervisory employees.

role conflictIncompatibilities betweenthe various sets ofobligations people face.

role jugglingThe need to switch back andforth between the demandsof work and family.

sexual harassmentUnwanted contact orcommunication of a sexualnature, usually againstwomen.

M05_GREE4300_10_PIE_C05.QXD 7/22/10 9:52 AM 1


FIGURE 5.12

Aflac’s Effort toReduce RoleJugglingYou probably knowAflac’s talking duckcommercials, but youmight not realize that thisColumbus, Georgia–basedinsurance company runstwo on-site child-carecenters serving 523children, more than anyother such corporatefacility in Georgia. Thesefacilities are welcomed bythe company’s manyemployees who areparents, who otherwisewould have difficultiesmanaging their time—contributing to stressstemming from thedemands of having tojuggle their roles asparents and employees.

At least 14 other states either require or strongly encourage employers to provide some type ofsexual harassment training. Efforts of this type (whether or not mandated by law) are helpingpeople become aware of ways they are behaving that may be considered inappropriate. What’smore, this seems to be having a beneficial effect on the numbers of sexual harassment cases. U.S.government figures have shown a steady decline in the number of sexual harassment casesreported since 1997. Whereas 15,887 sexual harassment cases were filed in 1997, that figuredropped to 12,696 in 2009.48 Despite this improvement, the number is 12,696 too high as eachcase reflects individuals who are being harmed.

Although the reduction is an encouraging sign that this important source of stress may be onthe decline as today’s employees become more enlightened, it’s important to note that sexualharassment is far from gone. When you consider that the number of cases filed reflects only asmall proportion of incidents of harassment that actually occur, it is apparent that sexual harass-ment remains a prevalent source of stress in today’s workplace, one that should be taken seriously.

Role Ambiguity: Stress from UncertaintyEven if individuals are able to avoid the stress associated with role conflict, they still mayencounter an even more common source of job-related stress: role ambiguity. This occurs whenpeople are uncertain about several aspects of their jobs (e.g., the scope of their responsibilities,what’s expected of them, how to divide their time among various duties). Most people dislikesuch uncertainty and find it quite stressful, but it is difficult to avoid. In fact, role ambiguity isquite common: 35 to 60 percent of employees surveyed report experiencing it to some degree.49

Clearly, managers who are interested in promoting a stress-free workplace should go out of theirways to help employees understand precisely what they are expected to do. As obvious as thismay sound, such advice is all too frequently ignored in actual practice.

role ambiguityUncertainty about what oneis expected to do on a job.

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Overload and UnderloadWhen the term work-related stress is mentioned, most people envision scenes in which employeesare asked to do more work than they possibly can handle. Such an image is indeed quite legiti-mate, for such overload is an important cause of stress in many work settings. Findings of a recentstudy support this image.50 Half of the 1,300 Americans who completed a survey about their worklives indicated that they routinely skip lunch to complete the day’s work. And 52 percent reportedthat they often had to work more than 12 hours a day to get their jobs done.

If you think about it, this isn’t particularly surprising. In today’s business environment,where many companies are trimming staff size (the phenomenon known as downsizing, whichwe will discuss in Chapter 16), fewer employees are being asked to do more work. Not only doesthis cause overload, but so too does the proliferation of information with which people arebombarded today as life involves communication via more sources than ever before. Scientistsuse the term information anxiety to refer to pressure to store and process great deals of informa-tion in our heads and to keep up constantly with gathering it. This constitutes an all-too realsource of overload today.

Overload is only part of the total picture when it comes to stress. Although being asked to dotoo much can be stressful, so too can being asked to do too little. In fact, there seems to be con-siderable truth in the following statement: “The hardest job in the world is doing nothing—youcan’t take a break.” Underload leads to boredom and monotony. Since these reactions are quiteunpleasant, underload, too, can be stressful.

Responsibility for Others: A Heavy BurdenBy virtue of differences in their jobs, some individuals, such as managers, tend to deal more withpeople than others. And people, as you probably suspect, can be a major source of stress. In gen-eral, individuals who are responsible for other people experience higher levels of stress thanthose who have no such responsibility (see Figure 5.13). Such individuals are more likely toreport feelings of tension and anxiety and are more likely to show overt symptoms of stress, suchas ulcers or hypertension, than their counterparts in nonsupervisory positions.

This probably isn’t too surprising if you think about it. After all, managers are oftencaught between the need to satisfy their staff members (e.g., giving them raises) whilesimultaneously meeting the demands of their own superiors (e.g., maintaining budgets). Theyalso are often faced with meeting a variety of demands, creating responsibilities that weighheavily on them. Not surprisingly, many managers think of stress as a normal, everyday partof their jobs.

Importantly, managers who deal with people ineffectively—such as those who communi-cate poorly and who treat people unfairly—add stress to the lives of the people they supervise.As you surely know from your own experiences, a poor manager can be quite a significantsource of stress. That said, it is clear that knowing and effectively practicing what you havelearned about OB in this book can help alleviate stress among others in the workplace.

Lack of Social Support: The Costs of IsolationAccording to an old saying, “misery loves company.” With respect to stress, this statementimplies that if we have to face stressful conditions, it’s better to do so along with others (and withtheir support) rather than alone. Does this strategy actually work? In general, the answer is yes.Research has shown that when individuals believe they enjoy the friendship and support ofothers at work—that is, when they have social support—their ability to resist the adverse effectsof stress increases. For example, research has found that police officers who feel they can talkto their colleagues about their reactions to a traumatic event (such as a shooting) experience lessstressful reactions than those who lack such support.51 Clearly, social support can be an impor-tant buffer against the effects of stress.52

Social support can come from many different sources. One of these is cultural norms(e.g., caring for the elderly is valued among the Japanese, thereby reducing the social isola-tion many elderly people otherwise experience). Another source of social support is socialinstitutions (e.g., counseling from the church or school officials, help from the Red Cross).And, of course, probably the most important and valuable source of support comes from

information anxietyPressure to store andprocess a great deal ofinformation in our headand to keep up constantlywith gathering it.

social supportThe friendship and supportof others, which helpminimize reactions to stress.



FIGURE 5.13

Responsibility forOthers: A CommonStressorAs this manager canprobably tell you, one ofthe greatest ongoingsources of stress on thejob stems from the factthat he has responsibilityover others. Even whenthere are no problems,simply knowing that one’sdecisions can have amajor impact on othershas the potential to triggerstress in many people.

one’s own friends and family members. These various sources help in several differentways.53 These are as follows:

� Boosting self-esteem. Others can help make us feel better about ourselves.� Sharing information. Talking to other people can help us learn about ways of coping with

problems and give us a new perspective on things.� Providing diversion. Spending time with others can be a friendly diversion from life’s

stressors, taking your mind off them.� Giving needed resources. Time spent with others can result in their offering to help by

giving money, advice, or other recourses needed to alleviate stress.

As we have shown here, not only does misery love company, but company also can helpalleviate misery. This is something worth remembering the next time you feel stressed.Remember, don’t go it alone. Friends can help, so seek them out.

Adverse Effects of Organizational StressBy now, you probably are convinced that stress stems from many sources, and that it has impor-tant effects on the people who experience it. What may not yet be apparent, though, is just howpowerful and far-reaching such effects can be. In fact, so widespread are the detrimental effectsof stress (i.e., strain) that it has been estimated that their annual costs exceed 10 percent of theU.S. gross national product!54 Let’s now examine some of the specific problems linked to stress.

Lowered Task Performance—But Only SometimesThe most current evidence available suggests that stress exerts mainly negative effects on taskperformance. For the most part, the greater the stress people encounter on the job, the moreadversely affected their job performance tends to be.55 In some cases, this is particularly

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serious. For example, one study reported that people who are experiencing higher levels ofstress have significantly higher chances of having an auto accident than those experiencinglower levels of stress.56

It is important to note, however, that the adverse relationship between stress and jobperformance does not always occur. Specifically, some people seem to “rise to the occasion”and turn in exceptional performances when confronted with what appear to be stressors. Thereappear to be two reasons for this. First, because some people are expert in the tasks beingperformed they are highly confident in what they are doing. This leads them to appraise apotentially stressful situation as challenging (and not stressful) rather than threatening (andtherefore, stressful). Second, some people are by nature high sensation-seekers and thrive onstress. These individuals find stress exhilarating and thrilling and are highly motivated toperform well under such conditions. Most people, however, are just the opposite. They findhigh levels of stress upsetting, which interferes with their job performance.

Desk RageA particularly unsettling manifestation of stress on the job that has become all too prevalent inrecent years is known as desk rage—the lashing out at others in response to stressful encounterson the job. Just as angered drivers have been known to express their negative reactions to othersin dangerous ways (commonly referred to as road rage), so too have office workers been knownto behave violently toward others when feeling stress from long hours and difficult workingconditions. What makes desk rage so frightening is how extremely widespread it is and. Forsome suggestions that managers may follow to address the problem of desk rage, see Table 5.6.57

Stress and Health: The Silent KillerHow strong is the link between stress and personal health? The answer, say medical experts, is“very strong, indeed.” In other words, physiological strain reactions can be quite severe. Someexperts estimate that stress plays a role in anywhere from 50 to 70 percent of all forms of physi-cal illness.58 Included in these figures are some of the most serious and life-threatening ailmentsknown to medical science. A list of some of the more common ones is shown in Table 5.7.59

Even the most cursory look at this list reveals that the health-related effects of stress are not only

desk rageLashing out at others inresponse to stressfulencounters on the job.

TABLE 5.6 Addressing Desk Rage: Useful Tips for Managers

Because desk rage is all too prevalent, it’s important for managers to recognize how to address it. Experts have offered the following tips.

Tip Comment

Take control of your emotions whenever an employee seems tolose control.

Don’t do anything that might keep the argument going or make itworse.

Carefully consider what led the person to be so angry. By identifying the trigger, you are in a good position tostraighten things out, such as by offering an explanation aboutsomething.

Immediately encourage everyone involved to take a deep breath. Breathing deeply helps people calm down; doing so will helpyou to discuss the situation calmly.

Take the feud outside the workplace. Discussing heated personal issues in the workplace may involveothers, but going outside—to lunch, say—moves the discussionto neutral territory where calm heads may prevail.

If someone seems to be having a particularly bad day, ask ifthere’s anything you can do to help.

By intervening, you may be able to help with problems (e.g.,overload), thereby eliminating conditions that promote anger.

Stay physically clear of someone who may be losing control. By keeping an angry individual at arm’s length, you may avoid aphysical confrontation.

If you witness someone yelling at a coworker, intervene directlyonly if you are a supervisor. If you are a colleague, report this toyour supervisor.

Direct intervention by a colleague may only make thingsworse by getting him or her involved as well. However, anyonewitnessing acts of desk rage should report them at once to some-one who has the authority to intervene.

Source: Lorenz, 2004; see Note 57.



TABLE 5.7 Health-Related Consequences of Stress

Stress causes a variety of different health problems, including medical, behavioral, and psychologicalproblems. Listed here are some of the major consequences within each category.

Medical Consequences Behavioral Consequences Psychological Consequences

Heart disease and stroke Smoking Family conflict

Backache and arthritis Drug and alcohol abuse Sleep disturbances

Ulcers Accident proneness Sexual dysfunction

Headaches Violence Depression

Cancer Appetite disorders

Diabetes

Cirrhosis of the liver

Lung disease

Source: Based on material reported by Quick et al., 2008; see Note 59.

quite widespread but also extremely serious. With this in mind, it’s not surprising that many oftoday’s companies are taking steps to keep stress in check. We examine these in the next sectionof this chapter. (Might you find differences between women and men with respect to theirresponses to stress, such as their likelihoods of showing signs of burnout? For a look at this ques-tion, see the Today’s Diverse and Global Organizations section below.)

Today’s Diverse and Global Organizations

Do Women and Men RespondDifferently to Stress?

Although anyone’s life can be stressful, it seems that womengenerally face more stressors than men. If nothing else, womenare more likely than men to carry the primary responsibility forraising children at home while also facing responsibilities on thejob. Women also are more likely than men to be victims of sexualharassment on the job. And women are more likely than men toconfront discriminatory practices that keep them from advancingas rapidly on the job. Considering these things, it is not surpris-ing that surveys have found that women face more stressors andare affected more adversely by them than men.60

Women and men differ not only with respect to the overallamounts of stress they face, but also with respect to its variousforms. In fact, compared to men, women confront stress from awider variety of sources. Women encounter more changes andgreater pressure to perform well on the job. For them, signs ofstress are most likely to be found whenever their jobs are chaoticor demanding. For men, however, work is most likely to be stress-ful when facing ambiguous demands about what to do or whenworking in a highly competitive atmosphere.

Interestingly, both men and women seek relief from stress byengaging in some of the same leisure-time activities. For example,both groups do things that make them laugh and also seek toreduce stress by attending religious services. However, researchshows that men and women also differ in their particular choicesof leisure activities to help cope with stress.61 For example,whereas men are inclined to play hard by engaging in strenuous

sports, women are more likely to engage in artistic and culturalactivities to relax. Women also are more likely than men torespond to stress by maintaining healthy habits (e.g., eating prop-erly and exercising regularly) and by seeking social support(e.g., talking to their friends about their problems).

Although both women and men take steps to cope with stress,woman generally have a harder time of it. Overall, women copeless effectively with the stress they face. They suffer more physicalsymptoms (e.g., elevated blood pressure), behavioral symptoms(e.g., sleeplessness), and emotional symptoms (e.g., anxiety anddepression).

Why is this? There are several possibilities.

1. Volume of stressors. One possibility is that women copeless effectively because the overall levels of stress they faceare so much higher than those faced by men.

2. Coping. Another possibility is that what women are doingto cope with the stressors they face is less effective thanwhat men do to cope with their stressors.

3. Physiological predisposition. Another possibility is thatthe generally greater physical strength and stamina of menpredisposes them to respond less adversely to whateverstressors they encounter.

Of course, various combinations of these explanations maybe involved, as well as numerous other factors. Regardless of thereason, one thing is sure: When attempting to get employeesto be affected less adversely to work stress, managers need tofocus especially carefully on women. Going out of the way toinclude women in stress management programs appears to be awise investment.



employee assistanceprograms (EAPs)Plans offered by employersthat provide their employ-ees with assistance forvarious personal problems(e.g., substance abuse,career planning, financialand legal problems).

member assistanceprograms (MAPs)Plans offered by tradeunions that provide theirmembers with assistancefor various personal prob-lems (e.g., substance abuse,career planning, financialand legal problems).

stress managementprogramsSystematic efforts to trainemployees in a variety oftechniques that they canuse to become lessadversely affected by stress.

wellness programsCompany-wide programs inwhich employees receivetraining regarding thingsthey can do to promotehealthy lifestyles.

Reducing Stress: What Can Be Done?Stress stems from so many different factors and conditions that to eliminate it entirely from ourlives is impossible. However, there still are many things that both companies and individuals cando to reduce stress and to minimize its harmful effects.62 To ensure that these tactics are followed,many companies have introduced systematic programs designed to help employees reduce and/orprevent stress. The underlying assumption of these programs is that by minimizing employees’adverse reactions to stress, they will be healthier, less likely to be absent, and, consequently, moreproductive on the job. This, in turn, is not only likely to have beneficial effects on the bottom linesof companies but also on the individual well-being of the employees who work in them.

Employee Assistance Programs and Stress Management ProgramsAbout two-thirds of today’s companies have some kind of formal program in place to helpemployees with various problems they may face in their personal lives (e.g., substance abuse,career planning, financial and legal problems).63 Such efforts are known as employee assistanceprograms (EAPs). Sometimes, such programs are sponsored by trade unions, in which case,they are known as member assistance programs (MAPs).

Interest in offering systematic ways of promoting the welfare of employees has grown so greatthat many companies today are seeking the assistance of specialized organizations with whom theycan contract to offer assistance programs for their employees. By outsourcing these services to firmsthat are expert in this area, companies are free to focus on their usual business while ensuring thatthey are taking care of their employees as needed. Privacy also is enhanced since using outsourcedEAP services also helps ensure that personal information about employees is kept from theiremployers. Importantly, EAPs are paying off. According to the Employee Assistance ProfessionalsAssociation, a trade group for companies offering professional EAP services to organizations,employee work loss is avoided in 60 percent of the cases in which EAP services are provided.64

Another systematic approach to addressing the stress problem comes in the form of stressmanagement programs. These involve training employees in a variety of techniques (e.g.,meditation and relaxation) that they can use to become less adversely affected by stress (we willdescribe several of these techniques on pages 198–200). About a quarter of all large companieshave stress management programs in place.

Wellness ProgramsBeyond helping employees reduce stress-related problems, about half of today’s larger compa-nies have wellness programs in place to keep them healthy. These are systematic efforts to trainemployees in a variety of things they can do to promote healthy lifestyles. Very broad-based,wellness programs usually consist of workshops in which employees can learn many things toreduce stress and maintain their health. Exercise, nutrition, and weight-management counselingare among the most popular areas covered.

As an interesting example, Blue Cross Blue Shield of Oklahoma built a financial incentive intothe wellness program it uses for its 1,300 employees.65 The company offers “Weight Watchers atWork” meetings. Employees have to pay to participate in the 16-week program—but as anincentive, if they attend at least 14 weekly sessions, they are reimbursed. In a recent five-yearperiod, Blue Cross Blue Shield employees collectively have lost nearly 10 tons of excess weight.

As you might imagine, companies that have used such programs have found that they payoff handsomely. For example, at its industrial sites that offer wellness programs, DuPont hasfound that absenteeism is less than half of what it is at sites that do not offer such programs.Organizations such as The Travelers Companies and Union Pacific Railroad have enjoyedconsistently high returns on each dollar they invest in employee wellness. And when it comes tosaving money by promoting employee health, there is a lot at stake. Consider, for example, thatannual health insurance costs in the United States due to obesity alone is $7.7 billion.66

As you might imagine, wellness programs help not only by reducing insurance costs, but alsoby reducing absenteeism due to illness. There’s yet another way in which stress management effortspromise to help companies’ bottom lines, and one of which most people are unaware. We arereferring to the problem of presenteeism—the practice of showing up for work but being too sick tobe able to work effectively. Paying workers who are not performing well is not only costly on its

presenteeismThe practice of showingup for work but being toosick to be able to workeffectively.



meditationThe process of learning toclear one’s mind of externalthoughts, often by repeat-ing slowly and rhythmicallya single syllable (known asa mantra).

• Set a bad example for others

• Poor performance

• Prone to make errors

• Spread contagious diseases

Motives

Go to work

when ill

Consequences

• Loss of income

• Pressure from management

• No more sick days

• Sense of obligation

FIGURE 5.14

Presenteeism: Motives and ConsequencesThe opposite of absenteeism, presenteeism also can be problematic for organizations. Some of the motivesthat people might have for going to work when ill are summarized here, along with the consequences.

own, but also indirectly, given that it may lower morale by sending the message that it’s important toshow up even if you’re sick. And, of course, depending on the particular illness people have, it mayspread disease throughout a workplace, compounding the problem (for an overview of some possi-ble motives for presenteeism and its results, see Figure 5.14). This practice is especially problematicin view of estimates that about one in four employees engage in presenteeism.67 Given that stress isone of the leading causes of illness, it follows that reducing stress can help minimize the problem ofpresenteeism (and many others too, of course). (Although it would seem that wellness programs arebeneficial for all, some concerns have been raised about the extent to which they are inherentlyethical. For an overview of these considerations, see The Ethics Angle section on page 199.)

Managing Your Own StressEven if the company at which you work does not have a formal program in place to help youmanage stress, there still are several things you can do by yourself to help control the stress inyour life. We now describe several such tactics.

MANAGE YOUR TIME WISELY. People who don’t use their time effectively find themselves easilyoverwhelmed, falling behind, not getting important things done, and having to work longer hoursas a result. Not surprisingly, time management, the practice of taking control over how wespend time, is a valuable skill for reducing time pressure, which is a particularly widespreadstressor. Some of the most effective time management practices are summarized in Table 5.8.

EAT A HEALTHY DIET AND BE PHYSICALLY FIT. Growing evidence indicates that reduced intake ofsalt and saturated fats, and increased consumption of fiber- and vitamin-rich fruits and vegeta-bles, are steps that can greatly increase the body’s ability to cope with the physiological effectsof stress.68 Regular exercise also helps. People who exercise regularly obtain many benefitsclosely related to resistance of the adverse effects of stress. For example, fitness reduces both theincidence of cardiovascular illness and the death rate from such diseases. Similarly, physicalfitness lowers blood pressure, an important factor in many aspects of personal health.

With this in mind, it is not surprising that growing numbers of companies are taking steps toensure that their employees maintain proper weight by eating properly and exercising regularly.Some even offer monetary incentives for doing so.69

RELAX AND MEDITATE. Many people find that it helps to relieve stress by engaging inmeditation, the process of learning to clear one’s mind of external thoughts, often by repeatingslowly and rhythmically a single syllable (known as a mantra). Those who follow this systematicway of relaxing claim that it helps to relieve the many sources of stress in their lives. For anoverview of general steps to follow while meditating, see Table 5.9.70

GET A GOOD NIGHT’S SLEEP. One of the most effective ways to alleviate stress-related problemsis one of the simplest—if you can do it—sleeping. We all need a certain amount of sleep to allow

time managementThe practice of taking controlover how we spend time.



The Ethics Angle

Companies and Employee Health:An Invitation for Big Brother?

At first blush, it would seem to be evident that wellness pro-grams cannot help but benefit employees and employers alike.Although this is probably true on most occasions, it has been notedthat wellness programs run the risk of being unethical because theyenable companies to be too intrusive in their employees’ lives. Theseriousness of this risk will depend on the exact practices compa-nies follow, but let’s examine the general issues.

Some concerns have been raised that when companies haveany connection to their employees’ health and wellness, thepotential exists for employers to use this information againsttheir employees. This concern is especially relevant when compa-nies have on-site medical clinics.

You might not realize it, but in the 1800s, most large compa-nies had doctors on the premises that serviced the health-careneeds of employees. By the 1940s, however, most of these medicalclinics began closing in the wake of criticism that the doctors weremore attuned to the financial needs of the companies that paidthem than to the patients they saw.71 Even today, might doctorswho are paid by a company think twice about recommending timeoff for key employees whose services are especially vital? Even moreseriously, might a company doctor share private information aboutthe serious illness an employee might have so that he or she couldbe terminated before the company is forced to pay exorbitantmedical bills, raising insurance premiums for everyone? Or, even if adoctor is not so blatant in disregarding a patient’s privacy, mightcompany officials be tempted to snoop around the clinic to seewhat information of interest they might find?

To avoid such problems, most organizations (which arenot qualified to run medical clinics in the first place) outsource

their on-site facilities to specialized companies that are quali-fied to operate them. One such company is Take Care HealthServices (owned by Walgreens), whose employees design,staff, and run many in-house clinics. From an ethical perspec-tive, this is intended to maintain a vital privacy buffer thatkeeps companies from prying into their employees’ medicalrecords. Taking the absence of any reports of breeches insecurity as evidence, they seem to be quite successful. Still,some especially cautious individuals may be reluctant to havetheir medical records housed under the same roofs as theircompanies.

Another concern has to do with the difference between“encouraging” employee health and “mandating” it. Considerthis example. One company used to have a program in whichemployees were given opportunities to get complete physicalsand then, if they were found to be healthy in key ways (e.g.,appropriate weight, normal blood pressure, not smoking, etc.),they were awarded a $500 bonus. Then, one day in an effort tocontrol rising health-care costs, the company moved from avoluntary program to a mandatory program.72 Among otherthings, this included prohibiting employees from smoking, evenoff the job. Although not smoking surely is prudent, someemployees complained that the practice of outlawing it is unethi-cal because it violates their individual rights. Furthermore, severalstates have laws that prohibit companies from restrictingthe things employees can do while not on the job, making thepractice illegal in some places as well.

What do you think? Are you concerned about the potentialfor a corporate Big Brother to interfere with private matters,such as personal health, or do you believe that proper safe-guards can be implemented to avoid ethical conflicts of interest?Do you believe that those who harbor such concerns are beingappropriately cautious or merely paranoid?

TABLE 5.8 Three Key Suggestions for Managing Your Time

Managing time well can be an effective means of reducing stress because it allows people to avoid last-minute crises and because it permitswork to flow in a regular manner. Although these three suggestions may be easier said than done, following them can be very helpful.

Tip Explanation

Prioritize your activities. Distinguish between tasks that are urgent (ones that must be performed right away) andimportant (ones that must be done, but can wait). When determining how to spend your time,assign the greatest priority to tasks that are both important and urgent, a lower priority totasks that are important but less urgent, and the lowest priority of all to tasks that are neitherimportant nor urgent.

Allocate your time realistically—do not overcommit.

When planning, accurately assess how much time needs to be spent on each of the varioustasks you perform. Budgeting too much time can lead to underload, and too little time canlead to overload. It also helps to build in buffers, some extra time to handle unexpectedissues that might arise.

Take control of your time. Make a “to do” list and carefully keep track of what you have to accomplish. Unless anurgent situation comes up, stay focused and don’t allow others to derail you. The more youallow other people to interfere with your time, the less you will have accomplished at the end of the day.


our bodies to recharge and function effectively. Eight hours per day is average, although someneed more and others can function just fine on fewer. Although a restful night’s sleep can helppeople ward off the harmful effects of stress, the problem for many is that they are so stressedthat they have difficulty getting to sleep or maintaining their sleep, a widespread stress reactionknown as insomnia.

AVOID INAPPROPRIATE SELF-TALK. This involves repeatedly telling ourselves how horrible andunbearable it will be if we fail, if we are not perfect, or if everyone we meet does not like us.Such thoughts seem ludicrous when spelled out in the pages of a book, but the fact is that mostpeople entertain them at least occasionally. Unfortunately, such thoughts can add to personallevels of stress, as individuals awfulize or catastrophize in their own minds the horrors of notbeing successful, perfect, or loved. Fortunately, such thinking can be readily modified. For manypeople, merely recognizing that they have implicitly accepted such irrational and self-defeatingbeliefs is sufficient to produce beneficial change and increased resistance to stress.

TAKE A TIME-OUT. When confronted with rising tension, people may find it useful to choose toinsert a brief period of delay known as a time-out. This can involve taking a short break, goingto the nearest restroom to splash cold water on one’s face, or any other action that yields a fewmoments of breathing space. Such actions interrupt the cycle of ever-rising tension that accom-panies stress and can help to restore equilibrium and the feeling of being at least partly in controlof ongoing events.


TABLE 5.9 How to Meditate by Relaxing

Meditation can help people gain better control of negative emotions, such as anger, and it also can help lessen negative reactions tostress. For these reasons, learning to meditate can be very useful. Although there are several different types of meditation, the relaxationapproach outlined here is both easiest to learn and among the most effective. Give it a try.

1. Go to a quiet, dark place where you will not be disturbed. Sit in a comfortable position. Let your mind go blank and slowly relaxyour muscles.

2. Focus into space, slowly letting everything out of your mind. Do not let thoughts intrude. If they do, work at pushing them away.

3. Breathe slowly and in a regular rhythm. As you breathe in, slowly make the sound “haaah” as you would when slipping into a hotbath. Then, as you exhale, slowly produce the sound “saaah,” sounding and feeling like a sigh.

4. Repeat this process, breathing slowly and naturally. When you do, inhale through your nose and pause for a few seconds. Thenexhale through your mouth, again pausing for a few seconds.

5. Should thoughts enter your mind while attempting this process, don’t feel badly about it. Instead, realize that this is natural andpick up the process once again. This will take time to master, so be patient. With practice, you will be able to do this morequickly.

6. Continue this process for what feels like about 20 minutes. Don’t look at the clock, though. As the time draws to a close, maintainawareness of your breathing and sit quietly. Then, slowly becoming aware of where you are, open your eyes and get up gradually.

Sources: Based on various sources in Note 70.

time-outA brief delay in activitiesdesigned to reducemounting tension.

Summary and Review of Learning Objectives

1. Distinguish between emotions and moods.Whereas emotions are overt reactions that express people’s feelings about a specific event,moods are more general. Specifically, moods are unfocused, relatively mild feelings thatexist as background to our daily experiences.

2. Explain how emotions and mood influence behavior in organizations.Emotions and mood affect behavior in organizations in various ways. Generally, happierpeople are more successful on their jobs; they perform at higher levels, and they makehigher incomes. One reason for this is that people who are very upset tend to neither listento nor understand the performance feedback they receive. Furthermore, happier people tendto make better decisions, remember positive events, give positive evaluations when appro-priate, and cooperate with others.


3. Describe ways in which people manage their emotions in organizations.One way people manage their emotions is by keeping their negative feelings to themselves.Rather than offending another with our actual negative feelings, we may engage in theemotional labor of disguising our true feelings. The inconsistency between the emotions weexpress and the emotions we feel is known as emotional dissonance. People in organizationsalso manage their emotions by managing their anger and by displaying compassion forothers when needed. This is especially important during major crises and emergencies.

4. Identify the major causes of organizational stress.Stress is caused by many different factors, including occupational demands, conflictsbetween the work and nonwork aspects of one’s life (i.e., role conflict), not knowing whatone is expected to do on the job (i.e., role ambiguity), overload and underload, havingresponsibility for other people, and experiencing sexual harassment.

5. Describe the adverse effects of organizational stress.Experiencing high levels of organizational stress has negative effects on task performance.It also adversely affects people’s physical and mental health in a variety of ways. Stress alsois a major cause of such serious problems as desk rage and burnout.

6. Identify various ways of reducing stress in the workplace.To help reduce employees’ stress, companies are doing such things as using employeeassistance programs, wellness programs, absence control programs, and stress managementprograms. As individuals, we can control the stress we face in our lives by following good timemanagement techniques, eating a healthy diet and being physically fit, relaxing and meditating,avoiding inappropriate self-talk, and taking control over our reactions.


Points to Ponder

Questions for Review1. What are emotions and moods, and how do they

influence people’s behavior in organizations?2. What does affective events theory say about the effects

of people’s emotions on their behavior in organizations?3. What advice would you give to leaders of a company

who are interested in managing their employees’emotions?

4. What are the differences among stressors, stress, andstrain?

5. What are the primary causes and consequences ofstress on the job?

6. What steps can be taken to minimize the potentiallyharmful effects of stress on the job?

Experiential Questions1. Think of a time when it was necessary for you to

express compassion on the job in response to a trau-matic situation. What were the circumstances? Whatdid you do that was effective? What steps might youtake to become even more effective the next time it isnecessary to express compassion on the job?

2. What was the most stressful situation you everencountered on the job? What were the stressors,and how did you react, both physically and psycholog-ically? What role did social support play in helpingyou manage this stress?

3. What experiences have you had using stress manage-ment techniques—either formally or informally? For

example, do you meditate? Do you find that physicalexercise helps you relieve stress? Does talking toothers help at all? Of the various techniques describedin this chapter, which one do you think you wouldfind most beneficial?

Questions to Analyze1. We all experience emotions, but some people disguise

their true feelings better than others. Do you think thisis a helpful or harmful thing to do? Under what condi-tions do you think it would be most useful to expressyour true feelings? Likewise, when do you think itwould be best to keep your feelings to yourself?

2. Social support can be a very helpful means of reducingstress. However, do you think it’s wise to seek socialsupport on the job, where you stand to make yourselfvulnerable by talking about your work-related stressors(e.g., by showing your weaknesses or by speakingnegatively about your bosses)? Or do you think thatonly your coworkers are in a good position to under-stand your work-related stressors, suggesting that youshould talk to them about the work-related stress youare experiencing?

3. Stress management programs generally work well,but they are not always as effective as hoped. Whatproblems and limitations do you believe may inter-fere with the effectiveness of stress managementprograms? How can these problems and limitationsbe overcome?



Experiencing OB

Individual ExerciseHow Resilient Are You?This questionnaire is designed to help you discover how resilient you are. People who are moreresilient are less inclined to suffer problems associated with stress because they simply “bounceback” from them without experiencing harm.

DirectionsUsing the following scale, respond to each of the items by indicating how often you do what isindicated.

1 � never

2 � sometimes

3 � half the time

4 � usually

5 � always

1. I am able to “forgive and forget” whenever someone has hurt me.2. Overall, I am more of an optimist than a pessimist.3. I take some time out each day for quiet rest.4. I am satisfied with the amount of time I spend having fun.5. I find it easy to keep everything in my life organized and under control.6. If I’m upset about something, I am able to speak about it openly.7. I can confide in friends whenever something troubles me.8. I usually get enough sleep to feel fully rested.9. I make it a point to exercise regularly.

10. I eat a well-balanced diet most of the time.

Scoring and Interpretation1. Add your points for all 10 items. These can range from 10 to 50.2. Higher scores reflect a higher degree of resiliency.

Questions for Discussion1. How does the score you earned compare to what you would have imagined before you took

this test? Was it higher or lower? Are you surprised?2. What do these items reveal about the factors that contribute to resiliency? Did you notice

that this is essentially a checklist of things to do to reduce or avoid stress?3. What did completing this questionnaire show you about what you might be able to do to

become more resilient and, therefore, harmed less by stressors?

Group ExerciseIs Your Team Tough Enough to Endure Stress?A test known as the Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS) (see Note 42) has been usedin recent years to identify the extent to which a person can stay focused and keep his or her emotionsunder control—the core elements of performing well under high-pressure conditions. Completingthis exercise (which is based on questions similar to those actually used by such groups as Olympicathletes and U.S. Navy Seals) will help you understand your own strengths and limitations in thisregard. And, by discussing these scores with your teammates, you will come away with a good feelfor the extent to which those with whom you work differ along this dimension as well.

Directions1. Form groups of three or four people whom you know fairly well. If you are part of an

intact group, such as a work team or a team of students working on a class project, meetwith your fellow group members.



2. Individually, complete the following questionnaire by responding to each question asfollows: “never,” “rarely,” “sometimes,” “frequently,” or “always.”

1. When time is running out on an important project, I am the person who shouldbe called on to take control of things.

2. When listening to a piece of music, I can pick out a specific voice or instrument.3. The people who know me think of me as being “serious.”4. It is important to me to get a job completely right in every detail, even if it

means being late.5. When approaching a busy intersection, I easily get confused.6. Just by looking at someone, I can figure out what he or she is like.7. I am comfortable arguing with people.8. At a cocktail party, I have no difficulty keeping track of several different con-

versations at once.

3. Discuss your answers with everyone else in your group. Item by item, consider whateach person’s response to each question indicates about his or her ability to focus.

Questions for Discussion1. What questions were easiest to interpret? Which were most difficult?2. How did each individual’s responses compare with the way you would assess his or her

ability to focus under stress?3. For what jobs is the ability to concentrate under stress particularly important? For what

jobs is it not especially important? How important is this ability for the work you do?

Practicing OB

Stressed-Out Employees Are ResigningAs the managing director of a large e-tail sales company,you are becoming alarmed about the growing levels ofturnover your company has been experiencing lately.It already has passed the industry average, and you aregrowing concerned about the company’s capacity to staffthe call center and the warehouse during the busy holidayperiod. In conducting exit interviews, you learned that theemployees who are leaving generally like their work andthe pay they are receiving. However, they are displeasedwith the way their managers are treating them, and this iscreating stress in their lives. They are quitting so they can

take less stressful positions in other companies. Answerthe following questions based on the material in thischapter.

1. Assuming that the employees’ emotions and moodsare negative, what problems would you expect to findin the way they are working?

2. How should the company’s supervisors behavedifferently so as to get their subordinates to experi-ence less stress on the job (or, at least, get them toreact less negatively)?

3. What could the individual employees do to helpmanage their own stress more effectively?

Case in

Point

“I ’ve brought shame on myself, my family and the pro-fession” were the words of Tim Donaghy, as a federaldistrict judge sentenced him to 15 months behind barsin July 2008. Formally, the charges against him wereconspiracy to engage in wire fraud and transmittingbetting information through interstate commerce. Inplain English, the 41-year-old Donaghy, a 13-year vet-eran National Basketball Association (NBA) referee,admitted to taking thousands of dollars in payoffs from

(Continued )

■ A Basketball Court Judge Faces a Federal Court Judge

a professional gambler in exchange for giving inside tipson games he officiated.

Upon sentencing Donaghy, U.S. District Judge CarolAmon gave him credit for cooperating with the court butexplained that a jail term was justified since, “The NBA, theplayers and the fans relied upon him to perform his job inan honest, reliable and non-conflicted manner.” Instead,she said, he was “compromised by a financial interest inthe game he was refereeing.” The contrite Donaghy stoodwith his arms folded and showed no emotion. When


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es to help employees improve their skills and advance theircareers.

Although an annual review can provide employees withsome feedback, Martin Buckingham of Hot Jobs says that heprefers ongoing feedback. Herman claims that at her orga-nization, the management development program focuses onthe career plans of employees and the steps managersshould take to move toward achieving their goals.

Discussion Questions

1. Which of the different types of training presented inChapter 3 would be most effective for companies likeLowes Hotels?

2. Why are the keys to effective training presented inChapter 3 so important to companies like thoseshown in the video?

3. Explain how 360-degree feedback can be usedimprove the effectiveness of training in situations likethe one at Lowes Hotels.

(Continued )


invited to speak, he told the judge, “I’m very sorry for theacts for which I stand before you.”

Although sportswriters and NBA officials roundly criti-cized Donaghy for his actions, they also acknowledge theintensely stressful nature of the referee’s job. Living out ofa suitcase for over half a year, they log thousands of mileson the road during the season and face extreme pressure.Not only do they have to make split-second decisions, butthey also have to do it in the shadow of giant players andcoaches who are not exactly reticent about sharing theiropinions about the nature of their calls.

Although Donaghy can serve his sentence and putthe ordeal behind him, some believe that the problemsfor the NBA may be just beginning. In the course ofdefending himself, Donaghy revealed that NBA officialstold referees to go easy on calling technical fouls againstcertain star players, who fans wanted to see on the court,and to make calls that extended playoffs to seven gamesso as to boost income for the league. NBA CommissionerDavid Stern has repeatedly denied that corruption wentbeyond Donaghy, explaining that Donaghy fabricated theclaims to create the appearance that he was sharing

information in the hope of getting a lighter sentence.Although the court announced that Donaghy’s claims ofwidespread game manipulation were unsubstantiated,the NBA recognizes the serious public relations nightmareit has on its hands.

Unless the game can be played with integrity on a levelplaying field (or, court, in this case), it has no future. Toensure the quality of officiating from now on, CommissionerStern created a new position, senior vice president of refereeoperations, staffed by retired U.S. Army General RonaldJohnson. If you think being a referee on the court is stressful,imagine what it’s like to be in charge of all of them frombehind a desk in a New York office.

Questions for Discussion

1. What particular emotions do you believe Donaghyexperienced as this situation unfolded?

2. What sources of stress did Donaghy encounter, andhow did he respond to them?

3. Considering the stressful nature of his ordeal, whatwould you recommend to Donaghy that he do toalleviate some of the stress he encountered?

■ Training and Development

Employee training is a major responsibility for mosthuman resource departments. These programs provideemployees with the tools they need to accomplish their jobduties successfully. Developing a good plan begins withclearly identifying what needs to be achieved and thendetermining which kind of training is most appropriate.Once the answers to these questions have been identified,firms can ascertain who should conduct the training andhow its effectiveness will be measured.

According to Jenny Herman of Lowes Hotels, for atraining program to be effective, it should incorporateinput from people in the field and be used on apilot basis to work out any kinks before being rolled outto the entire firm. Various tools, including one-on-onerelationships, mentoring programs, interactive training,and computer training, can be used. Training is not aone-time event, but an ongoing process. Companies alsoshould implement management development programs

■ Managing Stress

Stress in the workplace is all-too-commonplace. Someindividuals, like Student Advantage’s Vinnie Russo, feelpressured because they cannot say “no,” even when theyare already overscheduled. Other employees, like HeidiVanvliet, feel stressed when they are faced with impossible

deadlines. People experience this pressure in differentways. Things that might cause strain in one person may beof little importance to another. An individual’s experiencealso plays a role: An employee who has already put in an18-hour day, for example, may feel bothered when facing asituation that on any other day would cause little problem.



Because high levels of stress can have a negativeimpact on performance, some companies have imple-mented programs designed to help workers deal with it. AtStudent Advantage, Kevin Roach shows employees how tointegrate personal and professional goals. Roach points outthat planning and prioritizing are important to managingstress, and that individuals need to be able to identify whatadds value and what can be ignored.

Stressors can vary over time as circumstances change.When Student Advantage initially was founded, for exam-ple, most employees were relatively young and single.Today, however, many have families, and this change hasintroduced new stressors as managers strive to find a goodbalance between their family lives and professional lives.Similarly, as the company has grown and added more lay-ers of management, more policies, and new procedures,additional stressors have been introduced for long-time

employees who now must adapt to the more structuredenvironment. As part of its effort to assist workers,Student Advantage takes special care to hire individualswho not only have the right technical skills, but who alsowill fit well with the corporate culture.

Discussion Questions

1. How can time-management tactics such as those inTable 5.8 (on page 199) help employees at StudentAdvantage lower their stress levels?

2. In the video clip, Amy Geeler claims she feelsstressed when doing payroll. What are the majorcauses of organizational stress (as described inChapter 5) and which of these does Amy appear tobe experiencing?

3. In what ways does Student Advantage benefit fromoffering employee assistance programs?


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