coomes & ban - cultivated plant species in home gardens in eastern peru

7/21/2019 Coomes & Ban - Cultivated Plant Species in Home Gardens in Eastern Peru

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C U LTI V A TED PLA N T SPEC I ES D I V ER SITY I N H O M E G A R D E N S O F

A N A M A Z O N I A N P E A S A N T V I L L A G E I N N O R T H E A ST E R N P E R U

O L I V E R T. C O O M E S A N D N A T A L I E B A N

Coomes, Oliver T.

(Mc Gi l l Un ivers ity , Dep ar tme n t o f Geography , B urns ide Hal l, Rm . 705 ,

8 0 5 S h er b r o o ke S t . Wes t , Mo n t r ea l P Q , C a n a d a H 3 A 2 K 6 ; em a i l co o m es @ f e l i x . g eo g .

mcg i l l .ca ) , and Natal ie Ban (F i s h eri e s C ent re , L o w er Ma l l R es ea r ch S t a ti on , 2 2 5 9 L o w er M a l l

T h e U n i v e r s i ty o f B r i t is h C o l u m b ia , V a n c o u v e r, B C C a n a d a V 6 T 1 Z 4 ; e m a i l

n .ban@fisher ies .ubc .ca) . CULTIVATED PLANT SPECIES DIVERSITY IN HOME GARDENS OF AN AMA-

ZONIAN PEASANT VILLAGE NORTHEASTERN PER U. Economic B o t a n y 5 8 (3 ) :4 2 0 -4 3 4 , 2004. Re

search on ag rob iod ivers i ty po in t s to the imp or tance o f hom e gardens in s itu conserva t ion , ye t

fe w s tud ies to da te exp l ica te the or ig ins and d ynamics o f p lan t spec ies d iversi ty . In th i s paper ,

we exa mine in ter -hou seho ld var ia t ions in cu l t iva ted p la n t spec ies d ivers i ty am ong hou se gar -

dens in a t rad i tiona l pea san t com muni ty , n ear lqu i tos , Peru . In -dep th ho useho ld in terv iew s (n

= 24) and garden~f ie ld surveys revea l tha t home g ardens are c lear ly the s i t e o f h ighes t p lan t

d ivers i ty in far m ers f i e ld porOeolios , and tha t subs tan t ia l d i f f erences ex i s t in garden compo s i -

t ion , p lan t d iversi ty , and the sou rces o f garden p lan t ing mater ia l across househo lds . S ta t i s t i ca l

ana lyses ind ica te tha t home garden d ivers i ty i s re la ted s t rong ly to spec i f i c garden character -

i st ics , hou seho ld soc ioeconom ic fea tures , and ac cess to p lan t ing mater ia l inc lud ing seeds, cu t-

t ings, and suckers . The ro le and impl ica t ions o f d i f feren t ia l access to p lan t ing m ater ia l in the

d eve l o p m en t a n d m a i n t en a n ce o f c r o p s p ec i e s d i ve r si t y i s s i g n a led a s a n i m p o r t a n t t h em e f o r

fu ture s tudy in economic bo tany .

Key W ords: Amazon; kitchen gardens; dooryard gardens; germplasm; in situ conservation;

agrodiversity.

T r o p i ca l h o m e g a r d en s a r e i m p o r t an t s i t e s o f

h igh p lan t spec ies d iver s i ty , ones tha t may ac t

a s r e s e r v o i r s o f c r o p g e r m p l a s m an d s e r v e t o

conserve r a re o r th rea tened spec ies and var ie t i es

( A l co r n 1 9 92 ; C l a r k e an d T h a m a n 1 99 3; G r -

mez-Pompa 1996; Johnson 1972; Mer r ick 1992;

Smi th e t a l . , 1995) . Desp i t e g rowing in te res t in

in s i tu conserva t ion of cu l t iva ted p lan t spec ies

an d t h e r o l e o f h o m e g a r d en s i n p l an t d o m es t i -

c a t i o n ( e . g . , E s q u i v e l an d H am m er 1 9 9 2 ; G o -

mez-Pompa 1996; K imber 1978; Smi th 1996) ,

f ew s tud ies as ye t account fo r var ia t ions in gar -

d en co m p o s i t i o n an d p l an t s p ec i e s ' r i ch n es s .

T y p i ca l l y , r ep o r t s o n t r o p i ca l h o m e g a r d en s

d r aw o n a s m a l l n u m b er o f ex em p l a r s , d e s c r i b -

ing carefu l ly the i r com pos i t ion and r i chness (A1-

vare z-B uyl la Roces e t a l. 1989; Cabal l e ro 1992;

Gui l l au me t e t a l. 1990; K um ar e t a l . 1994; Or6

B a l b i n an d S am an i eg o 1 9 9 6 ) . G a r d en c r o p d i -

ver s i ty i s a t t r ibu ted to a w ide r ange of pu ta t ive

fac tor s , o f t en as a p roduct o f eco log ica l condi -

1Received 30 Ap ril 2003; accepted 16 March 2004 .

t ions , economic contex t , and the spec i f i c needs ,

t as tes , knowledge , e thn ic i ty , cu l tu re , and expe-

r i ence of the owner (A lava lapa t i e t a l . 1995;

Hi l l s 1988; Haml in and Sa l i ck 2003; Mer r ick

1992; Ric o-G ray et al . 1990; Zald iva r et al.

2002) .

In th i s paper , we examine loca l cu l t iva ted

p l an t s p ec i e s d i v e r s i t y i n h o m e g a r d en s am o n g

p eas an t h o u s eh o l d s i n a t r ad i t i o n a l A m azo n i an

co m m u n i t y i n n o r t h ea s t e r n P e r u . I n co n t r a s t t o

L am o n t , E s ch b au g h , an d G r een b e r g ( 1 9 9 9 ) w h o

examine the ro le o f e thn ic i ty , d i s t ance to marke t ,

an d t o u r i s m o n h o m e g a r d en d i v e r s i t y a c r o s s

three v i l l ages in the r eg ion , we as ses s the ro le

o f m i c r o eco n o m i c , d em o g r ap h i c , s o c i al , an d h i s-

t o r i c a l f a c t o r s w i t h i n a s i n g l e A m azo n i an co m -

m u n i t y . S p ec i f ic a l ly , w e s eek t o an s w er f o u r k ey

ques t ions : (1 ) where in households ' agr icu l tu ra l

p o r t f o l i o s d o w e en co u n t e r t h e h i g h es t d i v e r s i t y

of cu l t iva ted p lan t s? (2 ) how i s p lan t d iver s i ty

i n h o m e g a r d en s d i s t r i b u t ed ac r o s s h o u s eh o l d s ?

( 3 ) w h a t f a c t o r s a cco u n t f o r v a r i a t i o n s i n h o m e

garden d iver s i ty? and , (4 ) what ro le does the ex-

chan ge of p lan t ing m ater ia l ( e .g . , s eeds , cu t t ings ,

E c o n o m i c B o t a n y 58(3) pp. 420-434. 2004

9 2004 by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.



2004] COOMES AND BAN : HOME GARDENS 421

Fig. 1. Map of study area, northeastern Peru.

suckers, etc.) play in determining plant diversity

in home gardens? Answers to these questions

point to the need for micr o-sca le ethnobotani-

cal studies of agrobiodiversity with particular at-

tention to the role, dynamics, and implications

of planting material transfers among traditional

peasant households.

STUDY RE

The communi ty chosen fo r s tudy--Nuevo

Triunfo---is located along the Tahuayo River, a

tr ibutary of the Amazon River, near the ci ty of

Iquitos in northeastern Peru (Fig. 1). At an ele-

vation of about 110m asl, the region receives

between 20 00-30 00 mm /yr of rainfall , in two

seasons defined by precipitation

( verano ,

Ju ly -

October;

invierno ,

December-March) ; a i r tem-

peratures and humidity are high year-round. The

comm unity is si tuated on an upland terrace

(ter-

rafirme) overlooking the Tahuayo River and the

Amazon valley lowland, and is surrounded by

rolling hills composed of old tertiary alluvium,

dissected by small streams. Soils of the upland

are typically weathered, acidic, and nutrient-

poor ultisols, whereas those of the floodplain are

younger and more fert i le Andean alluvium. The

forest land around Nuevo Triunfo has been high-

ly modified by local agricultural practices, re-

flected in a verdant mosaic of swidden fields,

orchards, and secondary forest fallows inland

from the cluster of raised huts and soccer pitch

that defines the village center.

Nuevo Triunfo is a small forest peasant com-

munity , one da y s travel upstream from Iquitos

by river boat (colectivo). Local residents are

mestizos of mixed Amerindian and Iberian de-

scent, referred to as ribere~os or r iver peo-

ple , w ho re ly for their livelihood on traditional

agriculture, fishing, hunting and forest product

extraction (Chibnik 1994; Hiraoka 1985; Padoch



4 2 2 EC ON OM I C B OTA NY [ VOL. 5 8

1 9 8 8 ) . Ag r i cu l tu r a l p r ac t i ce s a r e e ssen t i a l l y i n -

d ig e n o u s in n a tu r e ( i .e ., u se o f ax es an d m a -

c h e t e s o n l y , n o f o s s i l - f u e l b a s e d i n p u t s ) , b u t p r o -

d u c t i o n i s o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s s u b s i s t e n c e n e e d s a s

w e l l a s t h e m a r k e t . O n t h e u p l a n d , r e s i d e n t s

p r a c t i c e s w i d d e n - f a l l o w a g r o f o r e s t r y , w h i c h b e -

g i n s w i t h t h e f e l li n g a n d b u r n i n g o f a p a t c h o f

r a i n f o r e s t t h a t i s t h e n c u l t i v a t e d t h r o u g h o n e t o

t h re e c r o p p h a s e s - - a s w i d d e n p h a s e o f a n n u a l

s u b s i s t e n c e c r o p s ( e .g . , m a n i o c , y a m s , o r p l a n -

t a in ) ; a t r an s i t i o n a l p h ase o f m a r k e tab le f r u i t

c r o p s ( e . g . , p i n e a p p l e , c a s h e w , guava, Inga

s p p . ); a n d a n o r c h a r d p h a s e o f l a t er m a t u r i n g

f ru i t t rees (e .g . , um ari, Poraqueiba sericea, ma-

carnbo, Theobroma bicolor, p e a c h p a l m , Bactris

g a s ip a es ) - - fo l lo w ed

b y a f o r e s t f a l l o w p h a s e

( C o o m e s a n d B u t t 1 9 9 7 ; H i r a o k a 1 9 8 6 ; P a d o c h

e t al . 1 9 8 5 ) . I n th e l o w lan d , r e s id en t s cu l t i v a t e

t h e s e a s o n a l l y i n u n d a t e d f l o o d p l a i n , p l a n t i n g

s w i d d e n s o f p r i m a r i l y a n n u a l t u b e r ( m a n i o c ) a n d

c e r e a l c r o p s ( m a i z e , r i c e ) ; o n h i g h e r g r o u n d ,

p l a n t a i n a n d o t h e r m o r e w a t e r - r e s i s t a n t t r e e

c r o p s a r e g r o w n ( C o o m e s 1 9 9 8 ) . H o m e g a r d e n s

a r e c u lt i v a te d p e r m a n e n t l y a n d c o m p l e m e n t p r o -

d u c t i o n f r o m u p l a n d a n d l o w l a n d f i e l d s . S u r p l u s

p r o d u c t i o n f r o m a g r i c u l t u r e a s w e l l a s f i s h i n g ,

h u n t i n g , a n d f o r e s t e x t r a c t i o n i s s o l d i n t h e m a r -

k e t s o f I q u i t o s t o f i n a n c e t h e p u r c h a s e o f v i t a l

c o n s u m e r g o o d s , s u c h a s c l o th i n g , c o o k i n g u t e n -

s i l s , f a r m i m p l e m e n t s , s a l t , a n d k e r o s e n e .

N u e v o T r i u n f o w a s f o u n d e d o n t h e p r e s e n t

s i t e i n 1 9 8 4 , h a v i n g o r i g i n a l l y b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d

a c r o s s t h e f i v e r i n t h e l o w l a n d s o m e 4 0 y e a r s

p r i o r a n d m o v e d t o t h e u p l a n d a f t e r a h i g h f l o o d

i n t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r d e s t r o y e d m u c h l i v e s t o c k

a n d l o w l a n d c r o p s . A t t h e ti m e o f i n t e r v i e w s

( 1 9 9 6) , t h e c o m m u n i t y w a s c o m p r i s e d o f 25

h o u s e h o l d s ( 1 7 8 i n d i v i d u a l s ) b e l o n g i n g t o o n e

o f t h re e k i n g r o u p s . A l l h o u s e h o l d s a r e e c o n o m -

i c a l l y p o o r . L a n d i s t h e p r i m a r y h o u s e h o l d a s s e t

a n d i s c l a i m e d b y c l e a r i n g a n d p l a n t i n g i n c r o p

( i. e. , b y u s u f r u c t ) ; t r a n s f e rs o c c u r b y g i f t i n g a n d

i n h e r i t a n c e a s n o l a n d ( o r l a b o r ) m a r k e t e x i s t s

i n t h e c o m m u n i t y . N o n - l a n d a s s e t s a r e f e w a n d

c o n s i s t p r in c i p a l ly o f i m p l e m e n t s f o r f a r m i n g ,

f i s hi n g , a n d h u n t i n g , a n d o f m i n o r l i v e s t o c k

( c h i c k e n s , d u c k s , a n d p i g s ) . C h i l d r e n a t t e n d a

l o c a l p r i m a r y s c h o o l b u t m u s t t r a v e l t o a n e i g h -

b o r i n g c o m m u n i t y ( N u e v o V a l e n ti n ) f o r s e c o n d -

a r y e d u c a t io n . H o u s e h o l d s d o n o t h a v e a c c e s s t o

e l ec t r i c i t y , p ip ed wa te r , o r h ea l th c l i n i c ( o r t r a -

d i t i o n a l h ea l e r , curandero) an d , u n l ik e o th e r v i l -

TABLE 1. CHARACTERISTICS OF SAMPLE HOUSE-

HOLDS, NUEVO TRIUNFO, PERU N = 2 4 ) .

Mean Std dev. Range

Household size 7.1 3.15 1-13

No. workers 3.3 2.35 1-10

No. dependents 3.9 2.23 0 -8

Household age (years) 11.9 9.94 0.3 -35

No. of f ields cultivated 3.8 2.01 0- 8

No. upland swiddens 1.7 0.87 0- 3

No. lowland swiddens 0.5 0.51 0- 1

No. other fields 1.6 1.32 0 -5

Non-land assets ( US) 84.20 60.88 0- 18 5

lag es a lo n g th e r i v e r , t h e r e a r e n o s to r e s bode-

gas) i n t h e c o m m u n i t y .

D A T A C O L L E C T IO N M E T H O D S

D a t a w e r e g a t h e r e d i n N u e v o T r i u n f o d u r i n g

J u n e - A u g u s t o f 1 9 9 6 . A l l h o u s e h o l d s w i t h o n e

e x c e p t i o n ( t h e s c h o o l t e a c h e r ) r e l y f o r th e i r e c o -

n o m i c l i v e l i h o o d u p o n a g r i c u l t u r e c o m p l e m e n t -

e d b y f i s h i n g , h u n t i n g , a n d f o r e s t p r o d u c t e x -

t r a c t i o n . S e m i - s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r v i e w s w e r e u n d e r -

t a k e n w i t h t h e h e a d s o f e a c h h o u s e h o l d , i n t h e ir

h o m e g a r d e n s

huertos)

( n = 2 4 ) a s we l l a s i n

t h e i r u p l a n d s w i d d e n s ( n = 4 0 ) a n d l o w l a n d

s w i d d e n s ( n = 1 2) . I n e a c h h o m e g a r d e n , t h e

n u m b e r o f e a c h s p e c ie s o f c u l t iv a t e d p l a n t w a s

r e c o r d e d , g a r d e n s i z e m e a s u r e d , a n d t h e o w n e r

w a s q u e r i e d a s t o t h e o r i g i n s a n d d e s t i n a t i o n s o f

p l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l f o r e a c h p l a n t i n t h e g a r d e n o r

s w i d d e n . I n a d d i t i o n , b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n w a s

g a t h e r e d o n o t h e r l a n d h o l d i n g s ( i. e. , t ra n s i t i o n a l

a n d o r c h a r d f i e l d s ) a n d o n t h e d e m o g r a p h i c

c o m p o s i t i o n o f th e h o u s e h o l d , e c o n o m i c p r o -

d u c t i o n , n o n - l a n d a s s e t h o l d i n g s , k i n s h i p a n d

f a m i l y h is t o r y . C h a r a c t e r i s t ic s o f t h e s a m p l e a n d

h o u s e h o l d l a n d h o l d i n g a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 1 .

R E S U L T S

A l l h o u s e h o l d s i n N u e v o T r i u n f o p o s s e s s a

h o m e g a r d e n , t y p i c a l l y a d j a c e n t t o t h e h o m e i n

a r e c t a n g u l a r a r e a t h a t i s n e i t h e r f e n c e d n o r d e -

m a r c a t e d i n a n y s p e c i a l m a n n e r . P r o x i m i t y f a -

c i l i t a t e s c u l t i v a t i o n d u r i n g ' d o w n t i m e ' a s w e l l

a s c l o s e s u r v e i l l a n c e o f t h e g a r d e n t o r e d u c e t h e

r i sk o f th i e v e ry . G a r d e n s r e c e i v e f o o d w a s t e s

g e n e r a t e d b y t h e h o u s e h o l d , a n d d o m e s t i c a n i -

m a l s ( p i g s a n d f o w l ) f o r a g e f r e e l y i n t h e g a r -

d e n s , l e a v i n g t h e i r o w n o r g a n i c w a s t e t h a t

s e r v e s a s f e r ti li z er . G a r d e n s t y p i c a l l y c o m p r i s e



2004] COOMES AND BAN: HOME GARDE NS 423

TABLE 2. HOME GARDEN CHARACTERISTICS, NUEVO TRIUNFO, PERU N =

24).

Mean Std. dev Range

Size of garden (m2)

Age of garden (years)

Inherited garden

No. plant species

No. species received

No. species given

2944 2483

13 10.95

42

16.3 8.86

6.4 4.26

2.7 4.16

195-10000

0.01-34.0

1-32

0-13

0-13

an a rea o f roughl y 50 m by 60 m (mean: 2944

m 2) and range up to one hectare in area (Table

2). About one in two to three households inher-

i ted it s garden f rom the prev ious own er who had

le ft the comm uni ty o r had sh i f ted home s ite. As

houses a re cons t ruc ted pr imar i ly o f fo res t p rod-

ucts (e .g. , t imber, palm fronds, and vines) which

biodegrade ra ther rap id ly , owners must re -bu i ld

the i r hu ts every 10-15 years , o f ten moving lo -

cation at the same t ime. For this reason, gardens

are o f ten inher ited and a re no t part icu la r ly o l d- -

in our sample the mean age of a garde n is 13

years ( range up to 34 years ) - -and garden age

and household age are not s ignif icantly correlat-

ed (r = 0.09, P = 0.69). Individual gardens vary

cons iderab ly in the number o f cu l t iva ted p lan ts

present , from one to 32 species (mean: 16.3) .

Genera l ly households repor t hav ing rece ived

more species for their garden (mean: 6 .4 species/

garden) than having given species to others (2.7/

garden); this f inding, however, may be due in

part to more precise recall on origins o f planting

material than on gif t ing.

Compared wi th o ther cu l t iva ted f ie lds , home

gardens are the si te of highest plant diversi ty in

Nu evo T riunfo. A total of 82 species of cult i-

vated plants was encountered in the gardens

(mean: 16.3 plants/garden), compared with 34

species in upland swidden f ie lds (mean: 4 .6) and

only 18 species in the lowland swiddens (mean:

2.0) (Fig. 2) . In both home gardens and upland

swiddens, fruit t rees and shrubs contr ibute at

least 50 of the cult ivated species; indeed, of

the 20 most commonly encounte red p lan t spe-

cies, 16 are fruit t rees or shrubs (see Appe ndix).

As perhaps expec ted , the number o f ind iv idua ls

per species i s very low -- f ru i t ing spec ies p rov ide

a nutr i t ional supplement, part icularly to children,

Fig. 2. Cultivated plant diversity in gardens and swidden fields, Nu evo Triunfo, Peru.



4 2 4 E C O N O M I C B O T A N Y [V O L . 5 8

TABLE 3. R E G R E S S I O N M O D E L O F N U M B E R O F C U L T I V A T E D P L A N T SP E C IE S IN H O M E G A R D E N S , N U E V O

T R I U N F O , P E R U .

H o m e g a r d e n d i v e r s i ty

Constant 0.276 (0.08)

Ag e of garden 0.371 (3.53)***

Size of garden (1000 m2) -0. 65 5 (1.39)

No. of fields cultivated 1.959 (2.55)**

A ge of household (years) 0.046 (0.34)

Non-land assets ( US) -0. 05 2 (1.90)*

Kin grou p (1 = group 3; 0 = other) 7.647 (2.43)**

No. species received 0.775 (2.21)**

R 2 0.80

F value 8.93

P(F) <0.0001

No. observations 24

Notes: OL S est imation . Abso lu te v a lues o f asympto t ic) t -va lues p resen ted in parentheses.

*** P t) -< 0.01; ** P t) -< 0.05; * P t) -< 0.10.

a n d a r e n o t g r o w n i n l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s . H o m e g a r -

d e n s a r e d i s t i n c t f r o m u p l a n d a n d l o w l a n d s w i d -

d e n s a s t h e p r i m a r y s o u r c e o f m e d i c i n a l p l a n t s

a n d o r n a m e n t a l s p e c i e s ( F i g . 2 ) . L o w l a n d s w i d -

d e n s a r e t h e s i t e f o r p r i m a r i l y n o n - f r u i t c r o p s

( i . e . , m a n i o c , y a m s , m a i z e , r i c e , v e g e t a b l e s ) ; a n -

n u a l f l o o d i n g r e d u c e s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r r a i s i n g

p e r en n ia l s , e sp ec i a l ly f r u i t t r ee s , i n t h e l o wlan d .

W h a t f a c t o r s a c c o u n t f o r v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e d i -

v e r s i t y o f c u l t iv a t e d p l a n t s e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e

h o m e g a r d e n s o f N u e v o T r i u n fo ? T o a n s w e r th i s

q u e s t i o n , w e c o n d u c t e d m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l -

y s e s u s i n g p l a n t d i v e r s i t y a s t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r -

i a b le . A s e r i e s o f i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s , d r a w n

f r o m m i c r o e c o n o m i c th e o r y a n d p r e v i o u s v il l a g e

l e v e l a g r i c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s i n t h e P e r u v i a n A m a -

z o n ( C o o m e s a n d B u r t 1 9 9 7 ; C o o m e s e t a l .

2 0 0 0 ) w a s t e s t e d . S i x v a r i a b l e s w e r e r e t a i n e d i n

t h e f in a l m o d e l - - t h e a g e a n d s i z e o f t h e g a r d en ;

t h e n u m b e r o f f i el d s c u l ti v a t e d b y t h e h o u s e h o l d ;

t h e a g e o f t h e h o u s e h o l d ; n o n - l a n d a s s e t h o l d -

i n g s ; k i n g r o u p a f f i l i a t i o n ; a n d , t h e n u m b e r o f

p l a n t s p e c i e s r e c e i v e d b y t h e h o u s e h o l d . T h e f i -

n a l m o d e l a c c o u n t s f o r 8 0 % o f t he o b s e r v e d v a r -

i a n c e i n p l a n t d i v e r s i t y a m o n g h o m e g a r d e n s i n

t h e v i l l a g e . H o m e g a r d e n d i v e r s i t y i s p o s i t i v e l y

r e l a t e d t o t h e a g e o f t h e g a r d e n , f ie l d h o l d i n g s ,

k i n s h i p g r o u p m e m b e r s h i p , a n d t h e n u m b e r o f

s p e c i e s r e c e i v e d , a n d n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o n o n -

l an d a sse t h o ld in g s . D iv e r s i t y i s n o t r e l a t ed , i n

a s t a t i s t i c a l ly s ig n i f i can t m an n e r , t o t h e s i ze o f

t h e g a r d e n n o r to t h e a g e o f t h e h o u s e h o l d . T h e

c o n t r i b u t i o n o f e a c h s i g n i fi c a n t e x p l a n a t o r y v a r -

i ab l e i s co n s id e r ed in t u r n .

H O M E G A R D E N A G E

H o m e g a r d e n d i v e r s i t y i s s t r o n g l y r e l a t e d t o

t h e a g e o f t h e g a r d e n - - o l d e r g a r d e n s a r e m o r e

d i v e r s e - - a n d n e w s p e c i e s a r e a d d e d ( g i v e n t h e

c u r r e n t m o d e l s p e c i f i c a t i o n ) a t a m e a n r a t e o f

a b o u t 3 - 4 p e r d e c a d e ( T a b l e 3 ) . C l e a r l y o v e r

t i m e , h o u s e h o l d s h a v e m o r e o p p o r t u n i t y t o c o l -

l e c t s p e c i e s t h a t a r e a d d e d t o t h e i r g a r d e n s f r o m

a v a r i e ty o f s o u r c e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e g a r d e n s a n d

f ie l d s o f n e i g h b o r s a n d r e l a t i v e s , t h e m a r k e t s i n

I q u i t o s , a s w e l l a s t h e f o r e s t a n d f l o o d p l a i n . B u t

p l a n t d i v e r s i t y i s a l s o i n h e r i t e d - - - o l d e r g a r d e n s

a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o h a v e c h a n g e d o w n e r s a n d

s u c h g a r d e n s b e a r a n i m p r i n t o f th e p e r s o n a l

p r e f e r en ces , t a s t e s , i n t e re s t s , an d sk i l ls o f t h e

p r e v i o u s g a r d e n e r . T h e i n h e r i t o r t y p i c a l l y a d d s

c e r t a i n p l a n t s a n d d r o p s o t h e r s , a n d a f u s i o n o f

o l d - n e w s p e c i e s e m e r g e s i n w h i c h p l a n t d i v e r -

s i t y i s en h an ced .

A n o t a b l e p a t t e r n e m e r g e s o v e r ti m e i n th e

s p e c i e s c o m p o s i t i o n o f h o m e g a r d e n s ( F i g . 3 ).

B o t h t h e a b s o l u t e a n d r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f

f r u i t s p e c i e s r i s e s s t e a d i l y w i t h g a r d e n a g e . F o r

e x a m p l e , i n a y o u n g g a r d e n ( i. e ., < 1 0 y e a r s ) ,

f r u i t s p e c i e s c o n t r i b u t e 6 8 % o f t o ta l c u l t i v a t e d

s p e c i e s c o m p a r e d t o 8 4 % i n o l d g a r d e n s ( i . e . ,

3 0 + y e a rs ) . I n th e y o u n g g a r d e n s, n o n - f r u i t

c r o p s - - s u c h a s t h e s ta p le , m a n i o c - - t e n d t o b e

r e l a t i v e l y m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n i n l a t e r y e a r s .

S o m e t i m e s , t h e h o m e g a r d e n i s u s e d a s t h e f i r s t

c r o p p i n g s i t e, a s a ' p i o n e e r f i e l d ' f o r i n c i p i e n t

h o u s e h o l d s ; i n d e e d , o n e f a m i l y t h a t a r r i v e d i n

N u e v o T r i u n f o j u s t d a y s p r i o r t o t h e i n t e r v ie w



2004] COOMES AND BAN: HOME GARDE NS 425

Fig. 3. Crop diversity by age in home gardens, Nuevo Triunfo, Peru.

were bus i ly amass ing manioc s takes to p lan t in

their home garden to secure an ini t ia l source of

this vi ta l subsistence crop. In older gardens,

manioc is rarely encountered; instead, mature

perennial fruit t rees and shrubs dominate . Over

t ime , we a lso observe tha t the number o f me-

dicinal plants increases to a maximum in gar-

dens be tween 20 -2 9 years o f age , then fa ll s o f f

in the oldest gardens, fol lowing closely the de-

mographic l i fe cyc le o f the household . Cons t ruc-

t ion materials as well as oth er species (e .g. ,

sugar cane,

bijau, Calathe a inocephala, kudzu,

Calopogonium caeruleum

are most evident in

the oldest gardens. Such trends in garden com-

posit ion and diversi ty are unlikely to be related

to marke t access , which has no t changed s ign i f -

icantly over the past 30 years, or to plant sub-

st i tution by stor e-bo ugh t produc ts (e .g. , phar-

maceuticals) over t ime.

HOUSEHOLD WEALTH

Home garden diversi ty is posit ively related to

household land holdings ( i .e . , number of f ie lds) ,

su g g e s t in g th a t i n N u e v o T r iu n fo - -w h e re m o s t

households depend fundamenta l ly upon agr icu l -

tu re fo r sus tenance- -wea l th ie r households tend

to hold greater plant diversi ty in their gardens?

This assoc ia t ion be tween land wea l th and home

garden diversi ty arises because households with

more agricultural f ie lds are more l ikely to have

different types of f ie lds (e .g. , swidden, transi-

t ional, o rchards, fores t fa l lows) an d f ie lds in dis-

t inct environments (e .g. , upland as well as low-

land), ra is ing total crop diversi ty in their farming

portfolios. Our regression results suggest that

each addit ional f ie ld held by a household is as-

sociated with two addit ional plant species in the

home garden. Indeed, species diversi ty in the

home garden is posit ively correlated with the

numbe r o f c rops shared be tween home gardens

and upland swiddens (r = 0.45, P < 0.05), i.e. ,

more d iverse gardens have a h igher number o f

shared species (maximum: seven species) .

Hom e gardens appear to se rve as s tag ing ar -

eas where plant species are accum ulated, safe-

guarded, and experimented with unti l condit ions

are conduc ive for transplanting (Brierley 1976).

Several farmers s tated explici t ly that they were

growing c rops in the i r home garden un t i l a new

swidden f ie ld was opened, a t which t ime some

of the crops ( leaving representat ive exemplars in

the home garden) would be transplanted. Over-

al l , more plant species enter the home gardens

(40 species) than leave the gardens (33 species)

(Fig. 4) . Most plant species dest ined for home

gardens originate from lowland swidden f ie lds



4 2 6 E CO NOM I C BO T AN Y [ VOL . 5 8

Fig 4

U p l a n d S w i d d e n s

n = 4

~ 1 1

species

2 speci ~ ~

\ \ \ e x c h a n g e s )

38e x c h a n g e s ) ~

L o w l a n d S w i d d e n s

n= 2

21s pe cie s / 7 / /

33e xc h n g / ~ / /~3~spee ies

/ 3exchanges)

7 species

7exchanges)

H o m e G a r d en

n = 2 4

10

species

16exchanges)

T r a n s i t i o n a l / O r c h a r d s

n = 3 8

Paths o f crop transplantation between hom e gardens and agricultural fields, N uev o Triunfo, Peru.

( 21 s p e c i e s ), f o l l o w e d b y u p l a n d s w i d d e n f i e ld s

( 1 1 sp ec i e s ) , an d t r an s i t i o n a l /o r ch a r d f i e ld s ( sev -

e n s p e c i e s ) , w i t h o n l y o n e c r o p c o m i n g f r o m

s e c o n d a r y f o re s t. T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f l o w l a n d

s w i d d e n s i n c o n t r i b u t i n g s p e c i e s t o h o m e g a r -

d e n s m a y b e a n h i s t o r i c a l a r t i f a c t - - t h e c o m -

m u n i t y m o v e d ( i n 1 9 8 4) f r o m t h e l o w l a n d t o th e

u p l a n d a n d h o u s e h o l d s l i ke l y c h o s e t o s a f e g u a r d

s p e c i e s i n t h e i r h o m e g a r d e n s d u r i n g t h e t r a n -

s it io n . L o w l a n d s w i d d e n s t o d a y i n N u e v o T r i u n -

f o a r e t h e l e a s t d i v e r s e o f t h e f i e ld s s t u d i e d a n d

f e w e r t h a n o n e i n t w o h o u s e h o l d s p o s s e s s f i e l d s

i n t h e l o w l a n d .

W h e r e a s l o w l a n d s w i d d e n s a r e t h e o r i g i n o f

m a n y p l a n t s p e c i e s i n t h e g a r d e n s , j u s t o v e r 6 0

o f t h e s p e c i e s t h a t l e a v e t h e g a r d e n s a r e d e s t i n e d

f o r u p l a n d s w i d d e n s , a n d c r o p s p e c i e s a r e o f t e n

' r o u t e d t h r o u g h ' h o m e g a r de n s . E l e v e n o f t h e

c r o p s p e c i e s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t e n te r e d g a r d e n s

f r o m t h e l o w l a n d f i e ld s w e r e t r a n s p l a n t e d t o u p -

l a n d s w i d d e n f ie l d s (i .e ., m o r i c h e p a l m ,

Maur i t ia

f lexuosa;

swee t so p ; s t a r ap p le ;

camu-camu,

Myrca iar ia

s p . ; p e a c h t o m a t o ;

guava, Inga

sp p . ;

b r e a d f r u i t ; p e a c h p a l m ; p l a t a n o ;

umarf;

a n d

uvilla, Pourouma cecropiaefolia ;

a n d s e v e n o f

t h e t e n s p e c i e s t r a n s p l a n t e d f r o m t h e h o m e g a r -

d e n t o t r a n s i t i o n a l / o r c h a r d f i e l d s w e r e i n t r o -

d u c e d f r o m t h e l o w l a n d v i a t h e h o m e g a r d e n .

O n l y t e n s p e c i e s e n t e r t h e h o m e g a r d e n b u t a r e

n o t t r a n s p l a n t e d e l s e w h e r e - - - o l i v e t r e e ;

alvaca,

Ocim um basilicum; ayahuma, Couroupita gui-

anensis; ceiba, Ceiba pentandra; coraz6n de Je-

sus, Caladium bicolor; huito, Genipa ameri-

cana; malva, Malachra capitata; p a p a y a ; p h y s i c

n u t ,

Jatropha

sp . ; an d

sapote, Quararibea cor-

data.

H o m e g a r d e n s t h u s a p p e a r t o l i e a t t h e

c e n t e r o f p l a n ti n g m a t e r i a l f l o w s a m o n g d i s t i n c t

f i e l d t y p e s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t s i n f a r m e r s ' p o r t -

f o l i o s ; t h e y ' c o l l e c t ' a n d s a f e g u a r d g e r m p l a s m ,

a n d h o u s e h o l d s w i t h m o r e f i e l d s t e n d t o h a v e

m o r e s p e c i e s - r i c h g a r d e n s .

KINSHIP AFFILIATION

Kin sh ip a f f i l i a t i o n i s a l so s t r o n g ly r e l a t ed to

h o m e g a r d e n d i v e r s i t y - - m e m b e r s h i p i n k i n



2004] COOMES AND BAN : HOME GARDENS 427

Fig. 5. Sources of crop planting material for home gardens, Nuevo Triunfo, Peru.

group no. 3 ( Gonz~ilez ) would add alm ost

eight cult ivated plant species to the hom e garden

(i .e. , 50% of mean diversi ty encountered) com-

pared with other kin groups. The Gonz~lez kin

group is the largest of three kin groups in N uevo

Triunfo, with 14 households (109 people); the

Rodrfguez and Garcfa kin groups are comprised

of f ive and four households respectively; only

one household (of one person) is not related to

others in the rest of the village. Larger kin

groups have increased opportunities for encoun-

tering planting material for their gardens, for

reasons similar to why individual households

with more fields tend to have more diverse gar-

dens. In addition, planting stock tends to be ex-

changed primarily along kinship l ines and so

households belonging to larger kin groups (with

more gardens) will have mo re opportunit ies and

perhaps more varied need for exchanging plant-

ing stock among their gardens (Fig. 5). Char-

acteristics of the kin group, beyond size, are also

likely to be important (indeed, we tested kin

group size and found size to be a weaker pre-

dictor than kin group affiliation). Among the

Gonz~ilez group are the founders of the com-

munity , many have served in leadership roles

over the years, and several hold a particular in-

terest in plants and plant diversity ( le gus ta mu-

cho las plantas , the emic explication of high

species diversity in their gardens).

PLANTING MATERIAL EXCHANGE

The final variable related to home garden di-

versi ty is the number of plant species received

from others. Households commonly exchange

planting ma terial-- in cluding seeds, cutt ings, and

suckers--that is incorporated into the garden

and adds to plant diversity. Planting material

tends to be given, rather than sold or bartered,

and the recipient is highly cognizant of species

received, readily recall ing the donor 's name by

plant species; respondents were less able to re-

call the names of all individuals to whom they

had given planting material from their garden.

Our regression model indicates that for each

species received about 0.78 is retained in the



4 2 8 E CONOMI C BOT AN Y [ VOL . 5 8

TA BL E 4. REGRESS ION MODELS OF NUMBER OF HOME GARDEN PLANT SPECIES RECEIVED AND GIVEN BY

HOUSEHOLDS, NUEVO TR1UNFO.

No. of species received No. of species given

Constant 8 .755 (5.28)*** -2 .04 3 (1.22)

Ag e of household -0 .55 8 (2.17)** 0.099 (1.29)

A ge of household 2 0.018 (2.35)**

Garden divers ityt 0 .217 (2.50)**

R 2 0.21 0.32

F value 2.76 4.87

P(F) 0.09 0.02

No. observations 24 24

Notes: OLS estimations. Absolute values of asymptotic) t-values presented in parentheses.

t Number of cultivated plants species in home garden.

*** P t) ~< 0.01; ** P t) -< 0.05.

g a r d e n , i n d i c a t in g a m e a n p r o b a b i l i t y o f lo s s f o r

a g i v e n p l a n t e n t e r i n g t h e g a r d e n o f a b o u t 2 2 % .

T h i s v a r i a b l e s e r v e s b o t h a s a c o n t r o l a n d a d i -

a g n o s t i c m e a s u r e - - o u r f i n d i n g t h a t t h e n u m b e r

o f s p e c i e s r e c e i v e d a c c o u n t s f o r s o m e b u t n o t all

o f t h e v a r i a n c e i n p la n t d i v e r s i t y s u g g e s t s a s i g -

n i f i c an t r o l e f o r p la n t m a t e r i a l e x c h a n g e b u t a l s o

t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f o t h e r s o u r c e s , i . e. , i n h e ri t a n c e ,

se l f - p r o cu r em en t i n o th e r f i e ld s o r f o r e s t , n a tu r a l

r e g e n e r a t i o n i n s it u o f p r e v i o u s l y c u l t i v a t e d

p l a n t s, a n d ' i m p o r t s ' o f s e e d s b y ro d e n t s a n d

b i r d s . P e r h a p s n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e n u m b e r o f

p l a n t s p e c i e s r e c e i v e d i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d

w i t h t h e n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s g i v e n ( r = 0 . 4 6 , P

= 0 . 0 4 ) , a n d h o u s e h o l d s t h a t e x c h a n g e m o r e

p l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l t e n d t o h a v e m o r e d i v e r s e g a r -

d en s ( r = 0 .4 2 , P < 0 .0 5 ) .

T o a s s e s s t h e f a c t o r s t h a t i n f lu e n c e t h e n u m b e r

o f p la n t s p e c i e s g i v e n a n d r e c e i v e d , w e t e s t e d

u s i n g r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s e s a r a n g e o f h o u s e h o l d

f e a t u r e s a n d f o u n d t w o p r e d i c t i v e m o d e l s o f

n o t e ( T a b l e 4 ) . T h e n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s

re eived

i s m o s t e x p l a i n e d b y h o u s e h o l d a g e a n d h o u s e -

h o l d a g e s q u a r e d ( R 2 = 0 . 2 1 ) - - t h e n u m b e r o f

s p e c i e s r e c e i v e d b y h o u s e h o l d s t e n d s t o f a l l i n i -

t i a ll y ( e a r l y i n t h e h o u s e h o l d l if e c y c l e ) a n d t h e n

r i se f o r h o u s e h o l d s b e y o n d t h e a g e o f a b o u t 1 5

y e a r s . I t w o u l d s e e m t h a t a t i n c e p ti o n , h o u s e -

h o l d s r e c e i v e a c e r t a in s t o c k o f p l a n t s p e c i e s ,

t h e n o t h e r s o u r c e s b e c o m e i m p o r t a n t ; l a t e r i n

l i f e , h o u s e h o l d s r e c e i v e a n i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r o f

p l a n t s p e c i e s f r o m o t h e r h o u s e h o l d s . I n c o n t r a s t ,

t h e n u m b e r o f p l a n t s p e c i e s

given

i s p r ed ic t ed

m o s t s t r o n g l y b y t h e d i v e r s i ty o f t h e h o m e g a r -

d e n ( c o n t r o l l i n g f o r h o u s e h o l d a g e ) ( R 2 = 0 . 3 2 ) .

E a c h n e w s p e c i e s i n t h e g a r d e n i n c r e a s e s t h e

p r o b a b i l i t y o f g i f ti n g a s p e c i e s b y 2 2 % . A s s u c h ,

e x c h a n g e s c o n t r ib u t e t o g a r d e n d i v e r s i t y

( t h r o u g h s p e c i e s r e c e i v e d ) a n d g a r d e n d i v e r s i t y

c o n t r i b u t e s t o m a t e r i a l e x c h a n g e s ( v i a s p e c i e s

g iv en ) .

W h e r e a s t h e e x c h a n g e o f se e d s , c u t t i n g s , e tc . ,

d o e s p r o c e e d a s i n f o r m a l g i f t i n g , a n d a p p a r e n t l y

w i t h o u t e x p l i c i t r e c i p r o c a l o b l i g a t i o n s , t h e

m o v e m e n t o f p l a nt i n g m a t e ri a l i s b y n o m e a n s

' f r e e f l o w i n g ' . O u r d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e m a j o r -

i ty o f e x c h a n g e s i n N u e v o T r i u n f o o c c u r a m o n g

r e s i d e n t s w i t h i n th e v i l l a g e ( 6 3 % o f p l a n t s p e -

c i e s r e c e i v e d ; 7 8 % o f s p e c i e s g i v e n ) a n d t y p i -

c a l l y a m o n g m e m b e r s o f t h e s a m e k i n g r o u p

( 5 6 % o f s p e c ie s g i v e n ; 4 0 % r e c e iv e d ) . E x c h a n g -

e s w i t h n o n - k i n f o l k ( 2 2 % o f s pe c i e s g i v e n ; 2 3 %

r e c e i v e d ) a n d o t h e r v i l l a g e s ( 2 2 % s p e c i e s g i v e n ;

1 9 % r e c e i v e d ) a r e o f s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e . 2 I n -

t e r e s t i n g ly , t h e Go n z~ i l ez an d Gar c f a k in g r o u p s ,

w i t h t h e h i g h e s t g a r d e n d i v e r s i t y , r e l i e d m o s t

h e a v i l y u p o n k i n f o l k f o r p l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l ,

w h e r e a s t h e R o d r f g u e z g r o u p ( l o w e s t g a r d e n d i -

v e r s i t y ) r e l i e d m o r e o n n o n - k i n f o l k i n N u e v o

T r i u n f o a n d b e y o n d ( F i g . 5 ) . I n d e e d , d u r i n g i n -

t e rv i e w s w e o b s e r v e d t ha t o u r g u i d e - - a m e m b e r

o f t h e G o n z ~ i l e z g r o u p w h o h o l d s o n e o f t h e

m o s t d i v e r s e g a r d e n s i n t h e v i l l a g e - - w o u l d o n

o c c a s i o n u s e o u r p r e s e n c e t o a c q u ir e n e w s p e -

c i e s f r o m o t h e r h o u s e h o l d s, s o m e f r o m o t h e r k in

g r o u p s . H e d i d s o b y r e m a r k i n g , O h , I d i d n ' t

k n o w y o u h a d t h a t p la n t ; w o u l d y o u m i n d i f I

t o o k a s e e d / c u t ti n g o r t w o ? ; t h e r e s p o n d i n g

h o u s e h o l d w a s c o m p e l l e d b y c o u r t e s y t o o b l i g e .

A l t h o u g h i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t o u r g u i d e w a s t r u l y

u n a w a r e o f th e s p e c i e s c o m p o s i t i o n o f o t h e r

f a m i l i e s ' h o m e g a r d e n s i n s u c h a s m a l l c o m -

m u n i t y , s o m e f a r m e r s d o h o l d ' s p e c i a l ' s p e c i e s

o r v a r i e t i e s t h a t t h ey sec r e t ly cu l t i v a t e ; su ch sp e -



2 00 4] C O O M E S A N D B A N : H O M E G A R D E N S 4 2 9

c i e s t h o u g h t e n d t o b e f o u n d i n d i s t a n t f i e l d s a n d

f a l l o w s , r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e i r h o m e g a r d e n s .

N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e f a c t t h a t o u r p r e s e n c e f a c i l i -

t a t e d t h e a c q u i s i ti o n o f s e e d s o r c u t t i n g s s u g -

g e s t s t h a t s o c i a l i m p e d i m e n t s t o t h e m o v e m e n t

o f p l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l w i t h i n a t r a d it i o n a l v i l l a g e

a r e s i g n i f i c a n t .

D I S C U S S I O N A N D C O N C L U S I O N S

T h i s s t u d y o f c u l t iv a t e d p l a n t s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y

i n t h e h o m e g a r d e n s o f a s m a l l t r a d i ti o n a l c o m -

m u n i t y i n th e P e r u v i a n A m a z o n y i e l d s f o u r p r in -

c i p a l f in d i n g s . F i rs t , h o m e g a r d e n s a r e i n d e e d

t h e s i te o f h i g h e s t p l a n t d i v e r s i t y - - i n c l u d i n g

c r o p a n d n o n -c r o p s p e c i e s - - a m o n g c u l ti v a te d

f i e ld s i n f a r m e r s a g r i c u l t u ra l p o r t f o l i o s . D i v e r -

s i t y i n h o m e g a r d e n s i s h i g h e r t h a n i n s w i d d e n s ,

t r a n s i t i o n a l f i e l d s , a n d o r c h a r d s f o r s e v e r a l r e a -

s o n s . U n l i k e f i el d s i n s w i d d e n - f a l l o w s y s t e m s o r

f l o o d p l a i n a g r i c u lt u r e , h o m e g a r d e n s a r e c o n t i n -

u o u s l y c u l t i v a t e d a n d t h e i r r e l a t i v e p e r m a n e n c e

p e r m i t s t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f p l a n t s p e c ie s . F a r m -

e r s t e n d a l so t o u s e h o m e g a r d e n s a s a b r i d g e

a m o n g t h e i r f i e l d s i n d i s t i n c t e n v i r o n m e n t s . I n

N u e v o T r i u n f o , m o s t s p e c i e s e n t e r i n g t h e g a r -

d e n s a r e f r o m t h e l o w l a n d s w h e r e a s t h o s e l e a v -

i n g a r e d e s t i n e d t o u p l a n d f ie l d s; t h e g a r d e n s a c t

a s s t a g i n g a r e a s . A n n u a l f l o o d i n g in th e l o w -

l a n d s l i m i t s t h e d i v e r s i t y p o s s i b l e f r o m p e r e n n i a l

t r e e c r o p s i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s t a b l e u p l a n d e n v i -

r o n m e n t ; i n d e e d , f i e l d s t u d i e s e l s e w h e r e s u g g e s t

t h a t u p l a n d h o m e g a r d e n s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e

d i v e r s e t h a n h o m e g a r d e n s f o u n d i n l o w l a n d

c o m m u n i t ie s o f t h e u p p e r A m a z o n ( L e rc h 2 0 0 0 )

t h o u g h p e r h a p s n o t t h e l o w e r A m a z o n ( S m i th ,

1 9 9 6 ) . H o m e g a r d e n s a l s o c a n f u l f i l l t h e d i v e r s e

n e e d s o f h o u s e h o l d s , b y t h e i r d i v e r s i t y a n d p r o -

p i n q u i t y - - d i v e r s i t y c o n t r i b u t e d b y m e d i c i n a l

p l a n t s , o r n a m e n t a l s , a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l i s

p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t i n g a r d e n s . P r o p i n q u i t y a l s o

a i d s i n t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f s p e c i e s f r o m t h r e a t s o f

a n i m a l p r e d a t i o n a n d t h e ft , f u r t h e r i n g t h e m a i n -

t e n a n c e o f p l a n t s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y .

S e c o n d , h o m e g a r d e n d i v e r s i t y i s n o r m a l l y

d i s t r i b u t e d b u t r a n g e s m a r k e d l y a m o n g h o u s e -

h o l d s w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y . W h e r e a s t h e t o t a l

n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s e n c o u n t e r e d i n th e g a r d e n s o f

N u e v o T r i u n f o ( 84 ) a n d i n th e m o s t d i v e r s e g a r-

d e n s ( 3 2 ) is c o m p a r a b l e t o o b s e r v a t i o n s f r o m

e l s e w h e r e i n th e A m a z o n ( G u i l l a u m e t e t al .

1 9 9 0 ; L a m o n t e t a l . 1 9 9 9; L e r c h 2 0 0 0 ; O r 6 B a l -

b i n a n d S a m a n i e g o 1 9 96 ; P a d o c h a n d d e J o n g

1 9 9 1 ; S m i t h 1 9 9 6 ), m e a n d i v e r s i t y i s o n l y 1 6

s p e c i e s p e r g a r d e n a n d s o m e g a r d e n s h a v e f e w e r

t h a n f i v e s p e c i e s p r e s e n t . T h i s f i n d i n g s u g g e s t s

t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a s s e s si n g s p e c i e s d i v e rs i ty

t h r o u g h m o r e e x t e n s i v e s a m p l i n g , a n d t h e li m i -

t a t io n s o f s e l e c t i v e t y p i c a l g a r d e n s t h a t i n e v i -

t a b l y a r e m o r e d i v e r s e t h a n t h e m e a n . I f r e -

s e a r c h e r s s e e k t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e u n d e r -

l y i n g d e t e r m i n a n t s o f c u l t i v a t e d p l a n t r ic h n e s s i n

h o m e g a r d e n s , th e n a m o r e c o m p l e t e a s s e s s m e n t

o f d i v e r s i ty i s n e e d e d f o r b o t h s p e c i e s a n d v a -

r ie t i e s. S u c h a s s e s s m e n t s m u s t b e b o t h g e o -

g r a p h i c a l ( i .e . , w h e r e i n A m a z o n i a i s c r o p s p e -

c i e s d i v e r s i t y g r e a t e s t ? ) b u t a l s o s o c i a l l y f o c u s e d

( i . e . , w h o i n s p e c i f i c l o c a l e s h o l d t h e g r e a t e s t

d i v e r s i t y ? ) .

T h i r d , l o c a l v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e d i v e r s i t y o f c u l -

t i v a t e d p l a n t s p e c i e s i n h o m e g a r d e n s a r e s t r o n g -

l y re l a t e d t o g a r d e n c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s , s p e c i f i c

h o u s e h o l d s o c i o - e c o n o m i c f e a t u r e s , a n d a c c e s s

t o p l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l . G a r d e n a g e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y

i n f l u e n t i a l - - o l d e r g a r d e n s t e n d t o b e m o r e d i -

v e r s e , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o p e r e n n i a l f r u i t

t r e e c r o p s , m e d i c i n a l p l a n t s , a n d p l a n t s t h a t p r o -

v i d e m a t e r i a l s f o r c o n s t r u c t io n . I n N u e v o T r i u n -

f o , y o u n g g a r d e n s s o m e t i m e s s e r v e a s p io n e e r

f i e ld s f o r i n c i p i e n t h o u s e h o l d s , a n d t h e g a r d e n s

a r e d o m i n a t e d b y n o n - f r u i t s ta p l e s ; o v e r t i m e ,

f r u i t s p e c i e s , e s p e c i a l l y p e r e n n i a l t r e e c r o p s ,

c o m e to d o m i n a t e t h e g a rd e n s . S u c h s h i f ts i n

d i v e r s it y a n d c o m p o s i t i o n m a y r e f le c t c h a n g i n g

s o i l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s i n g a r d e n s

o v e r ti m e . G a r d e n s i z e i s n o t r e la t e d t o s p e c i e s

r ic h n e s s , i n p a r t b e c a u s e l a n d r e m a i n s a b u n d a n t

i n t h e v i l l a g e ; e l s e w h e r e , i n m o r e u r b a n i s e d

c o m m u n i t i e s , t h e s i z e o f th e g a r d e n m a y b e i n -

f l u e n t i a l ( L e r c h 2 0 0 0 ) .

O f h o u s e h o l d f e a t u r e s , w e a l t h i n l a n d a n d k i n -

s h i p a f f i l i a t i o n a r e m o s t s t r o n g l y r e l a t e d t o h o m e

g a r d e n d i v e r s it y . H o u s e h o l d s b e l o n g i n g t o l a r g e r

k i n g r o u p s t e n d t o h a v e m o r e d i v e r s e g a r d e n s ;

w h i c h g r o u p a l s o m a t t e r s , i . e . , t h o s e w i t h h i g h

s o c i a l s t a n d i n g a n d a n i n t e r e s t in p la n t s . H o u s e -

h o l d s h o l d i n g m o r e l a n d ( i . e . , m o r e f i e l d s ) a l s o

t e n d t o h a v e m o r e d i v e r s e g a r d e n s ; t h e y h a v e

a c c e s s t o m o r e d i st in c t e n v i r o n m e n t s w h e r e

e d a p h i c c o n d i t i o n s g i v e ri s e to d i st i n c t a s s e m -

b l a g e s o f s p e c i e s a s w e l l a s f i e ld s i n d i f fe r e n t

s t a g e s o f c u l t i v a t i o n a n d s u c c e s s i o n ; t h e h o m e

g a r d e n se r v e s t o b r i d g e s u c h e n v i r o n m e n t s .

B e t t e r o f f h o u s e h o l d s m a y h a v e m o r e i n t e re s t in

p l a n t s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y , m o r e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o

c o l l e c t s p e c i e s ( e . g ., v i a m o r e f r e q u e n t a n d / o r

e x t e n s i v e t r a v e l , s o c i a l p o s i t i o n , e t c . ) , a n d m o r e



4 3 0 E CO N O M I C BO T A N Y [ V O L . 5 8

t i m e t o i n v e s t i n g a r d e n i n g . I n d e e d , h o m e g a r -

d e n d i v e r s i t y a p p e a r s t o b e s e e n l o c a l l y m o r e a s

a s o c i a l th a n e c o n o m i c a s s e t , a s a s o u r c e o f p r i d e

a s w e l l a s g i f t s ( p r o d u c t s o r p l a n t s t h e m s e l v e s )

t h a t c a n s e r v e t o b u i l d s o c i a l c a p i t a l. S u c h f i n d -

i n g s a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h o s e o f o t h e r r e s e a r c h -

e r s w o r k i n g b e y o n d t h e A m a z o n b a s i n ( e . g . ,

Z i m m e r e r 1 9 9 1 ) - - t h a t w e a l th i e r h o u s e h o ld s

t e n d to h o l d g r e a t e r a g r o b i o d i v e r s i t y - - a n d p o i n t

t o t h e n e e d f o r c l o s e r s t u d y o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n

o f d i v e r s i t y , i ts d e t e r m i n a n t s a n d i m p l i c a t i o n s a t

m i c r o - s c a l e s .

F o u r t h , th e e x c h a n g e o f p l a n t in g m a t e r i a l - - a s

s e e d s , c u tt i n g s , o r s u c k e r s - - i s a k e y f a c t o r in t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t an d m a i n t e n a n c e o f c r o p s p e c i e s

d i v e r s i t y . F a r m e r s a c q u i r e p l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l f o r

t h e i r g a r d e n s b y i n s i tu i n h e r i ta n c e , n a t u r a l p r o p -

a g a t i o n , t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n f r o m o t h e r f i e ld s a n d t h e

f o r e s t , b u t a l s o f r o m o n e a n o t h e r t h r o u g h g i f ti n g .

T o m a i n t a i n d i v e r s i t y , a c o n s t a n t f l o w o f p l a n t -

i n g m a t e r i a l m u s t e n t e r t h e g a r d e n t h a t o f f s e t s

l o s s e s t o n a t u r a l g e r m p l a s m d e g r a d a t i o n , d i s -

e a s e , l i v e s t o c k a n d p e s t d a m a g e , a n d t h e f t.

T h o s e h o u s e h o l d s i n N u e v o T r i u n f o w i t h m o r e

d i v e r s e h o m e g a r d e n s r e c e i v e d a l a r g e r sh a r e o f

t h e i r p l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l t h r o u g h e x c h a n g e t h a n

f r o m o t h e r s o u r c e s , a n d a l s o t e n d t o g i f t m o r e

s p e c ie s . I n d e e d , h o m e g a r d e n d i v e r s i t y a n d

p l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l e x c h a n g e a p p e a r t o b e r e l a t e d

e n d o g e n o u s l y . H o u s e h o l d s t h a t e x c h a n g e m o r e

s e e d s , c u t ti n g s , e tc . w i t h o t h e r h o u s e h o l d s h a v e

m o r e d i v e r s e g a r d e n s a n d v i c e v e r s a - - - d i v e r si t y

b e g e t s e x c h a n g e , a s e x c h a n g e b e g e t s d i v e r s i t y .

M o r e s p e c i f i c a l ly , w h e r e a s g a r d e n d i v e r s i t y d e -

p e n d s o n t h e n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s r e c e i v e d , t h e

n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s g i f t e d i s d r i v e n b y t h e d i v e r -

s i ty o f t h e d o n o r s h o m e g a r d e n . B u t t h e e x -

c h a n g e o f p la n t i n g m a t e r ia l a m o n g h o u s e h o l d s

i s b y n o m e a n s f r e e f lo w i n g . M u c h p l a n t in g

m a t e r i a l f l o w s a l o n g k i n s h i p l i n e s , a n d s o c i a l

i m p e d i m e n t s t o t he e x c h a n g e o f p l a n ti n g m a t e -

r i a l a p p e a r t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t , e v e n i n a c l o s e l y

k n i t tr a d i t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y s u c h a s N u e v o T r i u n -

f o - - o n e t h at l a c k s a t ra d i t io n a l h e a l e r curan-

dero

o r

shaman)

t o f a c i l i t a t e o r m e d i a t e e x -

c h a n g e s . T h e e x c h a n g e o f p l a n ti n g m a t e r i a l

a m o n g t r a d it io n a l f a r m e r s - - w h e r e m a r k e t s fo r

s e e d s , c u t ti n g s , et c . ar e e s s e n t i a l l y a b s e n t - - m e r -

i ts c l o s e r a t t e n t i o n i n s t u d i e s o f a g r o b i o d i v e r s i t y .

N o t o n l y i s a c c e s s to p l a n t i n g s t o c k a n im p o r t a n t

d e t e r m i n a n t o f d i v e r s i ty b u t th e u n e v e n a n d i m -

p e d e d f l o w o f m a t e r i a l e x c h a n g e i n t r a d i t i o n a l

s y s t e m s m a y h a v e i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r in

s i tu c o n s e r v a t i o n o f c r o p a n d v a r i e t a l d iv e r s i t y ,

f o r p r o p e r t y ri g h ts o v e r g e r m p l a s m , a n d f o r t h e

s t u d y o f a g r o b i o d i v e r s i t y .

A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S

The au thors wi sh to express the i r g ra t i t ude to the Socia l Sciences a n d

H u ma n i t i e s R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l o f C a n a d a , t h e Q u e b e c F o n d s p o u r l a F o r -

ma t i o n d e C h e r c h e u r s e t l A i d e 5 l a R e c h e r c h e ( F C A R ) ,

a n d

M c O i U

Univers i ty fo r g ran t s in suppor t o f t h i s research . Fie ld as s i s t ance was

mo s t a b l y p r o v i d e d b y C a r l o s R e n g i f o U p i a c h i h u a a n d R o c f o R o d r l g u e z

Men doza . W e are par ti cu lar ly g ra t efu l to the peop le o f Nuev o Tr iunfo

for the i r wi l l i ngness to par t i c ipa te in th i s s tudy and fo r the i r unders t and-

ing , good humor , and h osp i t a l i t y in the conduct o f f ie ldwork . A n a n o n

y m o u s r e v i e w e r p r o v i d e d t h o u g h tf u l a n d mo s t c o n s t r u c t i v e s u g g e s t i o n s .

T h i s p a p e r i s d e d i c a t e d t o t h e me mo r y o f P r o f e s s o r T h e o L . H i l l s .

L i t e r a t u r e i t e d

A l a v a l a pa t i J . R . R . M. K . L uc ker t a nd D . S .

G i l l .

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