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Conventional Job Analysis Procedures

Tm conventiorral job analysis programs used in many organizations typically involve the collectiorr of job-related information by observation of and/or interview with job incumbents, and the preparation of job descriptions that usually are written in essay form. T h e spccific features of such programs as carried out by different organizations a re quite varied in terms of the type of information obtained, the job analysis forms used, the procedures followed in the analysis process, and the format, organization, and writing style of the final descriptions or specifications. At the same time, the basic patterns used by different organizations have much in common.

Job Analysis Procedures of the USES

T h e United States Employment Service of the Training and Em- ployment Administration (formerly the Manpower Administration)

ConventionalJob Analysis Procedures 49

of the Department of Labor has had more experience in conventional job analysis activities than any other organization, public or private, so we will present as a n example the format it uses (the job analysis schedule) along with a few of the points and guidelines covered in the Hnndbook for Ai7alyziizg Jobs, which is the basic manual used in its job analysis procedures.

Job Analysis Schedule

T h e job analysis schedule of the USES is shown in Figure 4-1, which presents a completed job description. T h e schedule provides for certain information that would not usually be relevant for most other organizations, for example, certain identification information and certain ratings that are to he entered o n the schedule. T h e specific directions regarding the analysis process and the preparation of the schedule a re given in [ h e Hnr7rlhookl;l~ ,4rra.lj~ziii.g,/ob.r and are not re- peated in detail herc. However, we will briefly discuss a few sections of the schedule that typically would be provided for in mostJob analysis procedures. (Reference to these is by the item number on the schedule.) I n addition, some supplementary observations and comments are made with rcspect 10-certain items, and in certain instances, relevant material from other sources is brought in.

In discussing the job analysis procedures of the USES we first illustrate and discuss the final product of typical job analysis processes in the form of a complete job description (as presented in Figure 4-l) , and then back u p to discuss certain aspects of the initial processes of obtaining the information ultimately presented in the form of a job description.

Eslnhlish.ment o f job litle ( i t~ in I). T h e title by which the job is commonly refer red to is entered as the main title, in all capital letters. Under no circumstance should the analyst coin a title to use. If the title used is ambiguous a qualifying word or phrase can be entered in parentheses after the title. It is usually the practice to enter o ther alternate titles afler the main title, but with initial capital and lower case letters.

Job summa9 (ilem 4 ) . T h e job summary typically consists of a brief, yet comprehensive statement to describe the primary activities of the job and to characterize the role of the job in the organization. In this regard Bouchard, in discussing what he refers to as "defining the job," which is essentially the same thing as a job summary, urges that the analyst begin with a general statement of job objectives that should focus on general outcomes, o r what a person who does the job well should be expected to accomplish. He goes

5 0 J o b Atro1ysi.c Mcf l~or l s

011 to l n a k c the point that cvcn if t h e w are multiple objectives (that make the formulation of such a statement difficult) i t is still thc job malyst ' s duty to crcate s ~ c h a s t a t c n l e n l .

F igure 4 - 1 . J o b a n a l y s i s s chedu le u s e d by the USES i n its job a n a l y s i s program. (Source: Ilandhoolr /or Analyz~rrg J o b s , pp. 4 2 - 4 5 )

I . E S L ~ I I . I I I I I ' r l t lc D O U G H M I X E R

2. I l i r l : \ < s l ~ l i . i b a k e . p r o d . 1 -

:1. S I C C o r l e ( s ) .111dl '11le(s) 2 0 5 1 B r e a d a n d o t h e r b a k e r y p r o d u c t s

O p e r a L o s m i x i n g m a c h i u e L O mix i n f i r c d l e n t n T a r s t r n i ~ . h l and zpor1p.c. ( y c n s t ) d o u g h s a c c o r d i n g t o e s l n b l i s h c d r a r l n u l a 5 . d i r o c t ; o t h e r w o r k e r s i n r c r m e ~ i t n t l o ~ i o r dorlell . a n d c u t s dauEli L n t o p i e c e s v i l h hnhd c u t t e r .

I. I'cl lo1 m;Ince o n OLl~rl. . lobs DOUCH-MIXER HELPER --- One y e a r --

9. I C X ~ C I . ~ C I I C L ' One y e a r a s DOUGH-MIXER HELPER

I I I I S . F o o d I l n ! t d l e r s C c r t i r i c a t e i s s u e d by t h c H r n l t h D e p a r t m e n t

1 1 I:,.I:,I I , , , , I,, 0 1 111.1 .1,111': .A1111 \ \ ' , I , I\<,, <

1. Dumps ingredients I n t o m i x i n g m a c h i n e : E x a m i n e s p r o d u c t i o n s c h e d u l e

t o determine t y p e o r b r e a d Lo b e p r o d u c e d , s u c h a s r y e . w h o l e w h e a t ,

o r w h i t e . R e l e r s t o r o r m u l a c a r d l o r quantities a n d t y p e s 01 i n g r e d i -

e n l s r e q u i r e d , s u c h a s r l o u r . w a l e r , m i l k , v i t a m i n s o l u l i o n s . a n d

s h o r t e n i n g . W e i g h s o u t , m e a s u r e s , a n d dumps i n e r e d l e n t s i n 1 0 m i x i n g

m n c h i n r . 120$1

52 Job Analysis Methods

2. Operates m ~ x i n ~ machlne: Turns valves and other hand controls to sat

mlxlne time accordln~ to type of dough belng mlxed. Presses button to

start agitator blades in machlne. Observes gages and dials on equlp-

ment continuously to verify temperature of dough and mlxing t l m o .

Feels dough for deslred conslste~icv. Adds water or flour to mlx

measuring vessels and adJusts mlxlng time and controls to obtaln

deslred elastlclty in mlx. (55%)

3. Dlrects other workers In fermentation of dough: Prepares fermentation

schedule according to type of dough belng raised. Sprays portable

dough Trough with lubrlcant to prevent adherence of mlxed dough to

trough. Directs DOUCII-MIXER HELPER In posltlonlng trough beneath door

of mlxer to catch dough when mlxing cycle 1s complete. Pushes or

dlrects other workers to push troughs of dough Into fermentotlon

room. (105)

4. Cuts dough: Dumps fermenteted dough onto worktable. Manually kneads

dough to ellmlnate gases formed by yeast. Cuts dough Into pieces with

hand cutter. Places cut dough on proofing rack and covers with cloth.

(10%)

5 . Performs miscellaneous dutles: Records on work sheet number of batches

mixed durlng work shlft. Informs BAKE SHOP FOREMAN when repairs or

major adjustments are requlred for machlnes and equlpment. ( 5 % )

16. Defin~t~on of Trrms

Trough - A long. narrow, opened vessel used for kneading or washing Ingredlents.

17. Gcli~lal Coniments

None

18. AIIIII~SL Jane Smith UnLe 3/21/70 EdiLor John Rilley Date 3/50/70

I:cv~e\re~l Cv Alexandra Purcey Title, O r g , Foreman, Rake Shop

Nntionnl Oflice Re\ ieac~ Mary Moore

ConventionalJob Analysis Procedures 53

As a procedure for developing such a statement, Houchard proposes that a number of qualified supervisors o r their equivalent should be asked to specify what the objectives of' the job are, indicating that such responses can be clicited with one or. anuthcr c ~ f the following types of questions:

1. Please describe in erierul ler-ms what objcctives a person holding the position of 00% title) should achieve in hisiher job.

2. Please gescribe i l l general term what the primary purpose of (act~v~ty) is.

3. What are the general aims that ( j o b title) should strive for.

H e suggests that respondents be allowed to answer such a question in as much detail as they wish, but that their responses should be followed by a request for a brief summary of the objectives, using a question such as this: "In a few words, o r a sentence at most, how would you summarize the objectives (aims, primary purpose) of this job?"

Although the USES does not itself emphasize this point in its general job analyses procedures, it is argued here that an emphasis on the objectives of a job (or its role in the organization) would be very relevant in describing jobs o r positions within specific individual organizations. This would be the case especially with higher level jobs o r with jobs for which such objectives o r roles are not otherwise clearly manilest.

A special aspect of the job description of the USES (especially of the job summaries) is the reflection of the level of involvement of the worker with data, people, and ~hings. These three types of involvement are based o n what are referred to as worker f ~ n c ~ i o n ~ , which are discussed more extensively in Chapter 6 in connection with functional job analyses. T h e USES Handbook lists all the specific functions in each of the three categories. (See Figure 4-2.)

Each category is viewed as a hierarchy, with any given function subsuming all those below it. Examples of a few job sumnlaries given in the USES Hnndhook are listed herc, along with the respec- tive level of involvement of each job with those worker functions that characterize the jobs.

o Shovels coal into mine cars for haulage (things relationship, nonma- chine) (handling level).

o Examines structural aircraft assemblies to verify conformance to specifications (data and things relationships) (analyzing and handling levels).

People

0 Synthesizing 1 Coordinating 2 Analyz ing 3 Compil ing 4 Computing 5 Copying 6 Comparing

0 Mentoring 1 Negot ia t ing 2 Inst ruct ing 3 Supervising 4 Diver t i ng 5 Persuading 6 Speaking-Signaling' 7 Serving 8 Tak ing Inst ruct ions-

Help ing '

'single f u n c t i o n s

0 Sett ing Up 1 Prec is ion Working 2 Operat ing-Contro l l ing* 3 Dr i v ing -Opera t~ng* 4 Manipulat ing 5 Tending 6 Feeding-Offbearing' 7 Handl ing

Figure 4-2. Structure of worker functions used by the USES in its job analysis procedures. (Source: Handbook /or Analyzing Jobs, p. 73)

Solves probletns in higher mathemat~cs in sucli lields as engincc1.- ing, physics, and astronotny (data relarionship) (sytithcsiz~ng levcl).

0 Portrays role in dramatic production to interpret character to a w dicnce (data and people relationships) (synthesizing and diverting levels).

o Polices premises of private business estahlish~ner~t (people relationship) (speaking-signaling level).

o Sells ice to customers at ice house, cutting and weighing amount requested (people and things relationships) (speaking-signaling and handling levels) Designs artistic interiors and sells decorating services (data, people. a n d things relationship) (synthesizing, persuading, and precision working levels). Supervises and coordinates activities of carpenters on houscbuilding project (data, people,' and things relationships) (coordinating, supervising, and precision working levels).

Work pe+rmed ratings (item 5). In the procedures used by the USES, the worker function section of this item provides for recording the highest level of the worker's involvement in each of the three worker-function hierarchies (data, people, and things) as given in Figure 4-2. The work-field section as used by the USES provides for one or more entries from a specified list of work fields such as boring, knitting, researching, and teaching. A n example of the description of a work field, that of Cooking-Food Preparing (applicable to the job of dough niixer as described in Figure 4-1) is given in Figure 4-3. Each such work field includes listings of "methods verbs," machines, tools, equipment., and work aids that

are rcleval~t 1.0 tlie work licltl, i111c1 C X ~ I I I I ~ ~ C S 0 1 ' wol-k ;~ctivi~ies t h a t I

would be classified in that work field. I

The section Mt1SMS ;IS used by the USES refers t o materials, products, subject matter, and services. Entries for this sect io~~ are

Figure 4-3. lllustration of one of the work fields* used by the USES in its job analysis procedures. (Source: Iltrnrlboolc /or Artalyzirag Jobs, pp. 121-122)

COOKING - FOOD PREPARING

Preparing foods for human or animal consumption, by any combination of methods which may include methods spec i f i c to other work f ie lds. such as Baking-Drying, Mixing, Shearing-Shaving, Stock Checking. a n d Weighing.

Methods Verbs

Bas l ing D o i l ~ n g Brewing Churning

Machines

Continuous churn Pasteurlzer Vane churn

Cur ing Measuring Roasting F lavor ing Pasteur iz ing Ro l l i ng F ry ing P i c k l i n g Seasoning Heat ing Rendering Spreading Kneading Squeezing

Tools Equipment Work Aids

Cleaver Cutters

Forks Ice P icks Knives Paddles Si f ters Spatulas Spoons

Bro i lers Charts G r i l l s Dishes Ovens Hoppers Ranges Ket t les Roasters Mix ing bowls Smoke chambers Pans Steam digesters Pots

Recipes Storage b in Storage tank

Controls battery of smoke chambers in whlch such meat products as bacon, hams, meat loaf , sausage, shoulders, and weiners are cooked and cured.

Mlxes and bakes ingredients, according to rec ipes, to produce breads, past r ies, and other baked goods.

Mixes, cooks, and freezes ingredients to prepare frozen desserts such as sherbets, i ce cream, and custards.

Operates ovens to roast dry breakfast cereals made from corn, r ice bran, and oats.

Plans menus and cooks meals i n private home, according t o recipes or tastes of employer.

56 /oh Analysis Methods

taken f r o m a specific list, fo r cxample, clay (a matel-ial), bakery products (a p roduc t , t h e o n e applicable to t h e j o b o f a d o u g h mixer in Figure 4-l), hort icul ture (a subject), a n d retail t r ade (a service).

Although the USES procedures provide f o r ratings o f these aspects of work per formed, such ratings normally would not b e involved in j o b ar~alysis p rocedures used by individual organizations.

Worker ~ r n i l s ratin,gs ( i tem 6) . Many j o b analysis p rocedures provide for t h e analyst to rate o r make a j u d g m e n t a b o u t t h e worker traits o r attributes that a r e considered impor tan t to a job. Such ratings ol-,juclgrrrents mus t he bmed o n infererices f r o m t h e job activi- lies. (Scc C h a p t e r 10 fo r f u r t h e r reference co this matter . ) I n t h e case o f the USES procedures these ratings, as described in the Hut~dbook /or Annlyzing J u b ~ i ~ i c l u d e thc following:

o Gencral Educational Developnlent [GED] 0 Spccific Vocational Prcparatior~ [SVP] 0 Aptitudes [G- Intelligence; V - Verbal; N - Numer-ical; S -Spatial;

P- Form pel-ception; Q- Clerical perception; K - Motor coordination; F- Finger dexterity; M - Manual dexterity; E - Eye-hand-hot coordination; and C -Color rliscrirni~ration]

c? Temperaments [ lo] Interests [5 bipolar interest factors] Physical Demands [ratings on a strength factor as expressed in terms o f sedentary, light, medium, heavy, and very heavy, and on four other physical demand factors] Environmental Conditions [rating on seven environmerltal conditions]

For each of these worker traits there is provision i n t h e USES procedure f o r rat ing any given j o b using specific rat ing scales that a r e included in the HandbookJor Analyzing Jobs. Certain o f these rating scales, a n d portions o f o thers , a r e given in A p p e n d i x A . T h e job ar~alysis proccdures o f o ther organizations (such as privatc ur- ganizations) frequently provide f o r the analyst t o rate each j o b in terms o f o n e o r m o r e h u m a n traits o r attributes. T h e Summnty oJ N a h n n l Job Analysis Suivey Methods includes provision for report ing t h e worker attributes f o r which ratings were obtained. T h e results of this par t of t h e survey a r e summar ized in T a b l e 4-1. I t c a n be seen that rat ings of experience requ i red , t ra ining a n d educat ion, a n d mental skills were the attributes most commonly included. Such ratings typically a r c used as the basis for establishing the personnel specifications f o r t h e job in question.

De.rcriphil o f t m r k (item 15). What is rc fe r red to in t h e USES job

analysis sclretlt~lc 21s I he i l i ~ ~ i r i{)/iori o/' tri..ikr is sornctirrics 1-etcrrcd to as t h e rood l)~i , f i)~-i t trd, Si11r.e this p o ~ - l i o n of' ;I ;oh descri l~l iun is gcri- erally t h e most impor tan t one , certain of the instructions rclating to it in t h e Handbook,/cn. Annlyzing Jobs a r e given below:

Describe in concise form the tasks performed, following the concepts and procedures outlined in this handbook. Each descript io~~ must des- ignate the worker's actions and the results accomplished; the machines, tools, equipment, and/or work aids used; materials, products, sub,ject matter, or services involved; and the requirernenls made of the workcr.

This dcscription should providc a basis for and be compatible with ~ h c assignmcnt of work perfol-met1 and workel- traits ratings.

In order to provide the clearest presentation, divide the job into its major tasks. Number each task consecutively and introduce it with a Rag statcment. (The flag statemrnt is a short summary of t l ~ c task and should be Followctl I)y a dcscription of thr eicmcnts i t ellcolnlwsscs. For many kinds of jobs the tasks should be descl-ibecl in the chrono- logical order in which they arc perfol-nlecl. However, in other types of jobs thc tasks shn~~l r l I)c listcd in orrlcl- of importance.)

Indicate in parenthes~s at the cnd of each task descr~ption an estimatc of the pelcentage of time rcquired for its pcrformance. The percentage should be on the basis of I00 percent for all of the tasks performcd.

T h e description-of-tasks section should include the occasionally per formed activities as well as those that a r e a m o r e regular , ongo-

TABLE 4-1. Frequency with which organizations with job analysis programs require analyst ratings of various worker attributes. (Source: Sum- mary ?/ No/ioim[,job Anolyis Methods Sui-uey)

-- - Wndrrr All~ihlrle Snlurred N O I I I - ~

-

Experience (job knowledge) 89% 86% Training, education (level, type, time) 83 84 Physical (strength, coordination, senscs) 3 2 64 Manual, manipulative skills (dcxterity, accuracy) 40 7 1 Mental skills (adaptability, judgment, initiative,

creativity, technical) 77 7 1 Aptitudes (type, level) 3 9 4 1 Interests, motivation, (activity preterences) 24 19 Personality (adjustment to job situations) 27 2 1 Social skills (human interactions) 3 8 2 1 Other 1 1

I


ing part of the job. In this regard, when activities arc performed on a "now-and-then" basis it usually is desirable to indicate i l l sonic way the conditions o r circumstances under which the activity is performed, such as: "At the end of each month balances thc books . . ." "When requested by customer, arranges for . . ." "When observing that generator is discharging . . ."

Further, this section should bring out somehow the way in which any tools, equipment, and materials are involved in the job. There usually is provision for listing these (as in item 13 of I"g 4 1 ure 4-l) , ancl therefore their use should be reflected in the description of the tasks.

I n writing job description material (as in describing tasks), certain types of information usually should be included (sometimes referred to as the whul, how, and why of job analysis procedures), and there is a somewhat standardized style of writing. T h e writing of such material will be discussed in a later section o f th i s chapter.

Pl~jstcnl demands and emwmn~ental (mditzon.~. 'The job analysis procedures of the USES provide for the completion of a form (Fig- ure 4-4) for recording and explaining the physical demands and environmental conditions, and for entering certain codes relating to these on the job analysis schedule. T h e responses to some items are to be given in percents, weights, and (in the case of noisc) in tleci- hels. For most items, however, the following code symbols a re used:

NP Not present (thc activity o r condition does not cxist) 0 0cc;lsionally (activity o r condition exists up to 113 of the

timc) F Frequently (activity o r condition exists from 113 to 213 of

the time) C Constantly (activity o r condition exists 213 o r more of the

time)

Comments about the activities o r conditions, identified by number and letter, a re to be entered in the righthand column of the form. (Appendix B includes definitions of the specific physical cle- inands and environmental conditior~s incorporated in the USES form as presented in Figure 4-4).

In the case of some other job analysis procedures there is also provision for recording information o n physical demands and environmental conditions. For example, in the Summary of National Job Aualysis Methods Suruey it was reported that the following items were provided for by the percents of respondents indicated:

ConventionalJob Analysis Procedtcres 59

Ilcl/l Sltlrit-icrl / 1 ( 1 1 t I ly Corntort vari;~bles (ternperaturc,

hl~rnidity, noise. etc.) 35% 61% H ; I Z ; I I ~ S (pl~ysicxl hc;rltl~) 36% 68%

The Use of Questionnaires in Conventional Job Analysis

Some job analysis programs involvc the con~plction hy job incumbents of a preliminary qucstionnaire in which they describe their own jobs. Usually such questior~naircs provide for giving thc same type of information as that to be included in the final job description (such as provided for in the job analysis sched~ilc shown in Figure 4-1). T h e purpose of these qi~estionnai~-cs is to provide the analyst with a first draft of a ,job descril~tion. Although this procedure may givc some employees a feeling of participation in the program, it usually has somc limitations. For- cxample, solrie employees may not we l~ome the opportunity to describe their jobs, and somc d o not have the verbal skills necessary to descrihe their jobs adequ;ltely. Further, thel-e may be a t e ~ d e n c y on the part o r some employees to "inflate" their jobs by, for example, indicating that they have more responsibility than is actually the case; con- versely, some employees may tend to understate their responsibilities.

When a questionnaire is employed, it may be useful to ask the employees to maintain a record o r their daily ar~ivities (including their time allocation) i r i aclv;~ncc of. thc imual completion of' the q r ~ e s t i o ~ ~ - naire, as a n aid to thcm in preparing it. Further, they shoiilcl he ell- couraged to exprcss thernselvcs in their own words and to complctc the questionnaires entircly indepentlcntly. Norn~ally, such questionnaires can be completed more adequately by salaried personnel (supervisors, o r office personnel) than by hourly paid personnel; this suggests that questionnaires normally should be used with salaried personnel rather than with hourly paid employees.

When such questionnaires are used, the job analyst usually follows u p by interviewing and possihly observing the job incumbents in order to clarify doubtful items of informatioil and to fill in additional information about the job.

Writing Job Descriptions and Related Material

T h e description of work activities can be pitched at various levels, perhaps most typically at the level of job summaries o r of descriptions of tasks. Whatever the intended level might be, the descrip-

Convcntioita(/ob Airnlysis Procedures 6 1 60 Job Attcrlysis Melhods

Figure 4-4 . Physical demands and environmental conditions forms used b y the USES in i ts job analysis procedures. (Source: I-lundboak for Analyzing Jabs, pp. 340-341)

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

1 . ENVIRONMENT

Inside - %

O u t s i d e %

COMMENTS

1. STRENGTH a. Standing %

Walk ing % Si t t ing %

b. Weight L i f t i n g Carry ing Push ing P u l l i n g

2. CL IMBING

ESTAB. JOB T I T L E E S T A B . B SCHED. NO.

DOT T I T L E A N D CODE

2. E X T R E M E C O L D WlTH OR WITHOUT T E M P E R A T U R E CHANGES

3. E X T R E M E H E A T WlTH OR WITHOUT T E M P E R A T U R E CHANGES

PHYSICAL DEMANDS

4. WET AND/OR HUMID I

COMMENTS

B A L A N C I N G

3. STOOPING

K N E E L I N G

5 . NOISE Es t ima ted maximum

V I B R A T I O N CROUCHING I CRAWLING I

6. HAZARDS

Mechanica l 4 . REACHING I

H A N D L I N G

F INGERING E l e c t r i c a l

Burns F E E L I N G 1 Exp los ives

Radiant Energy

Other

5. T A L K I N G I Ordinary Other

H E A R I N G Ordinary C o ~ v e r s a t i o n Other Sounds

7. ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS I Fumes

Odors 6. SEEING

Acu i t y . Near

Acu i t y , Fa r

Dep th Percept ion

Dusts I M is ts I

Accommodation I Gases I Color V i s i o n I Poor Ven t i l a t i on 1 F i e l d of V i s l o n I Other I

RATINGS: P.D.: S L M H VH 2 3 4 5 6

RATINGS: E . C . : I 0 6 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ana lys t D a t e Es tab . Reviewer

E .S . Reviewer D a t e T i t l e Date PROTECTIVE CLOTHING OR PERSONAL DEVICES

62 J o b A~iolysis Methods

tion of the work activities is intended to convey to the reader information about the jobs in question. How well this information is transmitted to the reader depends very much upon the content of thc descriptive inate~ial and how it. is written (its style).

Content of Job Description Material

In job analysis jargon one frequently hears reference to the whuf, how, and why of job analysis processes. I n describing human work, the analyst must be sure that the description covers what the worker does, how he does it, and why he does it. Although in some circumstances the horu and why may be implicitly obvious, if there is any question at all about these aspects they should be explicitly brought out in the description.

What the worker does is characterized by statements regarding the physical and mental activities that are performed o n the job. As Butler points out, physically the worker may transport materials, cut, grind, set up , regulate, finish, o r otherwise changc the position, shape, or condition of the work by the expenditure of physical effort; and mentally he may engage in such activities as planning, computing, judging, or directing, including in some instances the governing of the expenditure of his own o r others' physical effort. In describing the what of the job Butler suggests that the analyst should ask himself the following questions:

o What tasks have bcen observecl during the perfbrmance of the job? o Are the tasks included for this job performed by all workers desig-

nated by the job title? o What is the frequency with which the tasks are performed? o What is the relative difficulty of each task as compared with the rest

of the tasks on the job? o Are there additional tasks which have not been observed? o Are there additional tasks customary to all workers on the job? o Have the data obtained by observation been verihed?

T h e horil of the work activities performed deals with the methods o r procedures used to carry out the job tasks. In the case of physical activities, this may involve the use of machinery and tools or other equipment, the following of certain procedures o r rou- tines, o r the execution of certain physical responses such as hand movements. I n the case of mental activities, this may involve the use of calculations or formulas, the exercise of judgment , o r the se- lection and transmittal of thought. In considering the how of the

I Conventional J o b Amdysis Procedures 63

job, Butler suggests that the analyst should try to cover the fbllow- ing questions:

~1 What tools, ma~el-ials, and c l~~ ipment 1i;rvc been usecl to acc:omplisl~ all oC the tasks of thc job?

0 Are there other tools, materials. ;lnd cquipmrnt which have not been observed? IS so, how [lo thcy work?

0 What methods or processes have heen used t o accomplish the tasks of the job?

o Are there other methods or processes by which the same work can be dorie?

T h e why of the job analysis process goes back to the objective of the job as emphasized by Bouchard and discussed earlier in this chapter (Job Summary). T h e basic pui-pose(s) of the job should be one of the first things the analyst should seek to determine and should be brought out in any job summary. Aside from setting forth in the job summary the overall purpose of the job (that is, why the job exists), the description of the specific tasks should also include some indication as to why the individual tasks are performed, in case this is not manifest o r is not clearly implied in the description of what and how. T h e why of each individual task gen- erally would characterize the purpose of the task as related to the fulfillment of the overall objectives of the job as incorporated in the job summary.

Butler illustrates the manner in which the 7 ~ l ~ r , h.olo, and u!lql are brought out in the portions of a job description given below, which deal with the job summary and a couple of tasks.

Job: ENGINE LATHE OPERATOR- FIKST CLASS Job summary: Sets u p and operates a n engine lathe to turn small

airplane fittings from brass o r steel bar stock o r from unfinished aluminum o r magnesium alloy castings (roliy), finishing fitting down to specified close tolerances (what, how).

Work performed (descriptions of two tasks): 1. Sets u p lathe ( u h t ) ; carefully examines blueprints (what) to

determine the dimensions of the part to be machined (why), using shop mechanics (how) to calculate any dimensions (ullr.tr.1) not given directly o n the prim (~11~~1) o r to calculate machine settings (7ulql).

2 . Sets up lathe to turn stvck held in chuck (what); attaches to lathe the accessories such as chuck and tool holder (what) necessary to perform the machining (why) threading and locking the chuck and the head stock spindle (how) and setting.

2.'


In writing j o b description material the re sometimes is a prob- lem in de te rmin ing t h e degree o f specificity. T h e Handbooh for Analyzing Jobs includes t h e following observations in its discussion o f the description o f tasks:

The analyst should keep in mind the necessity for stating a task com- pletely but should not allow the explanation to develop into a motion study. For example, rcgartling an inspector of small parts, i t may hc said, "Slides fingertips over machine edges to detect raggetl edges and burrs."

On the other hand, it wodd be absurd to state, "Raises right hand one foot to table height, superimposes hand over mechan~cal part and, by depressing the first and second fingers to the machined part and mov- ing the arm slowly sidewise about six inches, feels with his fingertips for snags or pricks that arc indicative of surface irregularities."

Writing Style in Job Analysis

T h e writing style fo r conventional job dcscr-iptions is described in the ffnndhoolz / b A ~ r t ~ l p t r g , / n / ~ ~ as follows:

a. A terse, direct style should be used. b. The present tense should be used throughout. c. Each sentence should begin with an active vel-b. d. Each sentence must reflect an objective, either specifically stated or

implied in such manner as to be obvious to the reader. A single verb may sometimes reflect both objective and worker action.

e . All words should impart necessary information; others should be omitted. Every precaution should be taken to use words that have only one possible connotation and that specifically describe the manner in which the work is accomplished.

f. The description of tasks should reflect the assigned work performed and worker traits ratings.

T h e last ru le relates specifically to t h e practice o f t h e USES i n assigning W o r k Per formed a n d Worker Tra i t s rat ings (as discussed earlier in this chapter) a n d would also be applicable fo r o t h e r organizations that provide f o r any type o f similar ratings. Even if such ratings a re not required, however, the task descriptions should reflect t h e samc substance as such ratings would cover.

As indicated by rule c, each sentence usually should begin with a n active verb. T h e worker is the assumed-but unstated-subject. I-Ierc a r e some examples from the Hmdbooh for Annbrring Jobs:

ConventionalJob Analysis Proccdwes 65

I h i 7 1 / ' . ~ tractor (0 [>low . . . Demonstrates . . . merchandise, such as, . . . to sell . . . Turm valves to regulate coolant flow . . . Feeds material into machinc that stamps out parts . . . Devises and installs accounting systems to maintain records o f . . . Compil~s reports to show . . . Tnlk.~ with supervisors to obtain information . . . Analyte~ medical data to tliagnosc . . .

T h c r e a r e , however, r i rcu~ns tances in which some q ~ d i f y i n g word o r phrase should precedc t h e verb, fo r example, to specify the circumstances u n d e r which a particular activity is per formed: "At t h e e n d o f each week compiles repor t s to show . . ." o r "Ver- bally assigns . . ."

Basic sentence structure. Most j o b description material has a basic, somewhat s tandardized sentence s t ructure. T h i s basic sentence s t ructure, as set for th in t h e Hnirdbonlt /nr A 7 i n l y i q , / o h , is given in Figure 4-5 with a n cxample o f a “job worker" situation, t h e opera-

Figure 4-5. Example of the analysis of the sentence structure for describing job activities, namely, the verb, the immediate object, and an infinitive phrase. (Source: Handbook for Analyz ing Jobs , p. 201)

Job Worker Sitvotion: Operates cord or cordless swllchboard to re lay Incoming, oulgolng, and Interoffice c a l l s . On cordless swltchboard, pushes swi tch keys to make conneclions and re lay c a l l s . On cord type equipment, plugs cord In jacks mounted on switchboard. Supplles Informa- \ I a n to c a l l e r s and records messages.

Analvsis

IMMEDIATE INlFlNlTlVE PHRASE ( W O R K E R OBJECT I N F I N I T I V E F U N C T I O N

Compares

Converses wi th

Operates

swltchboard operation w l l h slandards

ca l lers

cord or cordless switchboard

to re lay I

1 0 convey. l o rece ive

l o re lay

c a l l s

Information

incoming, In lero l f ice outgoing, c a l l s and

Comparing (61 1 System 2 Telephone 164 Communlcaling Services

People Speaking-Signaiinq (61 Things Opernllng~ContrOll lr lg

Classification

HIERARCHY I I i I I

MPSMS WORKER FUNCTION WORK F I E L D CODE CODE


tion o f a telephone switchboard. T h e j o b worker situation is dc- fined briefly, a n d the analysis consists of the following componcnts:

V e r b (the worker function) Immedia te object (typically materials, tools, equ ipment o r work

aids, da ta , o r people) Infinitive phrase

Infinitive (a work field) Object of t h e infinitive (some material, p roduc t , subject mat-

ter , o r service)

S o m e f u r t h e r examples of such sentence s t ruc ture a r e given in Table 4-2.

T h e lower par t o f Figure 4-5 shows t h e USES classification o f job activities in t e rms of t h e data , people, things hierarchy, worker funct ion, work field, a n d MPSMS (materials, products , subject matter, and services). I n typical job analysis p rograms within individual organizations, such classification procedures usually would not be re lev an^.

In describing most work activities, t h e analyst s l ~ o u l d keep i n mind t h e writing style a n d t h e type o f sentence s t ruc ture discussecl

TABLE 4-2. Examples of sentence analysis as used by USES, showing how sentences can be structured in terms of the verb, the immediate obiect, and an infinitive ohrase. (Source: IJomU~ooh for A ? E ( I ~ Y Z I ? I L ~ /obi)

Verb lnfinztzve Phrase (Workel Injinzlzne Object o j lnfuztt~ve

Fii1zclzon) lnzm~dznte Ob~ecl (Work Field) ( M P S M S )

Analyzes examination papers

Compiles credit information Computes hours, pay scale, etc.

Describes Sets up

Works

Operates Tends Feeds Handles

appearance of hides with specifications

features of interest metal-working machines

tooth-cleaning instruments

saw sanding machine blending machine shovel, pick

to evaluate kr~owledge of law candidates.

to determine credit rating. to calculate wages. and post

to grade hides.

to inform visitors to factory. to machine metal patterns, core

boxes. to clean teeth.

to cut to size metal materials. to smooth broomsticks. to blend flour. to fill holes in road.

ConventionalJob Analysis Proced~rres 67

above, characteristically using a worker function verb, indicating t h e immediate object o f the verb, followed by a n infinitive phrasc (infinitive plus objcct) to reHect the purpose o r the why o f the activity. T h e analysis in Figure 4-5 a n d t h e o t h c r examples in Table 4-2 a r e admittedly ra ther stilted. Such a sentence s t ructure, when used in actual j o b descliptions, usually would be m o r e explanatory a n d detailed a n d would be worded in such a t j sh ion as to fit in with o t h e r descriptive material. I n some instances the substance of the infinitive phrase would be suficiently implied o r covered in o ther material tha t it could b e omitted. T h e essential point in fo- cusing at tent ion o n this basic s t ructure is that in typical job description material, these components need somehow to be worked in o r to be so manifest that they would be unduly r e d u n d a n t if they were overtly stated.

Functional J o b Analysis (FJA) as used by the USES has been f u r t h e r developed by Dr . Sidney A. Fine. T h e system is r l isc~~ssed in m o r e detail in C h a p t e r 6, b u t o n e aspect of this system is relevant to o u r prcscnt discussion. T h e use o f t h c F,JA system is predi- catetl in part o n thc ci~i.ct'ul t lcscr ipt . io~~ ol' tasks. In this regard Dr. Fine provides f o r incorpor.ating into t h c sentence s t ructure some indication o f the na ture o f the instructions that serve as the basis for the workel-'s actions, in addition to the components discussed above. Figure 4-6 shows the f o r m uscd. Certain cxairiples o f task statements p repared i n the f ramework o f t h e FJA systcrn a r e given below. T h e s e e x a n ~ p l e s come f r o m jobs involved in the social wel- fare field (Fine e t al.).

1. Calculates/pcrforrns statistical analysis of popula~ion movements within state's correctional facilities, using a desk calculator, in order to compute data to be used in report requested by the bureau director.

2. Advises/counsels mother on emotional and legal consequences of decision to placc her child in adoptive home, listening to mother, ask- ing questions, and reflecting her feelings, and suggesting ways of cop- ing with problems, guilt, and anxieties arising from separation, in order to help mothcr adjust to permanent separation from child.

3. Visually inspects applicarlts' files, noting missing information, and indicates omissions on form letters, in order to complete form letters to applicants requesting the missing information by return mail.

4. Verbally assigns tasks/gives directions to thc clerical staff worker, explaining and answering questions about prescribed and discretion- ary elements of procedures and performance requirements, based upon prior assessmcnt of operation Row, workload, and worker's capa- bilities, in order to ensure that the workcr understands his duties and responsibilities.

68 J o b Analysis Methods

Mcdel Sentence Worksheet lor Task Stalemen1

Analyst

Phrase

Figure 4-6. Worksheet of sentence structure used in connection with Functional Job Analysis (FJA) system. (Source: Fine et a] . , p. 12 )

Although the further elaboration of task descriptions to incor- porate provision for the instructions on which actions are to be based is especially relevant in the use of the FJA system, such elaboration can also be very useful in the preparation of conventional job descriptions.

S t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f J o b A n a l y s i s T e r m i n o l o g y

Since individual words can have different meanings, and since dif- fercnt words can be used to express the same mcaning, some type of standardization of terminology can contribute to the clarity of job description material.

There are two ways to achieve some level of standardization of tern~inology. O n e way is to carefully select and define relevant categories o r specified items that are sometimes used in various job analysis formats. T h e USES definition of physical activities and working conditions in its Physical Demands and Environmental Conditions Form (Figure 4-4) represent examples of this type of standardization. (The definitions are given in Appendix B.)

T h e other way to standardize terminology is to suggest uses of specific job-related terms (which sometimes are individually defined) in job descriptions and other job-related materials. One set of such standardized terminology used by the USES and included in the Handbook f o r Analyzing Jobs consists of a list of work fields to be used by job analysts, when appropriate, in describing job activities, along with a listing for each work field of several method verbs

Conventional Job Analysis Procedures 69

relevant to the work field. T h e complete material relating to one work field was given in Figure 4-3. Following are listings of two other work fields with examples of certain of the methods verbs as- sociated with them:

Work Field Methods Verbs Wcaving Doffing

Drawing Pic king

Stock checking Cataloging Counting Requisitioning

T h e USES Handbook also contains a list of functional verbs for use in preparing occupational analyses, with definitions for each. A few examples are given below.

Anneals. Subjects to high heat, with wbsequent cooling, for the put- pose of softening thoroughly and rcndcring lcss brittle.

Cnlib~ates. Ascertains the caliber of, determines, rectifies or marks the graduations oT; adjusts in accordance with a previously defined stan- dard.

Diagnoses. Recognizes, analyzes and identifies (usually a disease, but also other states or conditions) by examination or observation.

PTISCTI'~ES. Lays down or sets as a guide, directions or rules of action; e.g., procedures, regulations, etc.

Sphres. Joins or unites (wires and ropes) by weaving together the end strands.

Still another example of such standardization comes from Stone and Yoder. As one phase of a broader project they developed definitions of certain verbs which represent specific types of job activities that fall within the categories of certain of the worker functions given in Figure 4-2. For example, for the worker function of copying, Stone and Yoder identified various verbs which characterize specific aspects of copying, and have defined these as follows:

COPYING Transcribmg, entering, or postlng data RECORD To make a wrltten note or account of

post To transfer (an entry or item) from one record to anothe~

70 J o b Analysis Mctlrods

rnlnrlntr T o put into tabular form l i ~ 1 T o enumerate one after anothel- tl-anspose T o change the relative place or normal order of

DUPLICATE T O make a tluplic;~le, copy, or trar~sct-ipt o f t m r ~ ~ c ~ - l b e T o make a copy of (dictated 01- ~.ecol.ded matter) in

longhand or on a typewriter quote T o write (a passage) from another usually with credit

acknowledgment

Discussion

T h e shortcomings of job descriptions resulting froni convcn- tional job analysis procedures are certainly well recognized. At the same time it must be recognized that they do serve certain useful purposes which other methods cannot serve, such as presenting an organized description of individual jobs and reflecting the role of individual jobs within organizations. Thus, although conventional job descriptions are far from perfect, we should not throw u p our hands in despair and abandon any effort to prepare and use them. Rather, it behooves the analysts who prepare t h e m to obtain all relevant information about any given job and to prepare as good a description as possible.

References

Bouchard, T . J , rl Manual ,for Job Ai~alysis. Minneapolis: Minnesota Civil Service Department, 1972.

Butler, J . L. "Job Analysis: (What + How + Why = Skills Involved)." Un- published manuscript, Stamford, Conn., 1975.

Finc, S . A,; llolt, A. M.; ant1 Hutchinson, M. F. Furictio7~o1,Job Annlysis: Now to Sk i~ id~~r t l i ze Trrsh Stntemmls. Kalamazoo. Mich.: W. E. Up,john Institute for Employment Research. 1974.

Nn?irlhuok jor Anol?rii~fi,Johs. IJ.S. Department of l.ahor, Manpower Atlmin- istration, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office (Stock No. 2900-0131), 1972.

Stone, C. H. , and Yoder D. Job Analysis, 1970. Long Bcach: California State College, 1970.

Summary of Nationrcl Job Analysis M e t h o h Survey. Bureau of Business Re- search, Long Beach: California State College, 1968.

Methods and Task Analysis

C o N v m m o N a job analysis procedures usually result in job descriptions prepared in essay form or in discursive fashion. For . - some purposes, however, the work performed in jobs is bctter characterized in terms of indiv~dually identified activity unztr. There are many variations on this theme, one of which is thc l e r d of dcscription. In most instances such descriptions are pitched at the ra,sk level or subunits thereof, such as subtasks and elcmcntal motions o r the body members. Some variations provide for the organization of the activities into a sequence, whereas others do not. In addition, some variations provide for the recording of certain information related to each activity. T h e common denominator, however, is that work is dissected into individually identified units.

i . Although the different approaches have much in common (and

k. C %

thus defy any nice, orderly classification scheme), we will divide our F discussion into two general categories, namely, methods analysis : and related techniques (dealing essentially with various industrial t- engineering procedures related to work analysis), and certain other

approaches commonly referred to as task analysis.

conventional job analysis procedures - oakland · pdf fileare quite varied in terms of the...

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