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Contents
CHAPTER I
Introduction
Section IThe Future of Islamic Law + 29
Section IIThe Study of Islamic Jurisprudence is an Obligation + 31
Section IIIThe Scope of this Book + 32
CHAPTER II
The Scope of Islamic Law and Jurisprudence
Section IThe Subject-matter of Islamic Jurisprudence + 37
A. Us. ul al-Fiqh + 37B. Fiqh + 38C. The Siyasah Shar‘iyyah: Administration of Justice According to
the Sharı‘ah + 39D. Qawa‘id Fiqhiyyah: The Principles of Fiqh + 40E. Furuq: The Science of Distinguishing Cases + 40F. Maqas. id al-Sharı‘ah: Islamic Justice Through the Purposes of
the Sharı‘ah + 41
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G. Ah. kam al-Qur’an and Tafsır + 41H. The Discipline of Khilaf + 42
Section IIHas a Variety of Opinions Caused Disunity Among the
Muslims? + 42
Section IIIThe Schools of Law are not Sects but Systems of
Interpretation + 44
Section IVIslam has a Fully Developed and Mature
Legal System + 44
CHAPTER III
The Meaning of Us. ul al-Fiqh and Basic Terms
Section IThe Literal Meaning of Fiqh + 48
Section IIEarlier General Meaning of Fiqh + 48
Section IIILater Shafi‘ite Definition of Fiqh + 49
Section IVDistinctions Based on the Definition + 50
A. Distinction between sharı‘ah and fiqh + 51B. Distinction between mujtahid and faqıh + 51C. Distinction between ijtihad and taqlıd + 51D. Distinction between a muqallid and a faqıh + 52
Section VThe Meaning of As.l and Us.ul al-Fiqh + 53
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Section VIWidening the Definitions + 54
A. A Wider Definition of Fiqh + 54B. A Wider Definition of Us. ul al-Fiqh + 56
I The H. ukm Shar‘ı 59
CHAPTER IV
The H. ukm: What is Islamic Law?
Section IThe Elements of the H. ukm Shar‘ı + 61
Section IIThe Meaning of the H. ukm Shar‘ı or the Meaning
of Islamic Law + 62
Section IIIThe H. ukm Taklıfı (Obligation Creating Rules) + 65
Section IVThe H. ukm Wad. ‘ı—Declaratory Rules + 67
Section VThe Distinction Between the H. ukm Taklıfı and
the H. ukm Wad. ‘ı + 68
CHAPTER V
Classification of Islamic Law
Section IThe Meaning of Wajib (Obligatory Act) and
its Different Types + 71
A. The h. ukm or rule for the wajib + 72
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Section IIThe Classifications of the Wajib (Obligatory Act) + 73
A. Classification based on the time available for performance: wajibmut.laq and wajib muqayyad + 73
B. Classification based on the extent of the required act + 76C. Classification based on the subjects who are
required to perform + 76D. Classification based on the identification of the object of the re-
quired act + 77
Section IIIThe Meaning of Mandub (Recommended Act) and its
Different Types + 78
A. Types of Mandub + 79
Section IVThe Meaning of H. aram (Prohibited Act) and
its Different Types + 80
A. The types of h. aram + 81
Section VThe Meaning of Makruh (Disapproved Act) and its
Different Types + 83
Section VIThe Meaning of Mubah. (Permitted Act) and
its Different Types + 84
Section VIIThe H. ukm Wad. ‘ı or the Declaratory Rule + 85
A. Sabab, shart. and mani‘ + 85B. S. ih. h. ah, fasad and but.lan (validity, vitiation and nullity) + 87C. ‘Azımah and rukhs. ah (initial rules and exemptions) + 88
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CHAPTER VI
The Lawgiver (H. akim)
Section IAllah is the True Source of all Laws + 91
Section IIThe Fundamental Norm of the Legal System + 92
Section IIIThe Law and the Interest of Man + 93
A. Is Man the sole purpose of creation? + 94B. Can we employ mas. lah. ah (interest) for new laws? + 95
Section IVAre the Sharı‘ah and Natural Law Compatible? + 95
CHAPTER VII
The Act (Mah. kum Fıh)
Section IThe Conditions for the Creation of
Obligation (Taklıf) + 100
A. The act to be performed or avoided must be known + 100B. The subject should be able to perform the act + 101
Section IIThe Nature of the Act (Mah. kum Fıh) + 101
Section IIIClassification of the H. ukm Taklıfı on the
Basis of Rights + 103
Section IVClassification of Duties: Original
and Substitutory + 105
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Section VHuman Rights and Other Classifications + 106
CHAPTER VIII
The Subject (Mah. kum ‘Alayh)
Section IAhlıyah or Legal Capacity + 110
Section IIThe Underlying Bases of Legal Capacity + 111
Section IIIComplete Capacity + 112
A. The stages leading to complete legal capacity + 114
Section IVDeficient and Imperfect Capacity + 114
A. Cases of deficient legal capacity + 115B. Cases of Imperfect Capacity + 119
CHAPTER IX
Causes of Defective Legal Capacity
Section INatural causes of defective capacity + 124
A. Minority (s. ighar) + 124B. Insanity (junun) + 125C. Idiocy (‘atah) + 125D. Sleep and fits of fainting (nawm, ighma’) + 126E. Forgetfulness (nisyan) + 126F. Death-illness (marad. al-mawt) + 126
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Section IIAcquired Causes of Defective Capacity + 129
A. Intoxication (sukr) + 129B. Jest (hazl) + 131C. Indiscretion (safah) + 132D. Coercion and duress (ikrah) + 132E. Mistake and ignorance (khat.a’, shubhah, and jahl) + 135
II The Sources of Islamic Law 139
CHAPTER X
The Primary Sources of Islamic Law
Section IThe Distinction Between Primary and
Secondary Sources + 141
Section IIGrades of the Sources + 142
Section IIIThe Qur’an + 146
A. The Recording and Revelation of the Qur’an + 147B. The Ah. kam in the Qur’an + 148
Section IVThe Sunnah + 150
A. Kinds of Sunnah + 151B. Conditions imposed by jurists for acting upon the
muttas. il h. adıth + 155
Section VStatus of the Sunnah With Respect to the Qur’an + 156
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Section VIConsensus of Legal Opinion (Ijma‘) + 159
A. Conditions for the Validity of Ijma‘ + 159B. Types of ijma‘ + 161C. The legal force of ijma‘ as a source + 161D. Role of ijma‘ in the modern world + 162
CHAPTER XI
Secondary Sources
Section IQiyas (Analogy) + 165
A. Elements of qiyas + 166B. Examples of qiyas + 166C. Qiyas jalı and qiyas khafı or manifest and concealed
analogy + 168
Section IIIstih. san (Juristic Preference) + 169
A. Examples of istih. san + 170
Section IIIIstis.h. ab (Presumption of Continuity) + 171
A. Istis. h. ab al-h. al and the Islamization of laws + 173
Section IVMas.lah. ah Mursalah (Extended Analogy) + 173
A. Illustrations of mas. lah. ah mursalah + 174
Section VSadd al-Dharı‘ah (Blocking the Lawful Means to an
Unlawful End) + 175
Section VIOpinion of a Companion (Qawl al-S. ah. abı) + 176
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Section VIIEarlier Scriptures (Shar‘ Man Qablana) + 177
A. Types of earlier laws + 177
Section VIIICustom (‘Urf) + 178
A. Types of ‘urf + 179B. Can the Western laws prevalent in Pakistan be treated
as custom? + 180
Section IXIslamic Law and Roman Law + 181
CHAPTER XII
Mas. lah. ah and the Maqas. id al-Sharı‘ah
Section IThe Meaning of Mas.lah. ah (Interest) + 183
Section IIMaqas.id al-Sharı‘ah or the Purposes
of Islamic Law + 184
Section IIIWhat is Beyond the Purposes? + 185
Section IVMaqas.id al-Sharı‘ah and the Texts + 186
Section VThe Nature and Structure of the Maqas.id + 186
A. Primary purposes in the service of the Hereafter + 186B. The two faces of the maqas. id + 188C. Primary and secondary purposes + 189D. Priorities within the maqas. id + 191
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III Ijtihad and Taqlıd 195
CHAPTER XIII
The Meaning of Ijtihad and its Modes
Section IThe Meaning of Ijtihad + 197
Section IIThe Task of the Mujtahid + 198
Section IIIThe Modes of Ijtihad + 198
Section IVThe Complete Process of Ijtihad + 199
Section VThe Qualifications of the Mujtahid + 200
Section VIWho is a mujtahid today? + 201
Section VIIAbrogation (Naskh) + 202
Section VIIIThe Rules of Preference (Tarjıh. ) + 203
CHAPTER XIV
Taqlıd or Juristic Method
Section ITaqlıd in the Pakistani Legal System + 206
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IV Islamic Business Law and Property 209
CHAPTER XV
Property and Ownership
Section IThe Nature of Property and Ownership + 211
A. Ownership (milkıyah) and possession (milk al-yad) + 211B. Types of ownership + 212C. Possession + 213
Section IIThe concepts of property (mal) and
ownership (milk) + 214
Section IIIThe different classifications of mal + 216
CHAPTER XVI
General Principles of Contract
Section IFunction of Contracts in Islamic Law + 219
Section IIThe Meaning of ‘Aqd + 220
Section IIIAgreement and its Form (S. ıghah) + 220
A. The meaning of ıjab (offer) and qabul (acceptance) + 221B. The conditions of offer and acceptance (s. ıghah) + 222C. Termination of the offer (ıjab) + 224
Section IVConsideration and Islamic law of contracts + 225
A. The mah. all (subject-matter) and legality + 225
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Section VLegality of Contracts in Islamic Law + 226
A. Contracts contrary to Islamic law (shar‘) + 227B. Contracts contrary to public policy + 228C. The effect of illegality + 229
Section VIContractual Capacity + 230
Section VIIGenuineness of Assent + 230
A. Mistake (khat.a’ or shubhah not ghalat.) + 231B. Khilabah, taghrır, tadlıs, ghabn—fraudulent misrepresentation
+ 233C. Undue influence and marad. al-mawt + 234D. Coercion and duress (ikrah) + 235
Section VIIITypes of Contracts and Their Effects + 235
A. S. ah. ıh. , bat.il and fasid contracts + 235B. Immediate and suspended contracts or nafidh and mawquf
contracts + 237C. Binding and terminable contracts or the lazim and ghayr lazim
(or ja’iz) contracts + 238D. Bilateral contracts versus unilateral contracts (wa‘d) + 238E. Valid, void, voidable and unenforceable contracts + 239F. Executed and executory contracts + 239
Section IXOption (Khiyar) and the Effects of Contracts + 240
A. Khiyar al-Shart. or the Option to Revoke the Contract + 240B. Khiyar al-Ta‘yın or the Option to Ascertain the
Subject-matter + 241C. Khiyar al-Ru’yah or the Option of Examination + 241D. Khiyar al-‘Ayb or the Option of Defects + 241
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Section XThird Party Rights and Discharge of Contract + 242
A. Assignments and delegations + 242B. Conditions of performance + 243C. Discharge of contract + 244
Section XIBreach and Remedies + 247
A. Specific performance—ijbar + 247B. Rescission and Restitution (faskh and irja’) + 247C. Reformation + 247D. Recovery based on quasi contracts + 248E. Principles of compensation and damages + 248
CHAPTER XVII
Delegated Authority
Section IGuardianship (Wilayah) + 251
A. Types of Wilayah + 251B. Grades of the awliya’ + 252C. The extent of the walı’s authority + 253
Section IIAgency (Wakalah) + 254
A. The elements of wakalah + 254B. Types of agency + 255C. The ah. kam of wakalah + 256D. H. ukm of the contract and its h. uquq + 256E. Termination of agency + 257
Section IIIRatification and the Acts of the Fud. ulı + 257
A. The h. ukm of the acts of a fud. ulı + 258
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B. Conditions for ratification + 258
CHAPTER XVIII
Commercial Transactions
Section IThe Meaning of Bay‘ and its Types + 261
A. The basic types of bay‘ + 261
Section IIGeneral Conditions for Commercial Transactions + 262
A. It must be mal + 263B. The subject-matter must be in existence at the time of the
contract + 266C. The seller must have the capacity to deliver the
subject-matter + 267D. The parties must have knowledge of the subject-matter + 268
Section IIISale of Goods for Cash + 270
A. The spot sale + 270B. Credit sale (bay‘ al-nası’ah) + 271C. Advance payment (salam) + 271D. Goods made to order (istis. na’) + 272E. Sale with earnest money (‘arbun) + 272F. Contract for supplies (tawrıd) + 273G. Sale with stated profit (murabah. ah) + 273H. Sale at cost price (tawlıyah) + 274I. Sale at less than cost price (wad. ı‘ah) + 274
Section IVLoans and Exchange of Currencies (S. arf) + 274
Section VThe Prohibition of Riba and Commercial
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Transactions + 276
A. The four rules of riba + 276
Section VITransactions Prohibited (or Vitiated) for
Various Reasons + 279
Section VIIThe Contract of Hire (ijarah) + 279
A. The conditions of ijarah + 280B. Types of ijarah + 281
Section VIIIGeneral Offers (Ju‘alah) + 281
CHAPTER XIX
Security of Debts, Insolvency and Interdiction
Section IThe Meaning of Debt: ‘Ayn, Dayn, and Istiqrad. + 283
Section IIAssignment and Negotiation + 286
Section IIIH. awalah and Muqas.s.ah (Assignment,
Transfer of Debt) + 286
A. H. awalah and negotiable instrument + 286B. Muqas. s. ah (Claim-swapping) + 287
Section IVKafalah (Surety) + 287
Section VRahn (Pledge, Mortgage, Collateral) + 288
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Section VIBay‘ al-Wafa’ + 289
Section VIIExtinction of Rights (Ibra’) + 290
Section VIIITaflıs (Insolvency, Bankruptcy) + 290
Section IXInterdiction (H. ajr) + 292
A. Types of h. ajr + 292
CHAPTER XX
Acquisition of Property and Liens
Section IAcquisition and Disposal of Property + 295
Section IIModes of acquisition of property + 296
A. Contracts and declarations + 296B. Claim as a third party (Istih. qaq) and restitution + 297C. Pre-emption (Shuf‘ah) + 297D. Revival of Barren Land (Ih. ya’ al-Mawat) + 298E. H. ima and Iqt.a‘ (Estates) + 299F. Ma‘adin (Minerals) + 299G. Found Property (Luqt.ah) + 300H. Prizes or Prize Money (Sabq) + 301I. Property of the mafqud (missing person) + 301
Section IIILiens + 302
A. Leaseholds (ijarah, kira’) + 302B. Wadı‘ah (deposit, bailment) + 302
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C. Rights in the property of others: easements and servitudes(irtifaq) + 302
Section IVPartitioning of Property (Qismah) + 303
CHAPTER XXI
Enterprise Organization
Section IDefinition of Partnership + 307
Section IITypes of Partnerships + 307
A. Types of partnership according to the majority + 308B. Types of partnership according to the H. anafıs + 308
Section IIIThe ‘Inan Partnership + 309
Section IVThe Mufawad. ah Partnership + 310
Section VMud. arabah + 311
A. The Conditions of Mud. arabah + 312
Section VIMuzara‘ah (Share-cropping) + 313
Section VIIMusaqah or Mu‘amalah + 314
Section VIIICorporations and Islamic Law + 315
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V The Islamic Law of Persons 317
CHAPTER XXII
Marriage
Section IThe h. ukm of marriage + 319
Section IILooking at the Would be Spouse Before Proposal + 320
Section IIIThe Formation of the Contract + 320
A. Consent in marriage (legal capacity) + 320B. Whose consent? Guardian’s? + 321C. Is Guardianship a Condition for the Validity of the Contract of
Marriage? + 322D. Stipulating an option (khiyar) + 324
Section IVWitnesses (Shahadah) + 324
Section VDower (S. ad. aq) + 325
A. Dower amount + 325B. Species and void dowers + 326C. Deferred and prompt dower + 326D. Dower and divorce prior to consummation + 327
Section VIImpediments to Marriage + 328
A. Lineage + 329B. Relationship Through Marriage + 329C. Fosterage (Suckling; Wet-nursing) + 330D. Unlawful Intercourse (Zina) + 330
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E. Number of Marriages + 331F. Combination + 331G. Disbelief (Kufr) + 331H. The Ritual State of Ih. ram + 332I. Illness + 332J. ‘Iddah (Waiting Period) + 333
Section VIIThe Requisites of Option in Marriage + 333
A. The Option of Defects + 333B. Option on Inability to Pay Dower and Maintenance + 334C. Option Upon Absence + 334
Section VIIIMarital Rights and the Restitution
of Conjugal Rights + 335
A. Maintenance + 335B. Polygamous marriage + 336C. Nursing and taking care of the house + 336
Section IXH. id. anah (H. izanat in Urdu) + 337
Section XMarriages Prohibited by Law and Void marriages + 338
CHAPTER XXIII
Divorce and Separation
Section IThe Kinds of Divorce (T. alaq) + 341
A. Ba’in and Raj‘ı Divorces + 341B. Sunnah and Bid‘ah Forms of Divorce + 342C. Khul‘ (Redemption) + 343
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Section IITafwıd. , Takhyır and Tamlık + 344
Section IIIRetraction after Divorce + 345
Section IVWaiting Period (‘Iddah) + 346
Section VGift of Consolation Paid to a Divorced
Woman (Mut‘ah) + 348
Section VIAppointment of Arbitrators + 349
Section VIIMourning (Ih. dad) + 350
Section VIIIVow of Continence (Ila’) + 350
Section IXInjurious Assimilation (Z. ihar) + 351
Section XImprecation (Li‘an) + 352
CHAPTER XXIV
Inheritance, Bequests and Trusts
Section IInheritance + 355
A. The as. h. ab al-fara’id. or sharers + 356B. The as. abat or residuaries + 357C. The dhawu’l-arh. am or distant kindred + 357
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D. The doctrine of h. ajb or exclusion + 358
Section IIWas. ıyah (Bequest) + 359
Section IIIGift (Hibah) + 360
Section IV‘Arıyah (commodate loan) and qard. (cash loan) + 362
Section VWaqf (Charitable Trust) + 363
A. The Meaning and Rules of Waqf + 363B. The destruction of awqaf in the modern times + 364
VI The Islamic State and Public Law 367
CHAPTER XXV
The Islamic State and its Duties
Section ISingle state and multiple states + 369
Section IIThe duties of the rulers in an Islamic state + 374
Section IIIAmr bi al-Ma‘ruf wa Nahy ‘an al-Munkar—The Call
for Justice + 375
Section IVThe Islamic state and democracy + 377
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Section VDemocracy and the concept of Shura + 377
A. The Verses and Meaning of Shura + 378B. Is Shura a Binding Rule? + 379C. Is the Recommendation of the Shura Binding? + 379D. Is it a Pillar and Does it Imply Democratic Principles? + 379E. At What Levels Can it be Applied? + 380F. Does it Imply an Absolute Benevolent Ruler? + 380
Section VIThe Islamic state and the economic system + 380
CHAPTER XXVI
Crimes and Torts
Section IThe aims of the criminal law + 384
Section IIClassification of Crimes in Islamic Law + 384
A. Classification on the basis of the right affected: h. add, ta‘zır andsiyasah + 385
B. Differences between ta‘zır and siyasah + 387
Section IIIOffences and their penalties + 389
A. H. add Penalties + 389B. J. inayat (bodily injuries) and qis. as. + 392C. Ta‘zır or penalties imposed by the state + 395D. Siyasah shar‘ıyah or the administration of justice + 397E. Ghas.b (Usurpation, Misappropriation) + 398F. Destruction of Property (Itlaf ) + 399
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CHAPTER XXVII
War and Fiscal Laws
Section IJihad and Truce + 401
Section IIThe Ah. kam of Enemy Property + 404
A. The fifth of the spoils (khums) + 404B. The four-fifths of the spoils + 405C. The anfal (rewards) + 406D. Muslim property recovered from disbelievers + 407E. Land conquered by the use of force (‘anwatan) + 408F. Fay’ (booty) + 409G. Jizyah (poll-tax) + 409
Section IIIZakat and ‘Ushr + 410
A. Wealth of minors + 410B. Those under debt + 411C. Wealth liable to zakat + 411D. Holding period for wealth + 412E. Those entitled to zakat + 413
CHAPTER XXVIII
Courts, Procedure and Evidence
Section ICourts + 415
A. Maz. alim Courts + 415B. Court of the Qad. ı + 416C. Court of the Muh. tasib + 416
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Section IIAdab al-qad. ı: + 416
A. Qualifications of the qad. ı: + 417B. Jurisdiction + 418C. Procedure + 418D. Evidence + 420E. Qualifications of a Competent Witnesses + 424F. Women as Competent Witnesses + 425
CHAPTER XXIX
Islamic Law and Human Rights
VII History of Islamic Law and its Schools 433
CHAPTER XXX
The Islamic Legal Heritage
Section INature of Pre-Islamic Law + 435
Section IIThe First Period + 436
A. The Qur’an + 436B. The Sunnah + 436C. Fiqh + 437D. Changes in society + 437E. Compilation + 437
Section IIIThe Second Period: al-Khulafa’ al-Rashidun + 438
A. Sources of law + 438
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Section IVThe Third Period: Tabi‘un (Followers) + 438
A. Sources of fiqh + 438B. Narration of Traditions + 439C. The Rise of the Early Schools + 439
Section VThe Fourth Period: Growth + 440
A. Growth and compilation of fiqh + 440B. Compilation of the Sunnah + 441C. Compilation of tafsır + 442
Section VIThe Fifth Period: The Maturing of the
Legal System + 443
Section VIIThe Sixth Period: The Age of Qanun
and Codification + 443
A. The Ottoman Qanun + 444B. The Mughal Empire + 444
Section VIIIThe Seventh Period: Colonization and After + 445
Section IXThe Age We Live in Today + 446
CHAPTER XXXI
The Schools of Islamic Law
Section IThe H. anafı School + 449
A. Abu H. anıfah: The Founder + 450B. Jurists of the School + 450
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C. Early works of the School + 450D. Influence of the School + 451E. The H. anafı School and legal theory + 451
Section IIThe Malikı School + 452
A. Malik ibn Anas: The Founder + 452B. Jurists of the School + 453C. Malikı School and legal theory + 454
Section IIIThe Shafi‘ı School + 455
A. Muh.ammad ibn Idris al-Shafi‘ı: The Founder + 455B. Jurists of the School + 456C. Shafi‘ı School and legal theory + 456
Section IVThe H. anbalı School + 457
A. Ah.mad ibn H. anbal ibn Asad al-Shaybanı: The Founder + 457B. Jurists of the School + 458C. H. anbalı School and legal theory + 458
Section VThe Extinct Schools + 459
A. The Awza‘ı School + 459B. The Z. ahirı School + 459C. The T. abarı School + 460
CHAPTER XXXIIThe Function of a School of Law and the
Hierarchies
Section IThe Primary Function of a School of Law + 461
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Section IIThe Resources of the School: Jurists, Issues
and Texts + 462
A. The Hierarchy of Jurists Within a School + 462B. The Hierarchy of Issues Within a School + 465C. The Hierarchy of Texts Within a School + 467
CHAPTER XXXIIIGeographical Distribution of Schools and the
Bond Between Them
Section IGeographical Distribution of Schools + 473
Section IIThe Integral Bond Between the Four
Sunni Schools + 474
Select Bibliography
Glossary
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