Contents

Foreword to the Fourth Edition xixAbout the Authors xxiIntroduction xxiii

1. Test Facility Specification, System Integration,and Project Organization

Introduction: The Role of the Test Facility 1Part 1. The Specification of Test Powertrain Facilities 2Levels of Test Facility Specification 3Note Concerning Quality Management Certification 3Creation of an Operational Specification 4Feasibility Studies and Outline Planning Permission 6Benchmarking 6Regulations, Planning Permits, and Safety Discussions Covering

Test Cells 6Specification of Control and Data Acquisition Systems 8Use of Supplier’s Specifications 9Functional Specifications: Some Common Difficulties 9Interpretation of Specifications by Third-Party Stakeholders 10Part 2. Multidisciplinary Project Organization and Roles 11Project Roles and Management 12Project Management Tools: Communications and Responsibility

Matrix 14Web-Based Control and Communications 14Use of “Master Drawing” in Project Control 14Project Timing Chart 15A Note on Documentation 16Summary 16References 16

2. Quality and H&S Legislation and Management, TypeApproval, Test Correlation, and Reporting of Results

Test Facility Efficiency and Quality Certification 18Management Roles 19Work Scheduling 19Health & Safety (H&S) Legislation, Management,

and Risk Assessment 21

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Common Hazards in All Powertrain Facilities 22Risk Analysis 23Management and Supervision of University Test Facilities 25Use and Maintenance of Test Cell Log Books 25Test Execution, Analysis, and Reporting 26Determination of Cause and Effect 27Key Life Testing 28Vehicle and Vehicle Systems Type Approval,

Homologation, and Confirmation of Production 28Cell-to-Cell Correlation 29End-of-Life Vehicles (ELV) Directive 32Power Test Codes and Correction Factors 32Part 1. Standard Reference Conditions, Declarations of Power,

Fuel and Lubricating Oil Consumptions, and Test Methods 33Part 2. Test Measurements 33Part 3. Speed Governing 34Part 4. Torsional Vibrations 34Part 5. Specification of Overspeed Protection 34Part 6. Codes for Engine Power 34Statistical Design of Experiments 34Reference Documents 39Useful Websites and Regulations 39Further Reading 39

3. The Test Cell as a Thermodynamic System

Introduction 41The Energy Balance of the Engine 42Diversity Factor and the Final Specification of a Facility

Energy Balance 45Common or Individual Services in Multi-Cell Laboratories? 49Summary 49Further Reading 50

4. Powertrain Test Facility Design and Construction

Part 1. Cell Types, Sizes, and Layout 52Cell Sizing 52A Note Concerning Lifting Beams in Test Cells 53Frequency of Change of Unit Under Test and Handling

Systems 54Seeing and Hearing the Unit Under Test 54Containerized Test Cells 55The Basic Minimum Engine Test Bed 57Common Variations of Multi-Cell Layouts 59Part 2. Cell Contents and Fittings 62Emergency Exits, Safety Signs, and Alarms 62

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Transducer Boxes and Booms 62Test Cell Flooring and Subfloor Construction 63Facility and Cell Doors 64Cell Windows 65Cell Walls and Roof 66Lighting 67Cell Support Service Spaces 68Control Room Design 69In-Cell Control of the UUT 72Manual Control 73Part 3. Test Cell Roles and their Special Features 73Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Powertrain Testing 73Batteries and Battery Simulators 74Gearbox and Transmission Test Rigs 75Full Powertrain Test Rigs 76Inclined Engine Test Beds 77Automotive Engine Production Test Cells (Hot Test) 78Automotive Engine Production Cold-Test Stations 79End-of-Line (EOL) Test Station Facility Layout 79Large and Medium-Speed Diesel Engine Test Areas 80Part 4. Fire Safety and Fire Suppression in Test Facilities:

European ATEX Codes Applied to Engine Test Cells 81Fire Stopping of Cable Penetrations in Cell Structure 82Fire and Gas Detection and Alarm Systems for Test Facilities 83Fire Extinguishing Systems 84Useful Websites 87

5. Electrical Design Requirements of Test Facilities

Introduction 89The Electrical Engineer’s Design Role 90General Characteristics of the Electrical Installation 91Physical Environment 92Electrical Signal and Measurement Interference 94Earthing System Design 95The Layout of Cabling 96Integration of AC Dynamometer Systems 101Supply Interconnection of Disturbing and Sensitive Devices 102Power Cable Material and Bend Radii 102Electrical Power Supply Specification 103Electrical Cabinet Ventilation 103European Safety Standards and CE Marking 104Safety Interaction Matrix 108Note on “As Built” Electrical Documentation (Drawing)

Standards 108Useful Texts on EMC Suitable for Electrical Engineers

Involved with Test Facility Design 108

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6. Ventilation and Air-Conditioning in PowertrainTest Facilities

Part 1. Test Cell Ventilation Strategies 110Purge Fans: Safety Requirements to Reduce Explosion Risk 111Air Handling Units (AHUs) 112The Heat Capacity of Cooling Air 112Heat Transfer From the Engine 113Heat Transfer From the Exhaust System 115Heat Transfer From Walls 115Sources of Heat in the Test Cell 116Heat Losses From the Cell 117Calculation of Ventilation Load 118Part 2. Design of Ventilation Ducts and Distribution Systems 119Pressure Losses 119Ducting and Fittings 120Inlet and Outlet Ducting 121The Use of “Spot Fans” for Supplementary Cooling 124Air-Movers 124Fire Dampers 125External Ducting of Ventilation Systems 125Ventilation Duct Silencers 126Control of Ventilation Systems 126Fans 127Ventilation of the Control Room 133Air-Conditioning 133Fundamentals of Psychometry 134Air-Conditioning Processes 136Part 3. Combustion Air (CA) Treatment and Climatic Cells 139Centralized Combustion Air Supplies 139Specification of Operational Envelope for Humidity

and Temperature Control 140Dedicated Combustion Air Treatment Units 140Climatic Testing of Engine and Powertrains 145Climatic Test Cells for Vehicles 145Wind Tunnels 147Summary 148Notation 148References 149Further Reading 149

7. Test Cell Cooling Water and Exhaust Gas Systems

Part 1. Cooling Water Supply Systems 152Water 152Types of Test Cell Cooling Water Circuits 156Drawing up the Energy Balance and Sizing the Water System 169Part 2. Exhaust Gas Systems 169Individual Cell, Close Coupled Exhaust 171

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Individual Cell, Scavenged Duct 172Multiple Cells, Common Scavenged Duct 172Cooling of Exhaust Gases 173Estimation of Exhaust Gas Flows 173Exhaust Noise 175Tail Pipes 176Exhaust Cowls on Buildings 177Part 3. Turbocharger Testing 178Turbocharger Test Stands 179Testing of Turbochargers Using an Engine 179Turbine Speed and Blade Vibration Sensing 181Special Applications 181Health and Safety Implications of Turbocharger Testing 182References 182

8. Fuel and Oil Storage, Supply and Treatment

Introduction 183Bulk Fuel Storage and Supply Systems 184Decommissioning of Underground Fuel Tanks 187Auditing of Fuel Use 188Fuel Pipes 188Underground Fuel Pipes 189Storage and Treatment of Residual Fuels 189Storage of Biofuels 190Reference Fuel Drums 191Natural Gas (NG), Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), and

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) 191Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) 192Fuel Supply to the Test Cell 192In-Cell Fuel Systems 194Engine Fuel Pressure Control 195Engine Fuel Temperature Control 196Engine Oil Cooling Systems 198Properties of Gasoline and “Shelf Life” 198Properties of Diesel Fuels 199Fuel Dyes and Coloring 200Safety Principles in Handling and Storing Volatile Fuels 201References 201Further Reading 201

9. Vibration and Noise

Part 1: Vibration and its Isolation 203Vibration 203Fundamentals: Sources of Vibration 204Design of Engine Mountings and Test-Bed Foundations 207Practical Considerations in the Design of Engine and Test-Bed

Mountings 211

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Massive Foundations and Air-Sprung Bedplates 213Summary of Vibration Section 219Vibration Notation 219Part 2: Noise and its Attenuation in Test Facilities 219Sound Intensity 220Noise Measurements 221Permitted Levels of Noise in the Workplace 222Noise External to Test Facility and Planning Regulations 223Noise Reverberation in the Test Cell Environment 223Noise Notation 224References 224Useful Texts 225Further Reading 225

10. Dynamometers: The Measurement of Torque,Speed, and Power

Introduction 228Trunnion-Mounted (Cradle) Dynamometers 230Measurement of Torque Using In-Line Shafts or Torque Flanges 231Calibration and the Assessment of Errors in Torque

Measurement 234Torque Measurement Under Accelerating and Decelerating

Conditions 238Measurement of Rotational Speed 239One, Two, or Four Quadrant? 240Dynamometer Torque/Speed and Power/Speed Characteristics 241Pushing the Limits of Dynamometer Performance 244Water Quantity Required to Absorb a Given Power in Water

Brakes 245Engine Cranking and Starting 245Choice of Dynamometer 246Classification of Dynamometer Types and their Working

Principles 247Hydrokinetic or “Hydraulic” Dynamometers (Water Brakes) 247Constant-Fill Machines 250Variable-Fill Machines 250“Bolt-On” Variable-Fill Water Brakes 252Disk Dynamometers 253Hydrostatic Dynamometers 253Electrical Motor-Based Dynamometers and Their Associated

Control 253Direct Current (DC) Dynamometers 255Eddy-Current Dynamometers 256Powder Brake Dynamometers 256Friction Dynamometers 257Air Brake Dynamometers 257Hybrid and Tandem Dynamometers 258

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11. Rigging the Engine and Shaft Selection

Part 1. Rigging of Electrical and Fluid Services Plus EngineMountings 260

Supply of Electrical Services to Engine Systems 262On-Board Diagnostic Systems (OBDS) 262Rigging Engine Circuits and Auxiliaries 263Engine Handling and Support Systems 264Part 2. Selection of a Suitable Dynamometer Connecting Shaft 268The Nature of the Problem 269Overhung Mass on Engine and Dynamometer Bearings 269Background Reading 270Torsional Oscillations and Critical Speeds 270Design of Coupling Shafts 276Stress Concentrations, Keyways, and Keyless Hub Connection 277Shaft Whirl 278Couplings 279Damping: The Role of the Flexible Coupling 281An Example of Drive Shaft Design 284An Alternative Solution 287Shock Loading of Couplings Due to Cranking, Irregular Running,

and Torque Reversal 287Selection of Coupling Torque Capacity 289The Role of the Engine Clutch 290Balancing of Driveline Components 290Alignment of Engine and Dynamometer 290Guarding of Coupling Shafts 291Engine-to-Dynamometer Coupling: Summary of Design

Procedure 292Part 3. Flywheels and Engine Starting Systems 292Flywheel Safety Issues 293Engine Cranking and Starting in a Test Cell 294Engine Cranking: No Starter Motor 294Engine-Mounted Starter Systems 295Non-Electrical Starting Systems 296Notation 296References 297Further Reading 297

12. Test Cell Safety, Control, and Data Acquisition

Part 1. Machinery and Control System Safety: Stopping,Starting, and Control in the Test Cell 300

European Machinery Safety Regulations 301US Machinery Safety Regulations 303Emergency Stop Function 303Hard-Wired Instrumentation in the Test Facility 305Computerized Monitoring of Test Cell and UUT Alarm Signals 306Security of Electrical Supply 306

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Building Management Systems (BMS) and Services Status Displays 307Test Cell Start-Up and Shutdown Procedures 308Part 2. Open- and Closed-Loop Control of Engine and

Dynamometer 309Problems in Achieving Control 310The Test Sequence: Modes of Prime-Mover/Dynamometer Control 311Precautions in Modes of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer 315Throttle Actuation 315Part 3. Test Control Software, Choosing Supplier, and

Sequence Editing 316Editing and Control of Complex Engine Test Sequences 317Test Sequence Elements 318Part 4. Data Acquisition and the Transducer Chain 319Data Channel Names 319Calibration 319Transducer Boxes and Distributed I/O 320Choice of Instruments and Transducers 321Measurement of Time Intervals and Speed 323Force, Quasi-Static 323Measurement of Cyclic Force 323Measurement of Pressure 324Displacement 326Acceleration/Vibration 326Temperature Measurement 327Smart Instrumentation and Communication Links 329Control for Endurance Testing and “Unmanned” Running 329Control for Dynamic Engine Drive Cycles 330Data Display 332Reference 333Further Reading 333

13. Data Handling, the Use of Modeling, andPost-Test Processing

Part 1. Data Collection and Transmission 335Traditional Paper-Based Test Data Collection 336Chart Recorder Format of Data 338Computerized Data Recording with Manual Control 338Fully Computerized Test Cell Control and Data Handling Systems 339Data Transfer Systems and Protocols 339Powertrain Mapping and Calibration 341Virtual Models in Powertrain Calibration and “Hardware-in-Loop”

Testing 342Transmission Testing and a Role for HIL 345Part 2. Management of Data: Some General Principles 345Post-Acquisition Data Processing, Statistics, and Data Mining 346Data Analysis Tools for the Test Engineer 348Physical Security of Data 349Reference and Further Reading 350

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14. Measurement of Fuel, Combustion Air,and Oil Consumption

Introduction 352Part 1. Measurement Instruments for Liquid Fuel Consumption 352Mass Flow or Consumption Rate Meters 355Spillback 357Fuel Consumption Measurements: Gaseous Fuels 358Effect of Fuel Condition on Engine Performance 359Measurement of Lubricating Oil Consumption 359Measurement of Crankcase Blow-By 361Part 2. Measurement of Air Consumption and Gas Flows 362Properties of Air 362Air Consumption, Condition, and Engine Performance 363Notation Used in Air Consumption Calculations 373References 374Further Reading 374

15. The Combustion Process and Combustion Analysis

Introduction 376Single-Cylinder Research and “Optical” Engines 376Fundamental Influences on Combustion 377Combustion in the Conventional Gasoline Engine 378Combustion in the Conventional Diesel Engine 378Effects on Combustion Process of Air/Fuel Ratio 379Engine Indicating (EI) Measurements 382Total and Instantaneous Energy Release 387Cyclic Energy ReleasedMean Effective Pressure (Indicated,

Gross, and Pumping) 389Instantaneous Energy Release 389Computerized Engine Indicating Technology and Methodology 390Basic Circuit and Operation of Pressure Measurement Chain 391Ground Loops in Indication Equipment 394“Exact” Determination of True Top Dead Center Position 394Combustion Analysis Roles in IC Engines for Hybrid

Vehicles 395“Knock” Sensing 396Low-Speed Pre-Ignition (LSPI) or “Super-Knock” 397Integration of Combustion Analysis Equipment within

the Test Cell 397High-End Engine Calibration Cells 398Occasional use of Combustion Analysis in Test Cells 399Engine Indicating Pressure Transducers (EIPTS) 400Cylinder Pressure Transducers 400Mounting of the Cylinder Pressure Transducer 402Fuel Rail Pressure and “Shot Volume” Measurement 403Speed/Crank Angle Sensors 403Calculation for Combustion Analysis Test Results 404

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Notation 406References 406Further Reading 406

16. Engine Exhaust Emissions

Emission Legislation, Certification, and Test Processes 410Auxiliary Engine-Driven Units, Fitted or Omitted for the

Emissions Test 412Legislation Classifications 413After-Market Emission Legislation 415Fuel Standards 415Basic Chemistry of Internal Combustion Engine Emissions 415Emissions from Spark-Ignition Engines 417Emissions from Diesel Engines 418Diesel Particulate Emissions 419Principles of Particulate Emissions Measurement 420Legislative Limits and Measurement of Particulate Mass (PM)

and Number (PN) 420Principles of Measurement and Analysis of Gaseous Emissions 422Nondispersive Infrared Analyzer (NDIR) 422Fourier Transform Infrared Analyzer (FTIR) 422Chemiluminescence Detector (CLD) 423Flame Ionization Detector (FID) 423Fast FID, Cutter FID, and GC-FID 423Paramagnetic Detection (PMD) Analyzer 423Mass Spectrometer 424Response Times 424Exhaust “After-Treatment” Catalysts and Filters, Operation

and Testing 425Three-Way Catalytic Converters 425Diesel Oxidizing Catalysts (DOCs) 427Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) 428Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) 429Ammonia Slip Catalyst (ASC) 430Testing of Post-Combustion Exhaust Systems and Devices 430Integration and Management of Exhaust Emission

Instrumentation 431Calibration, Span Gases, Storing Gas Distribution System 431Gas Analyzers and “Emission Benches” 434Constant-Volume Sampling (CVS) Systems 434Health and Safety Implications and Interlocks for CVS Systems 438Temperature Soak Areas for Legislative Testing 439The European Exhaust Emissions Test Procedure

(Passenger Cars) 439The US Federal Light-Duty Exhaust Emission Test

Procedure (FTP-75) 440Heavy-Duty Test Procedures 442

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Exhaust Emissions of Marine Propulsion Diesel Engines 443ISO 8178 and Testing Emissions of Non-Road Vehicle Engines 443Vehicle Evaporative Emissions 444Implications of Choice of Site on Low-Level

Emissions Testing 447Abbreviations 449References 449Further Reading 450Useful Addresses 450

17. Chassis or Rolling-Road Dynamometers

Introduction 452Genesis of the Rolling-Road Dynamometer 452The Road Load Equation 453Calibration, Coast-Down, and Inertia Simulation 455Brake System Testers 457Tire-Testing Dynamometers 457Rolling Roads for In-Service Tuning and Assessment 458Rolling Roads for End-of-Line (EOL) Production Testing 458Chassis Dynamometers for Emissions Testing 459The Emission Dynamometer Cell and Environs 461Mileage Accumulation Facilities 462NVH and EMC Chassis Dynamometers 463Special Features of Chassis Dynamometers in Climatic Cells 465Flat-Track Chassis Dynamometers 466Independent Wheel Dynamometers 466Articulated Chassis Dynamometers 467Robot Drivers or Shifters 467The Installation of Chassis Dynamometers 469Chassis Dynamometer Cellar or Pit Design and

Construction Details 469Pit Flooding 470Pit Depth 470Dynamometer Flooring 472Design and Installation of Variable-Geometry (4 � 4)

Dynamometers 473Drive Cabinet Housing 474Offloading and Positioning Chassis Dynamometer Units 474Tire Burst Detectors 474Loading and Emergency Brakes 474Vehicle Restraints 475Guarding and Safety 476Roll Surface Treatment 476Road Shells and Bump Strips 477Driver’s Aids 477Fire Suppression 478The Effect of Roll Diameter on Tire Contact Conditions 478

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Limitations of the Chassis Dynamometer 480Solar Heat Load Testing in Chassis Dynamometer

Environmental Cells 481

18. Anechoic Test Cells: NVH and EMC Testing

Introduction 483Part 1. NVH Testing and Acoustic Test Facilities 484The Anechoic Cell Structure 485Treatment and Location of Services for Anechoic Cells 486Vehicle Noise: Measurement Practice 490Fire Detection and Suppression in Anechoic Cells 491Part 2. Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Test Facilities 491The Task 491Coupling Mechanisms Between EMI Source and “Victim” 492Pulse Interference or Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) 493Legislation 494Type Approval “E” and “e” Marking 496EMC Test Facilities 497Health and Safety in RF Cells 499Further Reading 500

19. The Pursuit and Definition of Accuracy

Introduction and Terms 501Analog Versus Digital 503Example: Measurement of Exhaust Temperature of a

Diesel Engine 504Some General Principles 507Definition of Terms Relating to Accuracy 507Statements Regarding Accuracy: A Critical Examination 508Sensing Errors 509Systematic Instrument Errors 509Random Instrument Errors 511Instrument Drift 511Instrumental Accuracy: Manufacturers’ Claims 511Uncertainty 512Traceability 514Combination of Errors 514The Number of Significant Figures to be Quoted 515Absolute and Relative Accuracy 515The Cost of Accuracy: A Final Consideration 515References 516Further Reading 516

20. Tribology, Fuel, and Lubrication Testing

Introduction 517Calorific Value of Fuels 518

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Gaseous Fuels 518Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG or LP Gas) 519Lubricant Classification and Certification 520Tribology 521Bench Tests 522Oil Characteristics 523Fuel Contamination of Lubrication Oil 523Reference Fuels and Lubricants 524Designated Engines and Test Regimes in Fuel and Lube Testing 524RNT (Radionuclide Technique) Wear Tests 526Example of (Non-RNT) Engine Tests Involving Tribology:

Measurement of Compression Ring Oil Film Thickness 526Biofuels 527References 528Further Reading 529

21. Thermal Efficiency, Measurement of Heat,and Mechanical Losses

Introduction 531Ideal Standard Cycles: Effect of Compression Ratio 532The Energy Balance of an Internal Combustion Engine 534Measurement of Heat Losses: Heat to Exhaust 536Sample Calculation: Analysis of an Engine Test 536Sample Calculation: Exhaust Calorimeter 537Energy Balances: Typical Values 538The Role of Indicated Power in the Energy Balance 539Prediction of Energy Balance 539Energy Balance for Turbocharger 541Summary of Stages in Calculation of Energy Balance From

an Engine Test 541Prediction of Energy Balance for a Given Engine 541Measurement of Mechanical Losses in Engines 542Motoring Tests 543The Morse Test 544The Willan Line Method 544Summary 544Notation 545References and Further Reading 546

Appendix 1: Martyr’s Laws of Engineering Project Management 547Index 551