CONTENT

BIOLOGY

Fathers of Biology

Characteristics of Living Organisms

The Cell, Biological Evolution

Classification of Organism

Zoology

Human Body

Systems of Human Body

Human Diseases

Common Drugs

Diseases of Domestic Animals

Scientific Instruments/Components

Botany, Genetics

Biotechnology,

Agriculture, Animal Husbandry

Indian Cattle,

Binomial Nomenclature of Some Common Animals

Binomial Nomenclature of Some Common Plants.

BIOLOGY

The word biology means, "the science of life", from the Greek bios, life, and logos, word

or knowledge. Therefore, Biology is the science of Living Things. That is why Biology is

sometimes known as Life Science.

Generally, biology is classified into 2 categories. Those are: Botany (Study of Plants) and

Zoology (Study of Animals).

Category Botany Zoology

They are Study of plants Study of animals

The person who studies is called as

botanist or a plant scientist zoologists or a animal scientist

Main Persons Father of Botany-Theophrastus Father of Zoology-

Aristotle

Nomenclature International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi,

and plants (ICN),replaced by International Code of

Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).

International Code of

Zoological Nomenclature

(ICZN or ICZN Code).

Researches and

Studies includes

Deals with the studies of plant structure, growth and

differentiation, reproduction, biochemistry and primary

metabolism, chemical products, development, diseases, evolutionary relationships, systematic, and plant

taxonomy.

Vast studies related to

animal structure,

formation, physiological, evolutionary and

systematic and ethology.

Fathers of Different Fields in

Biology

Father of ,

Biology and Zoology - Aristotle

Botany and Ecology - Theophrastus

Anatomy - Andreas Vesalius

Taxonomy and Nomenclature –

Carolus Linnaeus

Plant Physiology - Stephen Hales

Plant Pathology - de Bary

Palaeontology - Leonard da Vinci

Genetics - Gregor Johann Mendel

Medicine - Hippocrates

Cytology - Robert Hooke Modern

Embryology - Von Baer

Immunology - Edward Jenner

Madern Palaeonlogy-Cuvier

Antiobiotic - Alexander Fleming

Blood Circulation - Willium Harvey

Blood Groups - Landsteiner

Green Revolution - Norman E.

Borlaug

Indian Green Revolution - M. S.

Swaminathan

Indian Palaeobotany - Birbal Sahni

Experimental Genetics - T. H. Morgan

*Birdman of India - Salim Ali

*Founder of Embryology - C. F. Wolff

Characteristics of life

• Living things are composed of matter

structured in an orderly way where

simple molecules are ordered together

into much larger macromolecules.

• An easy way to remember this is

“GRIMNERD C” All organisms; - Grow,

Respire, Interact, Move, Need Nutrients,

Excrete (Waste), Reproduce, Death, Cells

(Made of)

• Living things are sensitive, meaning

they are able to respond to stimuli.

• Living things are able to grow, develop,

and reproduce.

• Living things are able to adapt over time

by the process of natural selection.

• All known living things use the

hereditary molecule, DNA.

BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

• It is the process through which the characteristics of organisms change over successive

generations, by means of genetic variation and natural selection.

• Microevolution is defined as changes in gene frequency in a population from one

generation to the next. A population is a group of organisms who interbreed with each

other.

• Macroevolution is evolution on a big scale, the descent of many species from one

common ancestor over billions of years.

Origin of Life

• It is generally agreed that all life today

evolved by common descent from a single

primitive lifeform.

• All known organisms share certain

general properties, and to a large degree

these properties define what we mean by

life.

• Scientists Disagree about Where

Life Started: The atmosphere of the

early earth was rich in hydrogen,

providing a ready supply of energetic

electrons with which to build organic

molecules.

• The Miller-Urey Experiment:

Experiments attempting to duplicate the

conditions of early earth produce many

of the key molecules of living organisms.

• Theories about the Origin of Cells: The

first cells are thought to have arisen

spontaneously, but there is little

agreement as to the mechanism.

• The Earliest Cells: The earliest fossils

are of bacteria too small to see with the

unaided eye.

• In 1924 when Alexander Oparin

reasoned that atmospheric oxygen

prevented the synthesis of the organic

molecules. Organic molecules are the

necessary building blocks for the

evolution of life. In his The Origin of Life,

Oparin argued that a "primeval soup" of

organic molecules could be created in an

oxygen-less atmosphere through the

action of sunlight.

• Around the same time J.B.S. Haldane

also suggested that the Earth's pre-biotic

oceans, which were very different from

what oceans are now, would have formed

a "hot dilute soup". In this soup, organic

compounds, the building blocks of life,

could have formed. This idea was called

biopoiesis

Fundamental Properties of Life

• Cellular organization : All

organisms consist of one or more cells—

complex, organized assemblages of

molecules enclosed within membranes.

• Sensitivity : All organisms respond to

stimuli— though not always to the same

stimuli in the same ways.

• Growth : All living things assimilate

energy and use it to grow, a process called

metabolism. Plants, algae, and some

bacteria use sunlight to create covalent

carbon-carbon bonds from CO2 and H2O

through photosynthesis. This transfer of

the energy in covalent bonds is essential

to all life on earth.

• Development : Multicellular

organisms undergo systematic gene-

directed changes as they grow and

mature.

• Reproduction: All living things

reproduce, passing on traits from one

generation to the next. Although some

organisms live for a very long time, no

organism lives forever, as far as we know.

Because all organisms die, ongoing life is

impossible without reproduction.

• Regulation: All organisms have

regulatory mechanisms that coordinate

internal processes.

• Homeostasis: All living things

maintain relatively constant internal

conditions, different from their

environment.

Heredity

All organisms on earth possess a genetic

system that is based on the replication of

a long, complex molecule called DNA.

This mechanism allows for adaptation

and evolution over time, also

distinguishing characteristics of living

things.

Evidence from Connecting Links

Connecting Links Between groups

Virus living and non-living organism

Euglena

(Protozoa)

plants and animals

Balanoglossus (Chrodata)

invertebrates and chordates

Peripatus

(Anthropoda)

arthropods

and annelids

Neopilina (Mollusca)

annelids and molluscans

Protopterus

(Lung fish)

fishes and amphibians

Chimaera cartilaginous and bony fishes

THEORIES OF EVOLUTION

Lamarckism (Lamarckian

inheritance)

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was a French

scientist who developed an alternative

theory of evolution in 1801 and 1809. His

theory involved two ideas:

1. A characteristic which is used more

and more by an organism becomes bigger

and stronger, and one that is not used

eventually disappears

2. Any feature of an organism that is

improved through use is passed to its

offspring.

Darwinism

The theory of evolution by natural

selection, first formulated in Darwin's

book "On the Origin of Species" in 1859,

is the process by which organisms change

over time as a result of changes in

heritable physical or behavioral traits.

As "Darwinism" became widely accepted

in the 1870s, caricatures of Charles

Darwin with an ape or monkey body

symbolized evolution.

Mendelian inheritance

It is inheritance of biological features

that follows the laws proposed by Gregor

Johann Mendel in 1865 and 1866 and re-

discovered in 1900.

Genetic drift

It (also known as allelic drift or the

Sewall Wright effect after biologist

Sewall Wright) is the change in the

frequency of a gene variant (allele) in a

population due to random sampling of

organisms.

Modern Evolutionary Synthesis

It is a synthesis of ideas from several

fields of biology that provides an account

of evolution which is widely accepted as

the current paradigm in evolutionary

biology, and reflects the consensus about

how evolution works.

The 19th Century ideas of natural

selection by Charles Darwin and

Mendelian genetics by Gregor Mendel

were united by Ronald Fisher, one of the

three founders of population genetics,

along with J. B. S. Haldane and Sewall

Wright, between 1918 and 1932.

THE CELL and ITS STRUCTURE

Discovery of Cells

• 1665 : Robert Hooke looks at cork under

a microscope. Calls the chambers he see

"cells"

• 1665 - 75 : Anton van Leeuwenhoek, the

person incorrectly given credit for the

invention of the microscope (actually, he

was just damn good at making and using

them, and his scopes soon became the

standard, and history has just given him

credit as the inventor of the microscope),

studies organisms living in pond water

(like you did in lab). He calls them

"Animalcules."

• 1830 : German scientists Schleiden and

Schawann summarize the findings of

many scientists and conclude that all

living organisms are made of cells. This

forms the basis of the Cell Theory of

Biology

All organisms are composed of

cells

• The cell is the structural unit of life -

units smaller than cells are not alive

• Cells arise by division of preexisting

cells spontaneous generation does not

exist

• Cells can be cultured to produce more

cells

in vitro = outside organism or cell

in vivo = inside organism or cell

Anatomy of a Cell

Cells are of two types, eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic, which do not.

Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, while eukaryotes can be either single-celled or

multicellular.

Cell types Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Typical organisms bacteria, archaea protists, fungi, plants, animals

Typical size ~ 1–5 µm ~ 10–100 µm

Type of nucleus nucleoid region; no true

nucleus

true nucleus with double membrane

DNA circular (usually) linear molecules (chromosomes)

with histone proteins

RNA/protein synthesis coupled in the cytoplasm RNA synthesis in the nucleus

protein synthesis in the cytoplasm Ribosomes 50S and 30S 60S and 40S

Cytoplasmic structure very few structures highly structured by endomembranes and a cytoskeleton

Mitochondria none one to several thousand

Chloroplasts none in algae and plants

Organization usually single cells single cells, colonies, higher

multicellular organisms with

specialized cells Cell division binary fission mitosis and meiosis

Chromosomes single chromosome more than one chromosome

Membranes cell membrane Cell membrane and membrane-bound

organelles

Animal and Plant cells Animal cell

• All animals are multicellular. Human

body contains trillions of cells.

• All animal cells are eukaryotic; they are

surrounded by cell membrane and do not

have a cell wall.

• The components of animal cells are

centrioles, cilia and flagella, endoplasmic

reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes,

microfilaments, microtubules,

mitochondria, nucleus, peroxisomes,

plasma membrane and ribosomes.

• There are many different cell types,

approximately 210 distinct cell types in

adult human body.

Plant cell

• Plant cell are eukaryotic cells; they are

membrane bound organelles. They are

surrounded by a rigid cell wall.

• Plant cells are similar to animal cells in

being eukaryotic and they have similar

cell organelles.

• Generally, plant cells are larger than

animal cells and are mostly similar in size

and are rectangular or cube shaped.

• Plant cell contains a few distinctive

features like a cell wall, large vacuole and

plastids.

Structure and Functions of a cell

Cell membrane

It is the outer lining of the cell which

encloses all other cell organelles. The cell

membrane also known as the plasma

membrane is semipermeable. It allows

only specific molecules to pass through

and blocking others.

Cell wall

The cell wall is a rigid layer that

surrounds the plant cells. Plant cell walls

are primarily made up of cellulose. It is

located outside the cell membrane whose

main function is to provide rigidity,

strength, protection against mechanical

stress and infection.

Cytoplasm

It is the fluid substance that fills the cell.

All the cell organelles are suspended in

the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm maintains

the osmotic concentration of the cells

and prevents them from bursting or

shrinking.

Nucleus

It is a membrane bound organelle,

spherical in shape. Most of the activities

of the cell is directed by the nucleus. All

the cells in an animal has one complete

set of genes in its nucleus. The genetic

material DNA help in protein formation.

Nucleolus

It is darkly stained are in the nucleus, it

aids in protein formation and RNA

synthesis.

DNA and RNA

DNA RNA

Structural Name Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid

Function Medium of long-term storage and

transmission of genetic information.

Transfer the genetic code needed for the

creation of proteins from the nucleus to

the ribosome. This process prevents the

DNA from having to leave the nucleus, so

it stays safe. Without RNA, proteins

could never be made.

Structure Typically a double- stranded molecule

with a long chain of nucleotides.

A single-stranded molecule in most of its

biological roles and has a shorter chain of nucleotides.

Bases/ Sugars

Long polymer with a deoxyribose and

phosphate backbone and four different

bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine.

Shorter polymer with a ribose and

phosphate backbone and four different

bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil.

Base Pairing

A-T (Adenine-Thymine), G-C (Guanine- Cytosine)

A-U (Adenine-Uracil), G-C (Guanine- Cytosine)

Stability Deoxyribose sugar in DNA is less

reactive because of C-H bonds. Stable in

alkaline conditions. DNA has smaller

grooves where the damaging enzyme can attach which makes it harder for the

enzyme to attack DNA.

Ribose sugar is more reactive because of

C-OH (hydroxyl) bonds. Not stable in

alkaline conditions. RNA on the other

hand has larger grooves which makes it

easier to be attacked by enzymes.

Unique

Traits

The helix geometry of DNA is of B-

Form. DNA is completely protected by

the body i.e. the body destroys enzymes that cleave DNA. DNA can be damaged

by exposure to Ultra-violet rays.

The helix geometry of RNA is of A-

Form. RNA strands are continually made,

broken down and reused. RNA is more

resistant to damage by Ultra-violet rays.

Nuclear membrane

It is the porous double membrane layer

surrounding the nucleus. It allows

passage of substances and is a distinctive

characteristic of the eukaryotic cell.

Nucleoplasm

It is the semi-fluid substance inside the

nucleus, contains the genetic material

and the nucleolus.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria is one of the largest organs

of the cell and is known as the 'power

house of the cell'. It is a spherical or rod-

shaped organelle and is enveloped by a

double membrane. The mitochondria

aids in conversion of glucose to high

energy molecules (ATP) for the cell.

Ribosomes

Ribosomes are found on the endoplasmic

reticulum. Together they help in

manufacturing proteins for the cell

following instructions of the nucleus.

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are membrane bound

organelles; they contain digestive

enzymes. They break down the waste

products and detoxify the cell.

Centrosome

It is a small body located near the

nucleus. Centrioles are made in the

centrosomes. During cell division the

centromere organizes the assembly of the

micro-tubules.

Endoplasmic reticulum

It is a large network of interconnecting

membrane tunnels. It is composed of

both rough endoplasmic reticulum and

smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The

rough endoplasmic reticulum is covered

with ribosomes hence appears rough.

They follow the instructions from the

nucleus and make proteins the cell needs.

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is

continuous with the outer nuclear

membrane. It transports material

through the cell and produces and digests

lipids and membrane proteins.

Golgi apparatus

They are flattened stacks of membrane

bound sacs. They function as the

packaging unit, the proteins formed by

the endoplasmic reticulum are packed

into small membrane sacs called vesicles.

Vacuoles

They are organelles for storage. Small

membrane bound vacuoles filled with

fluids and water are present in animals.

In plant cells the vacuoles perform

functions of secretion, excretion and

storage.

Chloroplasts

It is an elongated or disc-shaped

organelle containing chlorophyll. It is the

site for photosynthesis in a plant cell. The

green pigment chlorophyll absorbs

energy from sunlight.

Cytoskeleton

It is a network of fibers made up of

micro- tubule and micro-filament. They

maintain the shape and gives support to

the cell.

Plasmodesmata

They are microscopic channels which

traverse the cell walls of plant cells and

enables transport and communication

between them.

Plastids

Plastids are storage organelles. They

store products like starch for synthesis of

fatty acids and terpenes.

History of research in Cell

• 1632–1723: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

teaches himself to make lenses,

constructs basic optical microscopes and

draws protozoa, such as Vorticella from

rain water, and bacteria from his own

mouth.

• 1665: Robert Hooke discovers cells in

cork, then in living plant tissue using an

early compound microscope. He coins

the term cell (from Latin cella, meaning

"small room") in his book Micrographia

(1665).

• 1839: Theodor Schwann and Matthias

Jakob Schleiden elucidate the principle

that plants and animals are made of cells,

concluding that cells are a common unit

of structure and development, and thus

founding the cell theory.

• 1855: Rudolf Virchow states that new

cells come from pre-existing cells by cell

division (omnis cellula ex cellula).

• 1859: The belief that life forms can

occur spontaneously (generatio

spontanea) is contradicted by Louis

Pasteur (1822– 1895) (although

Francesco Redi had performed an

experiment in 1668 that suggested the

same conclusion).

• 1931: Ernst Ruska builds the first

transmission electron microscope (TEM)

at the University of Berlin. By 1935, he

has built an EM with twice the resolution

of a light microscope, revealing

previously unresolvable organelles.

• 1953: Watson and Crick made their first

announcement on the double helix

structure of DNA on February 28.

• 1981: Lynn Margulis published

Symbiosis in Cell Evolution detailing the

endosymbiotic theory.

BIOMOLECULE

It is an organic compound normally present as an essential component of living organism.

Characteristics of Biomolecules

• Most of them are organic compounds.

• They have specific shapes and

dimensions.

• Functional group determines their

chemical properties.

• Many of them arc asymmetric.

• Macromolecules are large molecules

and are constructed from small building

block molecules.

• Building block molecules have simple

structure.

• Biomolecules first gorse by chemical

evolution.

Types of biomolecules

A diverse range of biomolecules exist,

including:

Small molecules (Lipids, fatty acids,

glycolipids, sterols, glycerolipids,

Vitamins, Hormones, neurotransmitters,

Metabolites) Monomers, oligomers and

polymers.

Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) are

long chains of sugars.

• A carbohydrate is a biological molecule

consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H)

and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a

hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in

water); in other words, with the

empirical formula Cm(H2O)n (where m

could be different from n).

• The primary function of carbohydrates

is for short-term energy storage (sugars

are for Energy).

• A secondary function is intermediate-

term energy storage (as in starch for

plants and glycogen for animals).

Carbohydrates are 3 types:

Monosaccharides are the simplest

form of carbohydrates with only one

simple sugar. They essentially contain an

aldehyde or ketone group in their

structure. e.g. Glucose - Fructose -

Galactose

Disaccharides are formed when two

monosaccharides, or two single simple

sugars, form a bond with removal of

water. They can be hydrolyzed to yield

their saccharin building blocks by boiling

with dilute acid or reacting them with

appropriate enzymes. e.g. Lactose-

Sucrose-Maltose

Polysaccharides are polymerized

monosaccharides, or complex

carbohydrates. They have multiple

simple sugars. e.g. Starch- Glycogen-

Cellulose

Proteins

• It contains the elements Carbon,

Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and

sometimes Phosphorus or Sulfur.

• Proteins are heteropolymers of stings of

amino acids. Amino acids are joined

together by the peptide bond which is

formed in between the carboxyl group

and amino group of successive amino

acids.

• Proteins are formed from 20 different

amino acids, depending on the number of

amino acids and the sequence of amino

acids.

• Animal Protein contains the most

biological value because it contains all

essential amino acids (Meat, Milk, Fish,

Eggs, etc.)

• Plant Protein contains a lower

biological value to humans because it

contains fewer essential amino acids

(Cereals, Peas, Beans, etc.)

Lipids (fats)

Lipids are composed of long hydrocarbon

chains. Lipid molecules hold a large

amount of energy and are energy storage

molecules. Lipids are generally esters of

fatty acids and are building blocks of

biological membranes. Most of the lipids

have a polar head and non- polar tail.

Fatty acids can be unsaturated and

saturated fatty acids. e.g. oils, fats,

phospholipids, glycolipids, etc.

Lipids present in biological membranes

are of three classes based on the type of

hydrophilic head present:

• Glycolipids are lipids whose head

contains oligosaccharides with 1-15

saccharide residues.

• Phospholipids contain a positively

charged head which are linked to the

negatively charged phosphate groups.

• Sterols, whose head contain a steroid

ring. Example steroid.

Roughage or Dietary Fiber or Bulk

• It includes the parts of plant foods your

body can't digest or absorb.

• It passes relatively intact through your

stomach, small intestine and colon and

out of your body.

• Fiber is commonly classified as soluble,

which dissolves in water, or insoluble,

which doesn't dissolve.

• Soluble fiber dissolves in water to form

a gel-like material. It can help lower

blood cholesterol and glucose levels. It is

found in oats, peas, beans, apples, citrus

fruits, carrots, barley and psyllium.

•Insoluble fiber promotes the movement

of material through your digestive

system and increases stool bulk, so it can

be of benefit to those who struggle with

constipation or irregular stools. Whole-

wheat flour, wheat bran, nuts, beans and

vegetables, such as cauliflower, green

beans and potatoes, are good sources of

insoluble fiber.

Vitamin

• A vitamin is defined as an organic

compound and a vital nutrient that an

organism requires in limited amounts.

• A compound is called a vitamin when it

cannot be synthesized in sufficient

quantities by an organism, and must be

obtained from the diet.

• Thus, each "vitamin" refers to a number

of vitamer compounds that all show the

biological activity associated with a

particular vitamin.

• There are two types of vitamins: fat-

soluble and water-soluble.

• Fat-soluble (Vitamins A, D, E, and K)

vitamins are stored in your fat cells,

consequently requiring fat in order to be

absorbed.

• Water-soluble vitamins (Vitamin B & C)

are not stored in your body; therefore,

they need to be replenished daily.

Vitamin Sources and Deficiency & Sufficiency Diseases Chart

Vitamin Chemical

Name Deficiency disease Sufficiency disease Food sources

Vitamin A

Retinol, retinal,

and

carotenoids

Nightblindness,

Hyperkeratosis,

and Keratomalacia

Hypervitaminosis A

Orange, ripe yellow

fruits, leafy vegetables,

carrots, pumpkin, squash, spinach, liver,

soy milk, milk

Vitamin B1

Thiamine

Beriberi, Wernicke

-Korsakoff

syndrome

Drowsiness or

muscle relaxation

with large doses

Pork, oatmeal, brown

rice, vegetables,

potatoes, liver, eggs

Vitamin B2

Riboflavin

Ariboflavinosis Dairy products, bananas,

popcorn, green beans,

asparagus

Vitamin B3 Niacin,

niacinamide

Pellagra Liver damage

andother problems

Meat, fish, eggs, many

vegetables, mushrooms,

tree nuts

Vitamin B5 Pantothenic

acid

Paresthesia

Diarrhea; possibly

nausea and

heartburn.

Meat, broccoli, avocados

Vitamin B6

Pyridoxine,

pyridoxamine,

pyridoxal

Anemia peripheral

neuropathy

Impairment

of proprioception,

nerve damage

Meat, vegetables, tree

nuts, bananas

Vitamin B7

Biotin Dermatitis, enteriti

s

Raw egg yolk, liver,

peanuts, certain

vegetables

Vitamin B9

Folic acid,

folinic acid

Megaloblastic

anemia and

Deficiency during

pregnancy is

associated

with birth defects,

such as neural tube defects

May mask

symptoms of

vitamin B12

deficiency;

Other effects.

Leafy vegetables, pasta,

bread, cereal, liver

Vitamin B12

Cyanocobalami n,

methylcobalami

n

Megaloblastic

anemia

Acne-like rash

Meat and other animal

products

Vitamin C Ascorbic acid Scurvy Vitamin C megadosage

Many fruits and vegetables, liver

Vitamin D Cholecalciferol,

Ergocalciferol

Rickets and

Osteomalacia Hypervitaminosis D

Fish, eggs, liver,

mushrooms

Vitamin E

Tocopherols,

tocotrienols

Deficiency is very

rare; mildhemolytic

anemia in newborn infants.

Increased congestive

heart failure seen in

one large randomized study.

Many fruits and

vegetables, nuts and

seeds

Vitamin K

phylloquinone,

menaquinones

Bleeding diathesis

Increases

coagulation in

patients taking warfarin.

Leafy green vegetables

such as spinach, egg

yolks, liver

Mineral Nutrients or Dietary

Mineral

These are the naturally occurring

inorganic nutrients in the food and soil

essential for the proper functioning of the

plant and animal body.

Minerals are among the essential

elements required by the body including

carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins

and water.

These are two types, such as

Macronutrients and Micronutrients.

Macronutrients

Elements which are present in large

amounts in plant tissues are called

macronutrients. They are in excess of 10

mole per kg of dry matter. e.g. Carbon,

hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,

phosphorous, Sulphur, potassium,

calcium and magnesium.

Micronutrients or Trace Elements

Elements which are present in small

amounts, i.e. less than 10 mole per kg of

dry matter are called micronutrients. e.g.

Iron, manganese, copper, molybdenum,

zinc, copper, boron, chlorine and nickel.

Minerals and their Function in the Human body

Mineral Major Food Source Functions Deficiency Diseases

Macronutrients

Calcium

Ca

milk, dairy products,

green leafy vegetables,

fish

Muscle contraction, nerve

action, blood clotting and

the formation of bone.

Tetany & rickets

Chlorine Cl

Salted food and seafood.

Anion/cation balance and gastric acid formation.

Loss of appetite muscle cramps.

Magnesium

Mg meat, whole grains,

nuts, legumes, apricots,

bananas, chocolate and green vegetable

Formation of bone,

formation of coenzymes in

cell respiration.

Irregularity of metabolism,

Fatigue, poor memory,

muscle twitching and rapid heartbeat.

Phosphorus

P

Cheese, eggs, pea nuts

and most foods.

Bone and tooth formation,

energy transfer from foods,

DNA, RNA and ATP formation.

Tetany & rickets

Potassium

K meat, chocolate,

oranges, bananas,

peanuts, beans, potatoes, spinach

Muscle contraction, nerve

action, active transport.

Nervous disorder, poor

muscles leading to paralysis.

Selenium

Se

nuts, fish, tuna, meat,

chicken, mustard,

mushrooms, barley, cheese, garlic, tofu,

seeds.

Helps to prevent damage to

cells and aids in the

functioning of the thyroid gland. It is an antioxidant

for the body.

Poor heart function, mental

retardation

Sodium

Na

Any salted food, meat,

eggs and milk.

Muscle contraction, nerve

action and active transport.

Fatigue, Nervous, depression,

muscular cramps, PH dis-

balance

Micronutrients (Trace Elements)

Iron

Fe

Liver, kidney, red

meat, cocoa powder

and water-cress, green leaf

Helps the blood and

muscles carry oxygen to

the body.

Anemia and low immunity.

Fluorine

F

salt water fish (salmon),

tea, sea food, meat,

liver, beans, fluoridated

water

Helps to make bones and

teeth stronger. Improves

resistance to cavities.

Weak teeth and bones.

Zinc Zn Meat, liver and beans. Enzyme activation and

carbon dioxide transport.

Anemia, weak immunity and fertility.

Copper

Cu

beans, raisins, chocolate,

nuts, meat,

shellfish

Enzyme, melanin and

hemoglobin formation.

Anemia, weak blood vessels and connective tissues.

Iodine I Seafood, iodized salt and

fish. Thyroxin production Goitre - enlargement of the

thyroid gland.

Manganese

Mn

Tea, nuts, spices and cereals.

Bone development and

enzyme activation.

Irregular growth of bones and connective tissues.

Molybde

num Mo

legumes, grains; leafy

green vegetables,

tomatoes, onions, carrots.

Helps cells and nerves to

function.

Rapid heart and respiratory rates, headache, night blindness

Chromiu

m Cr

beans, cheese, whole

grain food , peas, meat Uptake of glucose. Irregular metabolism.

Cobalt Co

Meat and yeast. Synthesis of Vitamin B12

formation of red blood

cells

Anemia

WATER

• Water is defined as an essential nutrient

because it is required in amounts that

exceed the body's ability to produce it.

• All biochemical reactions occur in

water. It fills the spaces in and between

cells and helps form structures of large

molecules such as protein and glycogen.

• About 70% of the human body consists

of water.

• As a general rule, adult males need 3.7

liters of water per day, while adult

women need 2.7 liters per day.

• However, pregnant women should aim

for 3 liters per day, and lactating women

need 3.8 liters per day.

• The daily adequate intake of water is

lower before the age of 18.

FOOD ADULTERATION

• It is an addition of another substance to

a food item in order to increase the

quantity of the food item in raw form or

prepared form, which may result in the

loss of actual quality of food item.

• The substance, which lowers or

degrades the quality of food material, is

called an adulterant.

• It can lead to slow poisoning and

various kinds of diseases, which can even

result in death.

Some Common Adulterants in

Food

Food Items Adulterant

Milk, curd and

cheese

Water and urea

Sweets Saccharin, harmful

colour

Ghee Vanaspati and

animal fats Cereals Stones, sand and grit

Dhania

Powder

Powdered horse

dung Haldi Powder Lead chromate

Pulses Metanil yellow

Edible oils Argemone oil

Black pepper Papaya seed

Sugar Chalk powder,

Washing soda Honey Sugar solution

Besan Khesari flour

Vinegar Mineral acid

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISM

• Classifying organisms is called

Taxonomy (Taxis means

arrangement and nomos means

method)

• The modern taxonomic system

was developed by the Swedish

botanist Carolus (Carl) Linneaeus

(1707-1788). He used simple

physical characteristics of

organisms to identify and

differentiate between different

species, and is based around

genetics.

• He developed a hierarchy of

groups for taxonomy.

• These groups are known as taxa

(singular:

taxon).

It is in hierarchical order:

1. Kingdom

2. Phylum

3. Class

4. Order

5. Family

6. Genus

7. Species

FIVE KINGDOMS

All organisms are divided into five

Kingdoms:

1. Animal Kingdom (Animalia)

2. Plant Kingdom (Plantae)

3. Fungi Kingdom (Fungi)

4. Protist Kingdom (Protista)

5. Moneran Kingdom (Monera)

Animal Kingdom (Animalia or

Metazoa)

• The word 'animal' is derived from

the Latin word animals which

means 'having breath'.

•Animals are eukaryotic,

multicellular and heterotrophic

organisms.

• They have multiple cells with

mitochondria and they depend on

other organisms for food.

• Habitat - Most of the animals

inhabit seas, fewer are seen in fresh

water and even fewer on land.

• There are around 9 to 10 million

animal species that inhabit the

earth. Only 800,000 species are

identified.

Some important groups are listed

below.

Phylum Porifera - They are

primitive organisms, most of them

are salt-water sponges. They do not

have organs or nerve cells or

muscle cells. Approximately, 8,000

species exist today. e.g. Sycon,

Euspongia, Spongilla.

Phylum

Coelenterate (Cnidaria) - This

group is composed of jelly-fish and

other lower aquatic animals.

Approximately, 15,000 species

exist today. e.g. Aurelia, Adamsia.

Phylum Platyhelminthes - This

group consists of flat worms. They

inhabit both marine and fresh

water habitats and they are mostly

endoparasites found in animals.

e.g. Taenia, Fascicola.

Phylum Aschelmeinthes - It is

a group of round worms, most of

them are parasites. This phylum

consists of about 80,000 parasitic

worms.

Phylum Annelida - They are

present in aquatic, terrestrial and

are free-living or parasitic in

nature. This phylum comprises of

segmented worms. e.g.

Earthworm, Leech etc.

Phylum Arthropoda - This is the

largest phylum which consists of

insects. There are over 1 million

species of insects existing today.

e.g. Locusts, Butterfly, Scorpion,

Prawn.

Phylum Mollusca - It is the

second largest phylum. They are

terrestrial and aquatic. e.g. Pila,

Octopus.

Phylum Echinodermata - This

consists of sea stars and sea

urchins. There are about 6,000

species. e.g. Asteria, Ophiura.

Phylum Chordata - Animals of

this phylum have a characteristic

feature of presence of notochord, a

dorsal hollow nerve cord and

paired pharyngeal gill slits. Within

this phylum advanced group called

vertebrates which include fish,

amphibians, reptiles, birds and

mammals.

Plant Kingdom (Plantae)

The Kingdom Plantae can be

defined as multicellular,

autotrophic eukaryotes, which

conduct photosynthesis. All

member of this family comprises of

true nucleus and advanced

membrane bound organelles.

Some important groups are listed

below.

Phylum Bryophyta - These are

non-vascular land plants, which do

not contain any conducting tissues.

e.g. Mosses, Liverworts,

Hornworts, etc.

Phylum Pteridophytae – These

are seedless vascular plants, which

contain vascular tissues but do not

produce seeds. e.g. horsetails, ferns

and club mosses.

Phylum Angiosperms – These

are flowering plants, which

develops the seeds within a

protective structure. e.g. trees,

shrubs, vines and flowers.

Phylum Gymnosperms – These

are non- flowering plants with

undeveloped seeds, which are

present in an enclosed structure.

e.g. palms, carpet lawns, etc.

Fungi Kingdom (Fungi)

• Fungi are eukaryotic organisms.

• They are non-vascular organisms.

• They reproduce by means of

spores.

• Depending on the species and

conditions both sexual and asexual

spores may be produced.

• They are typically non-motile.

• Fungi exhibit the phenomenon of

alteration of generation.

• The vegetative body of the fungi

may be unicellular or composed of

microscopic threads called hyphae.

• The structure of cell wall is similar

to plants but chemically the fungi

cell wall is composed of chitin.

Some important groups are listed

below.

Phylum Ascomycota: Sac

Fungi - The sac- fungi produce

spores in small cup-shaped sacs

called asci, hence the name

ascomycota. e.g. Aspergillus,

Claviceps, Neurospora.

Phylum Basidiomycota: Club

Fungi - includes the mushrooms,

puff-balls, smuts, rusts and

toadstools. The spores are borne on

a club-shaped spore case called

basidium. e.g. Agaricus

(mushroom), Ustilago(smut), and

Puccinia (rust fungus).

Phylum Zygomycota: Zygote

forming Fungi

- These fungi are usually found on

cheese, bread, and other decaying

food. They are zygote forming

fungi, hence the name zygomycota.

The spores are produced in round-

shaped case called sporangium.

e.g. Mucor, Rhizopus (the bread

mold) and Albugo.

Phylum Deuteromycota:

Imperfect Fungi - These

organisms are known as imperfect

fungi because they lack sexual

reproduction. They reproduce by

asexual spores known as conidia.

Most of the fungi causes diseases to

humans like ringworm, athlete's

foot.e.g. Alternaria, Colletotrichum

and Trichoderma.