Indian Temple SculptureGods, Guardians, and Lovers: Temple Sculptures from North India A. D. 700-1200 by VishakaN. Desai; Darielle MasonReview by: Walter SmithArt Journal, Vol. 53, No. 2, Contemporary Russian Art Photography (Summer, 1994), pp. 94-97Published by: College Art AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/777493 .

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94

Indian Temple Sculpture

WALTER SMITH

Vishaka N. Desai and Darielle Mason. Gods, Guardians, and Lovers: Temple Sculp- tures from North India A .D. 700-1200. New York: Asia Society Galleries, 1993. 288 pp.; 61 color ills., 110 b/w. $75.00; $45.00 paper

Exhibition schedule: Asia Society Galleries, New York, March 31-August 15, 1993; Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri, October 10-November 28, 1993

he Hindu temples of northern India built before the coming of Islam form one of several distinct tradi-

tions of South Asian religious architecture. The complexity of their walls, built of a network of projections and recesses that soar skyward into tall curved towers, can initially be overwhelming. An underlying order and clarity become apparent with continued viewing, especially when walk- ing around the temple in emulation of the ritual circumambulation performed since ancient times. Doing this, one sees the tem- ple's sculptures not just as extensions of the projecting vertical wall elements, but also in relation to adjacent wall projections and recesses. As one moves around the temple, the images-often carved on all three sides of the vertical offsets-change at every turn, lending a sense of a dynamic progres- sion. This effect is often lost in museum displays. Perched on pedestals, the pieces can seem brittle and out of place, retaining little of their aesthetic power and less of their original context. The exhibition "Gods, Guardians, and Lovers: Temple Sculptures from North India A.D. 700- 1200," however, goes a long way toward recontextualizing the sculpture it displays. Assembled from museums and private col- lections in India and the West, these works present an overview of five hundred years of architectural sculpture from the region of

India north of the Narmada river (the tradi- tional demarcation between "north" and "south" India), comprising the present-day states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Prad- esh, and Madhya Pradesh. Particularly wel- come is the inclusion of sculptures from the eighth and ninth centuries, relatively rare in comparison with works from the following three centuries. Their inclusion makes it possible to observe the stylistic change that occurred between these two periods, most obvious in the shift from a full bodied and relaxed naturalism to more angular and tension-filled renderings, particularly of the female figure (cf. figs. 1 and 2). Along with this stylistic inclusiveness, the exhibi- tion attempts comprehensive coverage of the standard figurative imagery of the Hindu temple. Images of major divinities are shown, as well as such "minor" figures as door guardians, dikpalas (the guardians of the directions), and surasundaris (celestial women)-the gods, guardians, and lovers of the exhibition's title.

The exhibition's greatest innovation was to install the detached temple sculp- tures at viewpoints consistent with their probable original locations on the temple. In this, curators Vishaka N. Desai and Dar- ielle Mason have made northern Indian tem- ple sculptures accessible to Western viewers in new and exciting ways. This is demonstrated most clearly by the installa- tion of one of the first images seen in the exhibition (as viewed at the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art), an eleventh-century image of Ganesha.1 With a traditional museum installation at eye-level (as photographed in the catalogue), Ganesha seems, despite his stout legs and ample stomach, rather spin- dly, because the chest is comparatively nar- row in proportion and somewhat elongated. At the exhibition (fig. 1), the image is placed on a high pedestal, appropriate in that it probably came from a temple with base moldings that raised it substantially off the ground. From this vantage point, the image acquires extraordinary presence.

The massive legs, stomach, and now fore- shortened chest meld together in monumen- tal harmony. As one of the first images seen, the "lord of easy passage" provides an aus- picious beginning to one's circuit of the exhibition.

Sixty-eight sculptures (seven shown at Asia Society were omitted from the Kan- sas City installation) were displayed in four interconnected galleries and shown in a se- quence relating to their original settings. The initial, or "orientation," gallery was followed by a room devoted to the exterior temple walls, after which came a gallery with objects from the interior of the temple's forehall, while the final gallery showed sculptures from the most sacred part of the temple, the inner shrine (garbha griha, or "womb chamber"). The Asia Society instal- lation included a "walk-over floor plan of a temple with an actual sanctum image in place at its centre."2 Its absence from Kan- sas City was unfortunate because of the diagram's potential for showing the relation- ship between the enshrined embodiment of divinity and the articulation of the temple's outer walls, a presentation of the metaphysi- cal construct of the unmanifest absolute taking manifested forms, a construct whose relevance to temple architecture has been elucidated by early scholarship,3 and was reiterated in the exhibition catalogue. A series of drawings mounted on the walls clearly defined the relationships between the various parts of the temple, such as the audience hall and the curvilinear-towered shrine; these lacked, however, any render- ing of sculpture or ornamentation. The in- clusion of ground plans, elevation drawings, and photographs of actual temples would have more effectively conveyed the architec- tural placement of the sculpture. Also ab- sent from Kansas City was one of the most conceptually important sculptures for the whole exhibition, a stone temple model from Gwalior (fig. 3). A sculpture of a temple (often constructed, as seen here, without a forehall), it displays better than any drawing

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FIG. 1 Ganesha with His Consorts, eastern Rajasthan (?) ca. 1000. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (installation view, Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art).

FIG. 2 Ambika Yakshi, Ujjain region, Madhya Pradesh (?) ca. 800. Royal Ontario Museum (installation view, Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art).

the relationships of sculptural and architec- tural forms.

The accompanying labels were for the most part routine; some were overly generalized. For example, the discussion of an esoteric goddess or yogini (cat. no. 30) states that it was one of many "feared icons of an esoteric cult, whose rites involved practices offensive to mainstream Hindu society. ... Such rites were believed to lead to the acquisition of occult power." But "mainstream Hindu" religion itself is far from empty of esoteric or "occult" elements. This statement implies that esoteric or Tan- tric practices are to be associated with a kind of "underground," and fails to ac- knowledge the subtleties of Tantric thought. If this image was used in such unacceptable practices, why was it carved in such a cos- mopolitan style and so well crafted, indica- tive of a patron able to pay for quality work and an upstanding member of "mainstream Hindu society"? Such outdated generaliza- tions should be replaced by syntheses of recent reassessments of the Hindu religious tradition. 4

In the first main room of the exhibi- tion (fig. 4), the curators successfully con- veyed something of the sculptures' original

architectural function. The works were placed on pedestals modeled after the hori- zontal base moldings of a typical northern temple (cf. figs. 3 and 4). As important in allowing an architectural reading of the sculptures as their raised perspective was their organization according to ico- nographic considerations. On the left wall, a central image of Shiva and Parvati was flanked by minor figures, with the guard- ians of the directions placed at the two ends of the layout. A large window-shaped ante- fix was placed above the central image, as it is on actual temples (see fig. 3). The instal- lations dedicated to sculptures from temple interiors were less successful. There was a lack of focus, and images seemed a bit scattered. Very effective, though, was a metal frame holding a carved lotus canopy in its original ceiling position, with female bracket figures attached to the four posts. Whatever the minor faults of the exhibition may have been, the overall results were compelling. One hopes it will have a strong impact on subsequent installations of In- dian sculpture, both temporary and permanent.

The catalogue essays are intended to present a "multidisciplinary" approach to

the study of northern Indian temple sculp- ture. In her introduction, "Beyond the Tem- ple Walls: The Scholarly Fate of North In- dian Sculpture, A.D. 700-1200," Vishaka N. Desai advocates a study of northern In- dian sculptures that accounts both for their architectural context and their current sta- tus as individual works. She tends to dis- miss the work of early scholars without ac- knowledging the fundamental importance of their contributions. Stella Kramrisch, for example, is placed within the "transcen- dental" school of Indian art history.5 While Kramrisch's view of Indian temples as pri- marily sculptural in form is acknowledged as "perceptive," Desai states that her philo- sophical orientation "overpowers her brief discussion of stylistic or historical develop- ments" (p. 24). Rather than viewing this as a negative, Kramrisch's work should be rec- ognized here for providing the conceptual basis for virtually all subsequent studies of Indian temples. While the coverage of tem- ple architecture in general survey books is discussed, much recent scholarship is not mentioned, and the existence of a foundation for the contextual study of temple sculpture advocated throughout this catalogue goes unacknowledged.6

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FIG. 3 Miniature shrine, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, ca. 750-775. Central Archaeological Museum, Gwalior.

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In his stimulating essay "Histo- riography, History, and Religious Centers: Early Medieval North India, circa A.D. 700-1200," B. D. Chattopadhyaya begins with a critique of earlier historians of India, who tended to dichotomize the "classical" ages of the Maurya and Gupta dynasties with a "decadent," "medieval," or "post- classical" age, where a kind of feudalism developed out of political fragmentation into small regional kingdoms. Chattopadhyaya urges replacement of this view with one that considers various Indian societal construc- tions. Central among these for an under- standing of state formation in the period from ca. 550 to 1200 arejanapada (settled, unified sociopolitical regions) and atavi ("habitats of hunters and more rudimentary agriculturists") (p. 37). Interaction between the two resulted in greater differentiation within the "Hindu" janapadas (social, cul- tural, religious) and in the "Hinduization" of

the atavis. Thus, "most local kingdoms emerged out of what had originally been bases of tribal society, and not through the breaking up of a given state structure" (pp. 37-38). Chattopadhyaya considers the tem- ple as a unifying element within this dy- namic and culturally diverse period and as a pervasive component of Indian civiliza- tion. Further, with the emergence of "royal cult centers," temples acquired crucial po- litical importance as well (pp. 43-44). Chattopadhyaya's work contributes greatly to a more accurate conception of Indian history.

Michael Willis's chapter, "Religious and Royal Patronage in North India," shows how inscriptions reveal information about the nature of temple patronage. The build- ing of temples and donations of materials for their ritual maintenance are mentioned pe- ripherally in land-granting and commemo- rative inscriptions. Some inscriptions also

appear on the temples themselves. Willis characterizes these records as having a "lo- cal focus," which reflects, he feels, India's decentralized political structure during the eighth through twelfth centuries. The status of patrons varies from royalty and nobility to members of the general population. Willis's striking thesis that the imperializing Prat- ihara clan (which ruled from the early eighth to early eleventh century) was hardly involved with temple building is only par- tially convincing, but may become more so as new evidence emerges. His discussion of temple building after the Pratihara period, when several smaller regional dynasties came to power, connects the growing politi- cal importance of temple building to the relations between kings and the ascetic teachers maintaining the temples; the latter, by establishing connections between kings and gods, contributed to the legitimation of royal power.

Phyllis Granoff's essay, "Hala- yudha's Prism: The Experience of Religion in Medieval Hymns and Stories," discusses the religious context within which the tem- ples were built. She translates excerpts from Halayudha's hymn to Shiva, a work preserved in an inscription on a central Indian temple (p. 70). It praises Shiva both as an abstract, absolute being, the "God of the philosophers" (p. 67)-and as the par- ticularized god of the religious texts called Puranas. This hymn presents as completely as any single work could the complex multi- valence of the Hindu concept of divinity. Granoff also discusses various aspects of temple rituals, including some of the reac- tions directed against them. Granoff's in- sightful essay on religious practices and attitudes of the eighth to twelfth centuries has one defect, for which she may not be responsible-inappropriate illustrations. For example, a verse from a twelfth-century text that describes people who "craned their

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FIG. 4 "Gods, Guardians, and Lovers" installation view, Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art.

necks to stare fixedly at the beauty" of a

temple (p. 90) is accompanied by a recent

photograph of Rajasthani villagers visiting a temple. This and others throughout the

catalogue perpetuate the "Eternal India"

syndrome, an attitude inherited from the "transcendental" group of scholars so dis-

paraged in the catalogue's introduction. Such illustrations promote (particularly for the general audience) a stereotype of the

"typical" India that belies a more complex reality.

The two remaining essays deal di-

rectly with Hindu temple architecture and

sculpture. Michael W. Meister's "Frag- ments from a Divine Cosmology: Unfolding Forms on India's Temple Walls" synthesizes data from Kramrisch's scholarship with his own writings from the past twenty years.7 After introducing the metaphysical under-

pinnings of the temple's ground plan, Meis- ter makes summary statements (dependent for amplification on numerous footnotes) on

topics such as "time," "form," "ornament," and "frieze."

In "A Sense of Time and Place: Style and Architectural Disposition of Images on the North Indian Temple," Darielle Mason seeks to ground the Indian temple more

firmly within a historical framework. Dis-

cussing "figure style," she states that it is

impossible to present in her essay a com-

prehensive picture of the development of regional sculptural styles (p. 122). Yet this is precisely what must be done if we are ever to make sense of the material, and it seems to me that a systematic, if preliminary, out- line of each regional style could have been given here. Instead, a series of generaliza- tions are made, with various criteria pre- sented, some rather vague, in discussing the characteristics of regional styles. This overview does not familiarize readers with the various regional styles, forcing them to accept the subsequent attributions in the catalogue basically at face value.

Each catalogue entry is illustrated. Most are comprehensive, including a gen- eral description of the object, comments on iconography, an opinion on the work's origi- nal location on the temple, and attribution to time and place. The curators deserve our gratitude for assembling and effectively pre- senting these works. The exhibition should be a great stimulus to new research. Spe- cialists and other tenacious readers will get a lot out of the catalogue. However, one or two essays geared toward a general reader- ship would have made the tradition of north- ern Indian temple architecture more acces- sible to a wider public. -

Notes 1. Darielle Mason describes this aspect of the exhibition further in "New Perspectives on the Temple Sculptures of

Northern India," Orientations 24, no. 7 (July 1993): 37-44, also citing this Ganesha as her example. 2. Ibid., 38. 3. Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple (1946; New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1976). See also idem, "Wall and Im-

age in Indian Art," Proceedings of the American Philosoph- ical Society 102, no. 1 (Feb. 17, 1958), reprinted in B. S. Miller, ed., Exploring Indida's Sacred Art: Selected Writings ofStella Kramrisch (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylva- nia Press, 1983), 235-60. 4. For recent reassessments of the Hindu religious tradition

(some of which argue against the legitimacy of the term "Hinduism" itself), see Gunther D. Sontheimer and Her- mann Kulke, eds., Hinduism Reconsidered (New Delhi: Manohar Publications, 1989). 5. For a recent critique of this and other "essentialist" constructions of India, see Ronald Inden, Imagining India

(Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990). 6. Foundational works are Odette Viennot, Temples de lInde centrale et occidentale, 2 vols. (Paris: Ecole

Franqaise d'Extreme-Orient, 1976); and M. W. Meister, M. A.

Dhaky, and K. Deva, eds., Encyclopaedia ofIndian Temple Architecture, vol. 2, North India (Delhi: American Institute of Indian Studies, 1988-). See also Michael Willis, "The

Temples of Gopaksetra, Dasarna, and Jejakadesa," Ph.D.

diss., University of Chicago, 1988; and Cynthia Packert

Stangroom, "The Development of the Medieval Style in

Rajasthan: Ninth and Tenth Century Sculpture," Ph.D.

diss., Harvard University, 1988. In addition, a number of

papers have been presented on the topic at recent meetings of the Association for Asian Studies and the American Committee for South Asian Art. 7. See Stella Kramrisch, Hindu Temple, and idem, The Presence of Siva (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981).

WA LT E R S M ITH is an independent scholar of South Asian art. He is currently working on a study of 6th-

through 9th-century sculpture from the Malwa region of central India.

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