contemporary issues for mains 2014 - part 9

8/10/2019 Contemporary Issues for Mains 2014 - Part 9

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Difference with other Reactors:

In contrast to normal nuclear reactors, a fast reactor uses a coolant that is not an efficientmoderator, such as liquid sodium, so its neutrons remain high-energy. Although these fast neu-trons are not as good at causing fission, they are readily captured by an isotope of uranium(U238), which then becomes plutonium (Pu239). This plutonium isotope can be reprocessed andused as more fuel or in the production of nuclear weapons. Reactors can be designed to maxi-

mize plutonium production, and in some cases they actually produce more fuel than they con-sume. These reactors are called breeder reactors.

Breeder reactors are possible because of the proportion of uranium isotopes that exist innature. Natural uranium consists primarily of U238, which does not fission readily, and U235,which does. Natural uranium is unsuitable for use in a nuclear reactor, however, because it isonly 0.72 percent U235, which is not enough to sustain a chain reaction. Commercial nuclearreactors normally use uranium fuel that has had its U235 content enriched to somewhere be-tween 3 and 8 percent by weight. Although the U235 does most of the fissioning, more than 90percent of the atoms in the fuel are U238--potential neutron capture targets and future pluto-nium atoms.

Pu239, is created when U238 captures a neutron, forms U239 and then undergoes two betadecays. It happens to be even better at fission than U235 and is formed in every reactor and alsofissions as the reactor operates. In fact, a nuclear reactor can derive a significant amount ofenergy from such plutonium fission. However, since plutonium fissions, it reduces the amountthat is left in the fuel. To maximize plutonium production, therefore, a reactor must create asmuch plutonium as possible while minimizing the amount that splits.

This is why many breeder reactors are also fast reactors. Fast neutrons are ideal for pluto-nium production because they are easily absorbed by U238 to create Pu239, and they cause lessfission than thermal neutrons. Some fast breeder reactors can generate up to 30 percent more fuelthan they use.

Criticality:

Criticality means that a reactor is controlling a sustained fission chain reaction where eachfission event releases a sufficient number of neutrons to maintain an ongoing series of reactions.In the balanced state of criticality, fuel rods inside a nuclear reactor are producing and losing aconstant number of neutrons, and the nuclear energy system is stable.

Background: on July 8th 2014, Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) has come out with'Policies Governing Regulation of Nuclear and Radiation Safety'

The Atomic Energy Act, 1962 articulates India's resolve to pursue the development, control,

and use of atomic energy for the welfare of the people of India and for other peaceful purposesand for matters connected therewith. This Act confers on the Government of India, the powersand responsibilities for framing of Rules and issuance of notifications for implementing theprovisions of the Act.

In accordance with this Act, a Presidential order dated, 15 November 1983, was promul-gated, which in turn constituted the AERB. The functions of AERB include, as per clause 2(i),development of safety policies in both radiation and industrial safety areas, and further, as perclause 2(vi), evolving major safety policies based on safety criteria, recommended by IAEA andother international bodies, adopted to suit Indian conditions.

51 Nuclear and Radiation Safety Policy


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Accordingly, the safety policies concerning the activities regulated by AERB are enshrinedin the high level documents of AERB, namely The Atomic Energy (Radiation Protection) Rules,2004, the mission statement and the various 'Codes' of AERB. These documents include thepolicies, principles and safety objectives that apply to the relevant activity and the specificregulatory requirements that are to be followed for fulfilling the same.

The above principles and objectives form the broader policy of AERB for regulation of

nuclear and radiation safety in the country.On July 8th 2014, AERB has come out with 'Policies Governing Regulation of Nuclear and

Radiation Safety'. This document aims to consolidate the safety policy objectives that are statedin the Atomic Energy Act, 1962, the Rules and the Codes and Standards of AERB, which formthe framework for regulation of safety, in to a single document. Such a policy document as asingle reference is intended to enhance openness in the conduct of regulatory activities and toreduce communication gaps while interacting with its stakeholders as well as outside agencies.

As per the policy document:-

1. Fundamental objective of AERB is to ensure that the use of ionising radiation and nuclearenergy in India does not cause undue risk to health of people and the environment. Towards

this, the activities related to nuclear and radiation facilities shall be regulated through asystem of regulatory consents that allows activities with stipulated conditions.

2. AERB shall be responsible for ensuring through safety reviews and inspections that theconsented activities of the nuclear and radiation facility comply with the safety requirementsand conditions of consent. This however does not diminish the responsibility of the consenteefor safety, who shall be solely responsible for ensuring safety of the nuclear and radiationfacility activity and shall demonstrate that safety is ensured at all times.

3. The regulatory processes for nuclear and radiation facilities shall have the objectives toensure that:

(a) Only such practices are permitted which are justified in terms of their societal andindividual benefits,

(b) Radiation protection is duly optimised in all nuclear facilities,

(c) Radiation doses to the personnel in these facilities, and to the members of the public intheir vicinity, do not exceed the prescribed limits, and

(d) The potential for accidental exposures from the facilities remains acceptably low.

4. Decisions related to regulatory consent for the facilities shall be based on review and assess-ment by the Regulatory Body of the demonstration of compliance to the regulatory require-ments by the applicant for consent. The consent issued by the regulatory body shall have avalidity period. The regulatory process shall have provision for periodic renewal of consent,for which the review and assessment should ensure that safety of the facility is judged aftercomparison with the current safety standards and practices.

5. The regulatory process shall provide for review and assessment, including conduct of inspec-tions, of the consented facilities and activities on a continuing basis to ensure that the facilityis being done with due regard to safety and in compliance to the regulatory requirementsand the conditions laid down in the consent.

6. The regulatory control over the nuclear and radiation facilities shall follow a graded ap-proach, based on the radiological hazard potential.


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7. All activities pertaining to nuclear and radiation facilities shall be in accordance with requi-site Quality Assurance Programmes, establishing the goals, strategies, plans and objectives aswell as identifying the organisational and individual responsibilities towards safety. Theoverall responsibility for establishment, implementation, assessment and continual improve-ment of the programme shall be with the consentee.

8. All nuclear and radiation facilities shall implement appropriate radiation protection

programmes, to ensure safety of occupational personnel, the public and the environment.The programmes should provide for monitoring of radiation exposures as well as for envi-ronmental surveillance, as necessary.

9. The radioactive waste generated during operation, maintenance and decommissioning ofnuclear and radiation facilities shall be managed in a safe manner to ensure protection ofhuman health and the environment from the undue effects of ionising radiation in thepresent and in the future, without imposing undue burden on future generations.

10 . All nuclear and radiation facilities shall have arrangements for development of adequateplans and preparedness for responding to emergency situations, for protection of the occu-pational personnel, the public and the environment, in accordance with the hazard potential

of the facility.11. When a nuclear facility or radiation generating

equipment ceases to be in use, it shall be ensuredthat it undergoes safe decommissioning.Remediation of a contaminated site shall be car-ried out if the radionuclide concentration exceedsthe reference levels specified by the Regulatory Body.

12. The Regulatory Body may resort to enforcementactions on the consentee for securing timely com-pliance to the regulatory requirements and condi-tions of consent or corrective actions, based onreview and assessments of the submissions fromthe consentee and findings during review or in-spection. The enforcement options should followgraded approach, taking account of aspects suchas safety significance of the deficiency, seriousnessof violations, the repetitive nature and deliberatenature of the violations. The enforcement actionsmay include initiation of penal provisions as pro-vided under section 17 of the Atomic Energy Act,1962.

13. Radiation exposures resulting from naturally oc-curring radio-nuclides present in the human body,cosmic radiation at the earth surface, unmodifiedconcentrations of radio-nuclides in raw materials,except the radioactive materials generated fromoperation of uranium and thorium mining andmilling facilities, are excluded from regulatory con-trol. The regulatory body may 'exempt' certainsources or practices involving artificial radio-nu-


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clides from regulatory control, the radiation exposure from which is too small to warrantsuch control. Also certain radioactive materials or radioactive objects arising from the con-sented practices may be considered for clearance from any further regulatory control, pro-vided that the continued regulatory control of which would yield no net benefit in terms ofreduction of individual doses or of health risks. The decisions with respect to exemption andclearance shall be based on the prescribed criteria.

14. On the issues of Safety, Health and Environment at work place, in relation to the factoriesowned by the Central Government and engaged in carrying out the purposes of the AtomicEnergy Act, 1962, the objectives of the 'National Policy on safety, health and environmentat work place' issued by the Ministry of Labour and Employment, Government of India andthe provisions of the Atomic Energy (Factories) Rules, 1996 shall prevail.

15. The Regulatory Body shall take steps as necessary, to keep the public informed on safetyissues of radiological safety significance. It shall also be responsible for notifying to the public,the 'extraordinary nuclear events', occurring in the nuclear facilities in India, as mandatedby the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010.

16. In the conduct of regulatory activities, the Regulatory Body shall be governed by the provi-

sions of the Right to Information Act, 2005, as applicable to the public authority.52 Ebola Virus & Disease

Background: Ebola virus has caused the majority of human deaths from Ebola Virus Disease(EVD), and is the cause of the present (March 2014) Ebola Virus epidemic in West Africa, Whichhas resulted in over 4000 deaths and has spread beyond Africa to Europe and North America.

The Virus:

Ebola Virus, first detected in 1976, in a remote village in Central Africa (the then Zaire)draws its name from Ebola river, head stream of Mongala, a tributary of Congo River. Previouslynamed Zaire Ebola, it is one of the five strains from the family. In the initial days it was confused

to be a group of strains of Murburg Virus, was finally identified and named as Ebola Virus onlyin 2010.

The virus family Filoviridae includes 3 genera: Cuevavirus, Marburgvirus, and Ebolavirus.There are 5 species that have been identified: Zaire, Bundibugyo, Sudan, Reston and Ta Forest.These names have been given as per the area of occurrence of the five identified strains of virus(till date). The first 3, Bundibugyo ebolavirus, Zaire ebolavirus, and Sudan ebolavirus have beenassociated with large outbreaks in Africa. The virus causing the 2014 west African outbreakbelongs to the Zaire species. It is speculated that the natural reservoirs of this virus are bats, fruitbats, chimpanzees etc.

The Disease:

The Ebola virus causes an acute, serious illness which is often fatal if untreated. Ebola virusdisease (EVD) first appeared in 1976 in 2 simultaneous outbreaks, one in Nzara, Sudan, and theother in Yambuku, Democratic Republic of Congo.

The virus may be acquired upon contact with blood or other bodily fluid of an infectedhuman or other animal. Spreading through the air has not been documented in the naturalenvironment. Fruit Bats are believed to be the normal carrier in nature, able to spread the viruswithout being affected. Humans become infected by contact with the bats or living or deadanimals that have been infected by bats. Once human infection occurs, the disease may spreadbetween people as well. Male survivors may be able to transmit the disease via semen for nearlytwo months. To diagnose EVD, other diseases with similar symptoms such as malaria, cholera,


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and other viral hemorrhagic fever are first excluded. Blood samples are tested for viral antibodies,viral RNA, or the virus itself to confirm the diagnosis.

Transmission

Infects humans through close contact with infected animals, including chimpanzees, fruitbats and forest antelope.

Spreads between humans by direct contact (through broken skin or mucous membranes)with infected blood, bodily fluids or organs, or indirectly through contact with contaminatedenvironments

Can be transmitted through semen of affected person up to 7 weeks after recovery fromillness.

Healthcare workers are at risk if they treat patients without taking the right precautions toavoid infection.

Burial ceremonies can be a risk, if mourners have direct contact with the body of the de-ceased.

Symptoms Onset of fever fatigue, muscle pain, headache and sore throat.

Vomiting, diarrhea, rash, symptoms of impaired kidney and liver function.

In some cases, both internal and external bleeding (e.g. oozing from the gums, blood in thestools).

Diagnosis

Confirmation that symptoms are caused by Ebola virus infection are made using the followinginvestigations:

Antibody-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

Antigen-capture detection tests.

Serum neutralization test.

Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay.

Electron microscopy.

Virus isolation by cell culture.

Prevention and control

Raising awareness of risk factors for Ebola infection and protective measures that individu-als can take is an effective way to reduce human transmission. Risk reduction messaging shouldfocus on several factors:

Reducing the risk of wildlife-to-human transmission from contact with infected fruit bats ormonkeys/apes and the consumption of their raw meat.

Reducing the risk of human-to-human transmission from direct or close contact with peoplewith Ebola symptoms, particularly with their bodily fluids.

Outbreak containment measures including prompt and safe burial of the dead


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Controlling infection in health-care settings health-care workers should always take standardprecautions when caring for patients, regardless of their presumed diagnosis.

Effect of Ebola in India

The risk of Ebola virus cases in India is low; precautions are being taken to deal with anycase of the virus imported to India.

There are designated facilities at the relevant airports/ports to manage travelers manifestingsymptoms of the disease.

The surveillance system are geared up to track these travelers for four weeks and to detectthem early, in case they develop symptoms.

The risk of transmission of the virus to countries outside African region is 'low', but thedetails would be obtained from those originating or transiting through affected countries toIndia and tracking these persons after their arrival up to their final destination.

53 India's Participation in the Thirty Metre TelescopeProject at Mauna Kea, Hawaii, USA

Background: On 24th Sept. 2014 the Union Cabinet of India chaired by the Prime Minister, ShriNarendra Modi, gave its approval for India's participation in the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT)Project at Mauna Kea, Hawaii, USA at a total cost of Rs. 1299.8 crores from 2014-23.

Brief Details:

A ground based large segmented mirror reflecting telescope, designed to observe near-ultraviolet to mid-infrared wavelengths with an adaptive optics system to correct image blurcaused by the Earth's atmosphere, is under construction at Mt. Mauna Kea. The project is a joint-venture with funding from five governments, i.e., US, China, Japan, Canada, & India.

Suppose to be second largest telescope after E-ELT, with an array of small 1.44m hexagonal

mirrors, it is going to be by far an extremely large and the highest altitude telescopes among allthe other existing or planned till date. The construction of the telescope started on 28th July 2014.

Location:

After the evaluation of five sites by the 'Association of Universities for Research in As-tronomy,' the board of directors of the TMT Observatory Corporation finalized the site on 21st

July 2009. The site that were under consideration were -

Cerro Armazones, Republic of Chile

Cerro Tolanchar, Republic of Chile

Cerro Tolar, Republic of Chile

San Pedro Ma`rtir, Mexico

Mt. Mauna Kea, Hawai`i, USA

The Telescope (Scientific Instruments):

A Ritchey-Chre`tien telescope with a 30 metre diameter primary mirror, consisting of 492smaller hexagonal mirrors, is going to be the main instrument of the observatory. The shape andposition of each of the individual mirrors will be actively controlled to correct image blurs causedby the atmosphere. A secondary mirror of 3 meter diameter is to be supplement by producingan unobstructed field of view 20 arcminutes with a focal ratio of 15.


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Altitude-azimuth mount capable of repositioning the telescope between any two points ofthe sky with a precision of 2 arcseconds or less is to be an integral part of the 2000tonnestelescope design.

The telescope consists of three separate instruments, which are:-

Wide Field Optical Spectrometer (WFOS) providing near-ultraviolet and optical imagingand spectroscopy. Using precision cut focal plane masks, WFOS would enable long-slit ob-servations of single objects as well as short-slit observations of hundreds of objects simulta-neously. WFOS would use natural (uncorrected) seeing images.

Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (IRIS) mounted on the observatory, capable of diffraction-limited imaging and integral-field spectroscopy at near-infrared wavelengths

Infrared Multi-object Spectrometer (IRMS) allowing close to diffraction-limited imagingand slit spectroscopy over a 2 arcminute diameter field-of-view at near-infrared wavelengths.

The observatory has developed additional six instruments, which are suppose to be de-ployed during the first decade of operations. These instruments are to help in planning anddevelopment of future direction of experimentation for the observatory, they are:-

Extremely high contrast exo-planet imaging and spectroscopy at near-infrared wavelengths

Diffraction-limited echelle spectroscopy at near-infrared wavelengths

Diffraction-limited imaging and echelle spectroscopy at mid-infrared wavelengths

High precision astro-metric imaging and astrometry at near-infrared wavelengths

Multiple integral-field unit spectrometers deployable over a 5 arcminute diameter field-of-view, each with individual adaptive optics correction, at near-infrared wavelengths

India's Participation:

The Government of India has decided in favour of joining the experiment with an initialinvestment of Rs 1299.8 crores, to be spent within 2014-23, with 10% stake in the project. Theparticipation will be a joint initiative of Department of Science & Technology and Departmentof Atomic Energy. 70% of Indian contribution will be 'in kind' and will provide the communityof Indian Scientist with 25 to 30 nights of observation per year on the telescope.

This will be a national project anchored in the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA),Bangalore and led by IIA, Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences (ARIES),Nainital and Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA), Pune. It willleverage the best of science and technology from wherever available in the country. All inter-ested scientists from the country will get time on the telescope for their scientific studies oncompetitive basis.

The implementation of the project will be overseen by a high-level Executive Council jointly-chaired by Secretary, Department of Science and Technology; Chairman, Atomic Energy Com-mission; and Secretary, Department of Atomic Energy.

This will enable Indian scientists to access a state-of-the-art telescope to answer some of themost fundamental questions in modern science. Indian institutions and industry will acquire orgain access to sophisticated technologies of relevance to the country. India will also become afounding member of an important international scientific project.

This partnership will also enhance India's technological capabilities in high-technology areassuch as primary mirror segment figuring and polishing, mirror support system and edge sensorassembly and testing, software for observatory controls, data analysis pipelines, adaptive opticstechniques etc.


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54 Indigenously Developed Rotavirus Vaccine &Injectable Polio Vaccine

Background: On July 3, 2014, the Prime Minister of India announced that four new vaccines,including an indigenously developed rotavirus vaccine, would be provided to all children inIndia, as part of India's Universal Immunization Programme (UIP). These include vaccines againstrotavirus, rubella and polio (injectable), along with an adult vaccine against Japaneseencephalitis.

Brief Details:

The Government of India has announced the introduction of four new vaccines as part ofits Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP). These include vaccines against rotavirus, rubellaand polio (injectable), along with an adult vaccine against Japanese encephalitis. This initiativewill collectively expedite India's progress on meeting the Millennium Development Goal no. 4targets to reduce child mortality by two-thirds by the year 2015 and meet global polio eradicationtargets.

With these new vaccines, India's UIP will now provide free vaccines against 13 life threat-ening diseases, to 27 million children annually, the largest birth cohort in the world.

This decision represents one of the most significant policy leaps in 30 years in public health,preventing at least 1 lakh infant deaths, deaths of adults in working age group and up to 10 lakhshospitalizations each year. The recommendations to introduce new vaccines have been made afternumerous scientific studies and comprehensive deliberations by the National Technical AdvisoryGroup of India (NTAGI), the country's apex scientific advisory body on immunization.

Diarrhea caused by rotavirus kills nearly 80 thousand children each year, results in up to10 lakh hospitalizations, pushing many Indian families below the poverty line. It also imposes aneconomic burden of over 300 crore rupees each year to the country.

Tackling another major public health concern, the Government of India's Universal Immu-nization Programme is set to introduce a vaccine against rubella which causes severe congenitaldefects in newborns, like blindness, deafness and heart defects. It is estimated that nearly 2 lakhbabies are born with congenital defects each year in the country.

Reaffirming its commitment to the global goal of a polio free world, India is set to introduceInjectable Polio Vaccine (IPV), together with 125 countries in a globally synchronized manner.India has been certified polio free in March 2014, and the introduction of IPV in addition to theoral polio vaccine (OPV) will provide long lasting protection to the population against the virus.

The Universal Immunization Programme is also introducing an adult vaccine against Japa-nese Encephalitis (JE: a disease that can result in paralysis and death) in 179 endemic districtsin 9 states.

55 Chikungunya VaccineBackground: Developed by scientists at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseasesin the U.S., an experimental chikungunya vaccine has shown promising results in a small-scaletrial carried out in humans.

Key Concepts: Chikungunya, antibodiy & immune system

Chikungunya, an infection caused by virus, causes an illness with an acute febrile phaselasting two to five days, followed by a longer period of joint pains in the extremities, this painmay persist for years in some cases.


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Developed by scientists at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, U.S.A.,the vaccine is made by using human cells grown in culture to produce three proteins found onthe surface of the chikungunya virus. These proteins then self-assemble to form 'virus-like par-ticles,' which are not infectious but can elicit a protective immune response when given as aninjection.

During the trial, the vaccine was administered as three injections at different doses to 25healthy volunteers. It produced protective antibodies in those individuals and was found to besafe and well tolerated. Moreover, the vaccine appeared to generate durable immunity. Elevenmonths after vaccination, the antibody levels in the volunteers were comparable to those re-ported after natural chikungunya virus infection, which have been inferred to be protective.Larger studies of the vaccine in diverse populations, including those at risk of chikungunya virusinfection, were needed to confirm the initial human data.

56 Brief details about 'Scientifically Yours' and theScientists about whome the Film is all about

Background: Vigyan Prasar , DST and NISCAIR, CSIR develops a film on Indian women scien-tists 'Scientifically Yours'

Brief Details:

Vigyan Prasar, Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India jointly with NISCAIR,CSIR has developed an inspirational film titled 'Scientifically Yours' on Indian Women Scientistswho helped in shaping the Indian Science. The film on Indian women scientists is a unique idea,as this section of society has not been sufficiently covered in the country. This is an effort to bringthe living women legends in science on to the centre stage with their achievements and contri-butions and communicate to the youth of the country. The film is likely to help in creating rolemodels for students and researchers especially for girl students and motivate them in pursuingcareers in basic and applied sciences. The film would be shown for awareness generation inschools, colleges & universities across the country.

The women scientists of eminence have been identified from various fields of research suchas Physical sciences, Biological sciences, Chemical sciences, Immunology, Agriculture etc. Thefilms have been produced in discussion mode at CSIR-NISCAIR studio. The films cover theselected living women scientists, highlighting their achievements and advancements and journeymade by them in Indian Science. Till date following eminent scientists have been covered for thefilms:-

1) Dr Indira Nath, pioneer in the field of medical sciences who made major contributions inpathology of Leprosy,

2) Dr.Bimla Butti, an eminent physicist who worked in the field of Plasma Physics from Physi-cal Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad,

3) Dr. Manju Sharma, renowned biotechnologist from Department of Bio-technology, Dr.VibhaTandon, renowned scientist working in field of Medicinal Chemistry,

4) Dr. Sunita Saxena, eminent scientist and present Director National Institute of Pathology(ICMR). Dr. Kasturi Datta, pioneer in Cellular & Molecular Biology,

5) Dr. Chandrima Shaha, profound Endocrinologist and present Director of Indian Institute ofImmunology,

6) Dr. Rupamanjari Ghosh, Quantum Physicist from JNU,


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7) Dr Renu Khanna Chopra- Honorary Scientist at IARI, Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi

8) Dr Charusita Chakravarty- Professor of Chemistry at Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi.

9) Dr. Chitra Sarkar, an eminent Neuro-oncologist from AIIMS,

10) Dr. Shashi Wadhwa, an renowned medical professional worked at AIIMS and

11) Dr Riddhi Shah - Professor of Mathematics at School of Physical Sciences, JNU

57 CSIR & IMD Join Hands to Facilitate AircraftLanding at all Civilian Airports of the Country Evenin Very Low Visibility Conditions

Background: CSIR-National Aerospace Laboratories (CSIR-NAL), Bangalore and Indian Meteo-rological Department (IMD) signed a partnership agreement for joint production of Drishtisystem, a sophisticated instrument for assessment of Runway visual range, which is a criticalparameter for safe landing and takeoff of aircraft in poor visibility.

Brief Details:

CSIR-National Aerospace Laboratories (CSIR-NAL), Bangalore and Indian MeteorologicalDepartment (IMD) signed a partnership agreement for joint production of Drishti system, asophisticated instrument for assessment of Runway visual range, which is a critical parameterfor safe landing and takeoff of aircraft in poor visibility. The agreement was signed by Dr ShyamChetty, Director, CSIR-NAL and Dr LS Rathore, Director General of Meteorology, IMD. Theagreement encompasses a wide range of research & development activities for further develop-ment of various meteorological sensors. It paves the way for operational deployment of Drishtisystem at different airports where IMD provides aeronautical meteorological services. A megaproject for installing nearly 70 such systems at various Airports of the country is being jointlyundertaken by the two organisations.

Drishti Transmissometer, a visibility measuring system is an innovative, indigenous product

first of its kind, designed and developed by CSIR-NAL to cover the wide span of lowest tohighest visibility (from less than 25 meters to more than 2000 meters) aiding pilots for safelanding and take-off. This cost-effective product is a mandatory system required at all airportsas per International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) and World Meteorological Organisation(WMO).

Seven Drishti systems are working in three international airports, viz., Choudhary CharanSingh International Airport, Lucknow, for the last three years, Netaji Subhash Chandra BoseInternational Airport for the last one and a half years and five systems are working in IndiraGandhi International Airport, New Delhi, for the last two years. Web enabled health monitoring,remote control of the system from any location in the country for accessing the data and formaintenance are the other important features of this state of the art system. Servicing is made

user friendly and cost-effective by modular electronics and virtual instrumentation concepts inthe design.

Drishti has also received several prestigious awards during 2013-14 from National ResearchDevelopment Corporation (NRDC), Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers(IETE), India and Indian Electronics & Semiconductor Association (IESA) as the most innovative,meritorious product of the year. This is a fine example of collaboration between two governmentsector entities leading to indigenisation of a technology which so far was the exclusive domainof few developed countries. The indigenous production of this high-end instrument will not onlyresult in substantial saving of foreign exchange but will also make the country self-reliant in thefield of front-end technology.


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Background: 200 villages in the coastal district of Dakshina Kannada in Karnataka are silentlyworking together on this project, which has the potential to change the way one looks at plasticwaste.

Around the globe, organizations and individuals have begun producing fuel from wasteplastic. As only 8% of waste plastic is recycled in the U.S., 15% in Western Europe and muchless in developing countries like India, this reuse of plastic could potentially keep enormousamounts of plastic out of landfills and out of the oceans. Over 500 billion pounds of new plasticis manufactured each year and roughly 33% of that is single use and thrown away. If all plasticwaste made it into the landfill, it would surely be mined in the future, but currently all plastic

waste does not make it into our landfills. The United Nations estimates plastic accounts for four-fifths of the accumulated garbage in the world's oceans. We need to stop polluting oceans withplastic before it is too late and start collecting all plastics suitable for this new fairly simpletechnology, a technology that is available now.

The Technology:

It is not very complicated, plastics are shredded and then heated in an oxygen-free chamberat about 400 degrees celsius. This process is known as Prolysis, which means breaking downsomething at high temperature. As the plastics boil, gas is separated out and often reused to fuelthe machine itself. The fuel is then distilled and filtered. Because the entire process takes place

59 Fuel From Plastic Waste

Background: In a ceremony held on July 13th, 2014 at the Marmugao Harbour of Goa, Dr.JitendraSingh, Minister of State in the Prime Minister's Office, Department of Personnel and Training,Science and Technology, Atomic Energy, Space and Earth Sciences, dedicated to the nation thefirst ever indigenously built Research Vessel (Ship) ' Sindhu Sadhana '.

Brief Details:The first ever indigenously built Research Vessel (Ship) ' Sindhu Sadhana ' acquired recently

by the CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, is a multi-disciplinary research vessel. The shiphas been built at ABG Shipyard in Gujarat and is equipped with ultra modern research facilities.

The ship including equipment cost NIO around Rs.220 crore. The vessel is designed for acruising speed of 13.5 knots and endurance of 45 days. It has 10 modern laboratories fitted withstate-of-the art equipment to facilitate high precision data and sample collection. RV SindhuSadhana has facilities for online data collection and processing from single-beam and multi-beamecho sounders, water column and sub-bottom profiler, gravimeter, magnetometer, AcousticDoppler Current Profiler and conductivity-temperature-depth (CTD) profiler. It also has autono-mous weather station (AWS), air quality monitors and sampling gears such as A-frame, Gammaframe, CTD winch and deep sea winches with supporting cranes.

The vessel has dynamic positioning system to allow holding the ship at a point for varioussampling including 240 meter long sediment cores. It can facilitate precise deployment of instru-mented moorings, towing of Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV) and Autonomous UnderwaterVehicles (AUVs).

RV Sindhu Sadhana is a new asset for underwater exploration to carry out monsoonexperiments and know ocean processes in deep sea basins of the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal aswell as Indian Ocean. It will be useful for carrying out studies on poly metallic nodules in CentralIndian Ocean to explore deep-sea minerals like nickel, copper and cobalt-rich manganese crusts.It will presently carry 29 scientists and 28-member crew.

58 Indigenously Built Research Ship 'Sindhu Sadhana'


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inside a vacuum and the plastic is melted - not burned, minimal to no resultant toxins arereleased into the air, as all the gases and or sludge are reused to fuel the machine.

For this technology, the type of plastic you convert to fuel is important. If you burn purehydrocarbons, such as polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) (like bottle caps, applianceplastics, nursery planters and dirty plastics such as meat wrappings), you will produce a fuelthat burns fairly clean. But burn PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride: commonly known as PVC, is the thirdmost widely produced polymer, after polyethylene and polypropylene, used in making of pipesand plastic sheets) and large amounts of chlorine will corrode the reactor and pollute the environ-ment. Burning PETE (Polyethylene Terephthalete, used in the making of PET bottles) releases oxygeninto the oxygen deprived chamber thereby slowing the processing, and PETE recycles efficiently atrecycling centers, so it is best to recycle PETE traditionally. HDPE (jugs) and LDPE (bags and films)are basically polyethylene, henceforth usable as fuel, just slightly more polluting as a thicker heavierfuel is created. But additional processing can turn even HDPE into a clean diesel.

In India:

A private entrepreneur had proposed to set up a factory to produce fuel from plastic waste.Altanol Technology, the company involved in the manufacture and improvisation of the PlasticReclamation Unit (PRU) over the past nine years, has already applied for its patent for the

technology in May. More than 200 villages in the coastal district of Dakshina Kannada inKarnataka are silently working together on this project, which has the potential to change theway one looks at plastic waste. The villages have decided to pool in all their plastic waste andfeed it to an indigenously developed plant that will convert it into synthetic fuel, an equivalentof diesel. The Bellare gram panchayat in Puttur Taluk is suppose to set up a PRU shortly, whichwill have a capacity of absorbing 500 kg of plastic and generating more than 250 litres ofsynthetic fuel out of it in two hours.

Classified as a diesel equivalent by the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, the syntheticfuel has a wide variety of use, like in running pump-sets, generators, industrial boilers, and costsless than Rs 25 per litre.

Comment on the issue:

Of course, it would be the best if there were widespread environmentally friendly plasticsin use, but in the meantime, recycling existing plastics into fuel would keep the plastics out ofour waterways. This process is also excellent for difficult to recycle PP and PE plastics. Thisprocess is not suitable for PVC or polystyrene. This technology could also reduce carting issues,as companies that deal with plastic waste could build mini-burners on location.

Question:What is pyroly-sis? Recently aninitiative hasbeen taken inIndia to gener-ate syntheticfuel from usedplastic, givebrief detailsabout it andcomment onthe desirabilityof such prac-tice. (5 + 5)


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Background: The formar Prime Minister of India, Dr. Manmohan Singh, launched the INSPIRE,a scholarship programme of the Department of Science & Technology in New Delhi on February3, 2014 at Vishakhapattanam Science Congress.

Brief Details:

In the face of the talented youth of the country gravitating to other disciplines than science,INSPIRE (Innovation in Science Pursuit for Inspired Research), a scholarship programme of theDepartment of Science & Technology has been launched to wean them away towards science.Science is no longer the career of choice of the meritorious students. This trend has long-termimplications for development and competitive strength of the country in the evolving globaleconomy

The underlying philosophy behind INSPIRE is based on the role that excitement, motivation,mentoring, promotion of excellence and assured career opportunities in research play in nurtur-ing a meritorious scientist. The programme aims to strengthen the roots of the knowledgeinfrastructure of the economy, it targets the entire learning pyramid from young learners toresearchers. The scale of the programme is unprecedented and it proposes to cover one millionyoung learners.

The basic objective of the programme is to communicate to the youth of the country theexcitements of creative pursuit of science, attract talent to the study of science at an early ageand thus build the required critical human resource pool for strengthening and expanding theScience & Technology system and R&D base. A striking feature of the programme is that it doesnot believe in conducting competitive exams for identification of talent at any level. It believesin and relies on the efficacy of the existing educational structure for identification of talent.INSPIRE has three components:

i. Scheme for Early Attraction of Talent (SEATS) aims at attracting talented youth to studyscience by providing INSPIRE Award, to experience the joy of innovations, of Rs.5,000/- toone million young learners in the age group 10-15 years. There shall be annual Summer/Winter Camps for about 50,000 youth at more than 100 locations, for toppers in Class Xboard examinations for exposure with global leaders in Science, through internship.

ii. Scholarship for Higher Education (SHE) aims at attracting talented youth into undertakinghigher education in science intensive programmes, by providing scholarships and mentoringthrough 'summer attachment' to performing researchers. The scheme offers 10,000 scholar-ships every year @ Rs 0.80 lakh per year to talented youth in the age group 17-22 years, forundertaking Bachelor and Masters level education in Natural and Basic sciences.

However, the 18 Science subject such as (1) Physics, (2) Chemistry, (3) Mathematics, (4)Biology, (5) Statistics, (6) Geology, (7) Astrophysics, (8) Astronomy, (9) Electronics, (10)Botany, (11) Zoology, (12) Bio-chemistry, (13) Anthropology, (14) Microbiology, (15) Geo-physics, (16) Geochemistry, (17) Atmospheric Sciences and (18) Oceanic Sciences, either asmajor/honours or their combination in BSc/Integrated MSc/Integrated MS course will beunder the scope of the programme scholarship. The main feature of the scheme is mentorshipsupport being planned for every scholar through the scholarship.

iii. Assured Opportunity for Research Careers (AORC) aims at attracting, attaching, retainingand nourishing talented young scientific Human Resource to strengthened the R&D founda-

60 Inspire Programme


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tion and base by offering doctoral fellowship in the age group 22-27 years, in both Basic andApplied sciences (including engineering and medicine). It also aims at assuring opportunitiesfor post-doctoral researchers through a scheme through contractual and tenure track posi-tions for five years in both Basic and Applied sciences areas through a faculty scheme.

Question: Give brief details about the INSPIRE Programme of Department of Science &Technology, Government of India. (10)

61 Inactivated Polio Virus Vaccine

Background: On July 3, 2014, the Prime Minister of India announced that four new vaccines,including inactivated poliovirus vaccine, would be provided to all children in India, as part ofIndia's Universal Immunization Programme (UIP).

Study shows injectable inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) in the immunisation programme,given to children aged between 1-4 years, who had been vaccinated with oral poliovirus vaccine(OPV) boosts intestinal immunity to poliovirus, offering substantially greater benefit compared toan additional dose of OPV

Polio is an infectious disease caused by a virus that lives in the throat and intestinal tract.There are three types of poliovirus and many strains of each type, for e.g., PV1, PV2, and PV3.PV1 is the most common form encountered in nature, however all three forms are extremelyinfectious. Wild polioviruses can be found in two continents. As of 2012, PV1 is highly localizedto regions in Pakistan and Afghanistan in Asia, and Nigeria, Niger, and Chad in Africa. Wildpoliovirus type 2 has probably been eradicated; it was last detected in October 1999 in UttarPradesh, India. Wild PV3 is found in parts of only two countries, Nigeria and Pakistan.

It is most often spread through person-to-person contact with the stool of an infected personand may also be spread through oral/nasal secretions. Polio used to be very common throughoutthe world and caused severe illness in thousands of people each year before polio vaccine was

introduced in 1955. Most people infected with the polio virus have no symptoms, however, forless than 1% who develops paralysis it may result in permanent disability and even death.

There are two types of vaccine that protect against polio: inactivated poliovirus vaccine(IPV) and oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV). IPV is given as an injection in the leg or arm, dependingon the patient's age. Polio vaccine may be given at the same time as other vaccines. Children get4 doses of IPV at these ages: 2 months, 4 months, 6-18 months, and a booster dose at 4-6 years.OPV has not been used in the United States since 2000 but is still used in many parts of theworld.

Inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) was developed in 1955 by Dr Jonas Salk. Also called the 'Salkvaccine', IPV consists of inactivated (killed) poliovirus strains of all three poliovirus types. IPV isgiven by intramuscular injection and needs to be administered by a trained health worker. Theinactivated polio vaccine produces antibodies in the blood to all three types of poliovirus. In theevent of infection, these antibodies prevent the spread of the virus to the central nervous systemand protect against paralysis.

Advantages

As IPV is not a 'live' vaccine, it carries no risk of vaccine-associated polio paralysis.

IPV triggers an excellent protective immune response in most people.


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Disadvantages

IPV induces very low levels of immunity in the intestine. As a result, when a person immu-nized with IPV is infected with wild poliovirus, the virus can still multiply inside the intes-tines and be shed in the feces, risking continued circulation.

IPV is over five times more expensive than oral polio vaccine.

Administering the vaccine requires trained health workers and sterile injection equipmentand procedures.

Safety

IPV is one of the safest vaccines in use. No serious systemic adverse reactions have beenshown to follow vaccination.

In fact, IPV is highly effective in preventing paralytic disease caused by all three types ofpoliovirus.

Question: Recently the Prime Minister of India has announced introduction of four newvaccines as part of Universal Immunization Programme. One of the vaccines so introduced isinjectable inactivated poliovirus vaccine. What are the efficacies of this vaccine? Also give a briefdetail about polio as a disease. (5 + 5)

62 Abuse of Antibiotics in the Poultry Industry

Background: Recently, a considerable hue and cry has been raised on this issue especially afterthe publication of a study report by Center for Science and Environment. According to the newstudy Large-scale unregulated use of antibiotics in the poultry industry could be contributing toIndians developing resistance to antibiotics and falling prey to a host of otherwise curableailments

Brief Details:

Antibiotics are one of the major gifts of modern science that have changed the history of thehuman civilization. The mortality and morbidity caused by infectious diseases in the pre-antibi-otic era were substantially reduced following the discovery of antibiotics in the last century.

Antibiotics are also known to speed up growth in animals. If small doses of antibiotics areadded to the animal feed, the daily growth rate is improved by 1 to 10%. The meat obtained fromthe antibiotic-fed animals is also of better quality with more protein and less fat. Growth-promot-ing effects of antibiotics were first reported in the late 1940s, based on observations on chicken,pigs and other species, fed with the by-products of fermentative production of chlorestracycline.Today, it has become a global practice.

Mechanism of growth promotion by antibiotic:

According to the National Office of Animal Health (a British organization consisting ofmembers from animal medicine industry in the UK and Northern Ireland) antibiotics used asgrowth promoters 'helps growing animals digest their food more efficiently, get maximum benefitfrom it and allow them to develop into strong and healthy individuals.' The underlying mecha-nism behind the growth promotion effects of antibiotics however is not clearly known.

Food materials contain bacteria, which destroy some of the nutrients of the food materials,inhibit absorption of nutrients from the intestine and produce toxin that inflicts adverse effectson the health of the animals. It is known that as much as 6% of the energy in the diet could belost due to microbial fermentation in the intestine of the pigs. The growth promotion effect ofantibiotics is believed to stem from their ability to suppress the growth of food-borne bacteria.


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Issue of antibiotic resistance:

Indiscriminate and imprudent use of antibiotics is believed to promote the emergence ofantibiotic resistant strains of bacteria. The postulation called 'Antibiotic Paradox,' has earnedcredence since increase in the frequency of resistance to antibiotic has been found to have a closeassociation with the increase in its use in many cases. The animal body is inhabited by a largenumber of harmless bacteria sensitive to antibiotics. The antibiotic resistant bacteria, which occur

in small number, are outnumbered and suppressed by the sensitive bacteria.Antibiotics have to be used for prevention and clinical management for various types of

infections in the livestock and birds in animal farms and poultries. Besides being used for thera-peutic purpose, they are also used in a large scale as growth promoters. These antibiotics kill orsuppress the sensitive bacteria in the animals. The resistant bugs get an opportunity to growfreely in absence of any challenge posed by the sensitive bacteria. Thus the food animals andbirds become a reservoir of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The antibiotic-defying organisms areexcreted by them in to the soil, washed by rain, carried to the ponds, lakes and rivers and enterinto the bodies of aquatic animals (e.g. fishes), which we take as food.

Remedies:

i. Use of friendly bacteria - In view of the problem of antibiotic resistance being furthered bythe use of antibiotics as growth promoters, scientists are looking for non-antibiotic growthpromoters like food bacteria that colonizes in intestine of the animals and prevent the growthof pathogenic bacteria. Bacteria used for this purpose are known as pro-biotics. Besidescolonizing in the intestine and suppressing the pathogenic bacteria, they are also believed tostimulate the immune system.

ii. Use of Safe antibiotics - There are a few bacteria, which, besides improving the efficiencyof feed conversion in the intestine, it also alters the micro-flora in the intestine in such a waythat growth of the beneficial microorganisms (involved in the synthesis of vitamins, aminoacids and enzymes) is promoted, for e.g. a glycolipid antibiotic named Flavophospholipid.These antibiotics are not used in therapeutic ways and henceforth don't promote antibioticresistant strains in livestock and birds.

Question: The growth promotion in poultry industry by means of using antibiotics was innews of late; this practice is going on for quite a bit of time. What is the negative impact of thispractice? Enumerate the possible remedy/ies for this. (5 + 5)

63 Minamata Disaster & Minamata Disease

Background: Minamata Convention on Mercury, an international treaty designed to protecthuman health and the environment from anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and

mercury compounds, the Convention was adopted and opened for signature on 10 October2013, at a Conference of Plenipotentiaries (Diplomatic Conference) in Kumamoto, Japan, pre-ceded by a Preparatory Meeting from 7-8 October 2013. India signed this agreement on 30thSeptember 2014.

Minamata Disaster:

In 1950's, one of the most severe incidents of industrial pollution and mercury poisoningoccurred in the small seaside town of Minamata, Japan. A local petrochemical and plasticscompany, Chisso Corporation, dumped an estimated 27 tons of methyl-mercury into the Minamata


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Bay over a period of 37 years. Mercury was used as a catalyst in the production of acetaldehyde,a chemical employed in the production of plastics. Methyl-mercury contaminated waste-water,a byproduct of the process, was pumped into the bay, creating a highly toxic environment thatcontaminated local fish. Residents of Minamata, who relied heavily on fish for food, were at riskof exposure to Methyl-mercury with every bite of fish they ate. The high contamination levels inthe people of Minamata led to severe neurological damage and killed more than 900 people. Anestimated 2 million people from the area suffered health problems or were left permanentlydisabled from the contamination.

Minamata Disease:

Minamata disease was reported for the first time in the world at Minamata City, KumamotoPrefecture, Japan, in 1956 and for the next time at Niigata City, Niigata Prefecture, Japan, in1965. The both cases were attributed to methyl mercury that was generated in the process forproducing acetaldehyde using mercury as catalyst.

These cases of poisoning with organic mercury were first to take place in the world throughfood chain transfer of environmental pollution. The cases of organic mercury poisoning that hadbeen known prior to Minamata disease occurred as a result of direct poisoning of those whowere engaged in organic-mercury handling occupations or those who took it in accidentally.

Symptoms include sensory disorders of the four extremities, loss of feeling or numbness,cerebellar ataxia, tunnel vision or blindness, smell and hearing impairments, and disequilibriumsyndrome. More serious cases lead to convulsions, seizures, paralysis, and possibly death. Inaddition to the outbreak among the townspeople, congenital Minamata disease was observed inbabies born to affected mothers. These babies demonstrated symptoms of cerebral palsy.

Minamata Convention on Mercury:

The convention took almost 6 years to take final shape; finally it was adopted on 19th January 2013. It is part of a cluster of agreements that include the Basel Convention on thecontrol of trans-boundary movement of hazardous wastes and their disposal, the RotterdamConvention for managing international trade in hazardous chemicals and pesticides, and theStockholm Convention on the restriction and elimination of the production and use of persistentorganic pollutants.

Recognizing that mercury is a chemical of global concern owing to its long-range atmo-spheric transport, its persistence in the environment once anthropogenically introduced, its abil-ity to bio-accumulate in ecosystems and its significant negative effects on human health and theenvironment, especially recalling decision 25/5 of 20 February 2009 of the Governing Council ofthe United Nations Environment Programme to initiate international action to manage mercuryin an efficient, effective, and coherent manner, the objective of this convention was set up as 'toprotect the human health and the environment from anthropogenic emissions and releases ofmercury and mercury compounds'. The Convention was ratified by delegates from 140 countries.

Indian Perspective:In India, while generally it has not been part of the environmental discourse, mercury

pollution concerns have hit the headlines at two places. At Kodaikanal, controversy has existedfor years following the closure of a thermometer manufacturing factory moved there by Pond'sfrom the US in 1983 and later acquired by Hindustan Unilever Ltd in 1998. The factory was shutdown by a closure order of the state pollution control board in March 2001. The company haslong maintained that it has followed all standards both of occupational safety as well as ofremediation after closure, but civil society activists and some non-governmental organizationshave been contesting these assertions. In December 2011, four years after an expert committee


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set up by the Madras high court submitted its report that appeared to support the company'sstance, the Union ministry of labour and employment submitted another report to the Madrashigh court on the claims made by ex-workers on their prolonged exposure to mercury. Thematter is still pending there.

The second high-profile case is that of the Singrauli region that falls in Sonbhadra districtof Uttar Pradesh and also spills over into Madhya Pradesh. This is a huge private and public

sector industrial and power-generating cluster. Some estimates are that around 17% of India'spower plant mercury emissions are from this cluster alone. Both official (Council of Scientific andIndustrial Research, or CSIR) and non-official (Centre for Science and Environment) studies ofthe local population have revealed higher mean mercury blood levels and mercury levels in hairthat have resulted in highly adverse health conditions for them, particularly in terms of respira-tory disorders. In December 2009, based on a study carried out by the Indian Institute of Tech-nology, Delhi, and the Central Pollution Control Board, the ministry of environment and forestsdeclared Singrauli as being among the 43 most critically polluted industrial clusters in the coun-try and imposed a moratorium on further expansion in the area till a credible clean-up actionplan began to get implemented. Subsequently, however, the moratorium was lifted based on anaction plan that did not even acknowledge or deal with the mercury pollution issue.

Apart from Kodaikanal and Singrauli, Ganjam in Odisha is another area where mercurypollution has reached serious levels. Some experts have also drawn attention to what are called'confounding factors' that could affect absorption and accumulation of mercury in the Indiancontext of which exposure to pesticides is the most critical. Such factors may well explain highlevels of mercury contamination (in addition to contamination of arsenic, cadmium, chromiumand selenium) in surface water in Bathinda in Punjab, a major power-producing and industrialarea that has emerged as a seriously cancer-prone area.

Given their tremendous expansion inevitable over the next decade at least, it is imperativethat like the US and China, India now establish and enforce mercury emission standards forcoal-fired power plants (and for coal mining as well). Of course, such standards are also neededfor emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which are also reaching very high levelsand which also have deleterious health consequences.

Comment:

The Minamata Convention gives India five years to control and, where feasible, to reduceemissions from new power plants and 10 years to do so for existing power plants. The chlor-alkali industry has moved to mercury-free technologies, but replacement of CFLs by mercury-freelight-emitting diode (LED) lighting needs to accelerate quickly. Incidentally, it is only appropriatein more respects than one that this year's Nobel Prize for Physics has gone to three Japanesescientists who invented LED technology. Mercury monitoring systems have to be put in place.

Questions:

Give a brief detail of Minamata disaster and significance of the convention in this perspec-tive. (5 + 5)

Minamata convention is very important from Indian perspective as well. Comment. (10)

64 Stealth TechnologyBackground: With the commissioning of INS Kolkata, the largest indigenously built naval de-stroyer and INS Kamorta, the first indigenously built anti-submarine corvette both being stealthships, the technology came into prominence.


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Brief Details:

Stealth or low observability (as it is scientifically known) is one of the most misunderstoodand misinterpreted concepts in military technologies by the common man. With an additionalboost from Hollywood action movies, stealth is today termed as the concept invincibility ratherthan invisibility. Though, the debate still continues on whether stealth technology can make anaircraft invincible it was found that stealth aircraft are detectable by radar. The motive behind

incorporating stealth technology in an aircraft is not just to avoid missiles being fired at is butalso to give total deniability to covert operations. This is very much useful to strike targets whereit is impossible to reach. Thus we can clearly say that the job of a stealth aircraft pilot is not tolet others know that he was ever there.

In simple terms, stealth technology allows an object to be partially invisible to Radar or anyother means of detection. This doesn't allow the object to be fully invisible on radar. All it cando is to reduce the detection range or an object or enemy platform. This is similar to thecamouflage tactics used by soldiers in jungle warfare. Unless the soldier comes near you, youcan't see him. Though this gives a clear and safe striking distance for the objects using it, thereis still a threat from radar systems, which can detect stealth platforms.

The Technology:The concept behind the stealth technology is very simple. As a matter of fact it is totally the

principle of reflection and absorption that makes an object 'stealthy'. Deflecting the incomingradar waves into another direction and thus reducing the number of waves returning to theradar. Another concept that is followed is to absorb the incoming radar waves totally and toredirect the absorbed electro-magnetic energy in another direction.

Whatever may be the method used, the level of stealth an object can achieve depends totallyon the design and the substance with which it is made of.

The idea is for the radar antenna to send out a burst of radio energy, which is then reflectedback by any object it happens to encounter. The radar antenna measures the time it takes for thereflection to arrive, and with that information can tell how far away the object is.

The metal body of a military platform is very good at reflecting radar signals, and this makesit easy to find and track them with radar equipment. The goal of stealth technology is to makethose objects invisible to radar. There are two different ways to create invisibility:

a) The object can be shaped so that any radar signals it reflects are reflected away from theradar equipment.

b) The object can be covered in materials that absorb radar signals.

For example, most conventional aircraft have a rounded shape. This shape makes themaerodynamic, but it also creates a very efficient radar reflector. The round shape means that nomatter where the radar signal hits the plane, some of the signal gets reflected back or a stealthaircraft, on the other hand, is made up of completely flat surfaces and very sharp edges. Whena radar signal hits a stealth plane, the signal reflects away at an angle.

In addition, surfaces on a stealth object can be treated so they absorb radar energy as well.

The overall result is that a stealth aircraft like an F-117A can have the radar signature ofa small bird rather than an airplane. The only exception is when the plane banks --there willoften be a moment when one of the panels of the plane will perfectly reflect a burst of radarenergy back to the antenna.


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RAS (Radar Absorbent Surfaces) are the surfaces on the object, which can deflect the incomingradar waves and reduce the detection range. RAS works due to the angles at which the struc-tures on the surface of the object are placed.

These structures can be anything from wings to a refueling boom on the aircraft or hull ofa ship. The concept behind the RAS is that of reflecting a light beam from a torch with a mirror.The angle at which the reflection takes place is also more important. When we consider a mirror

being rotated from 0o to 90o, the amount of light that is reflected in the direction of the lightbeam is more. At 90o, maximum amount of light that is reflected back to same direction as thelight beam's source. On the other hand when the mirror is tilted above 90o and as it proceedsto 180o, the amount of light reflected in the same direction decreases drastically. This makes theobjects or military platforms stealthy.

RAM (Radar Absorbent Materials) absorb the incoming radar waves rather than deflecting itin another direction. RAM totally depends on the material with which the surface of the objectis made.

The RAM is believed to be silicon based inorganic compounds. What we know is that theRAM coating is placed like wrapping a cloth over the object. When radar sends a beam in thedirection of the object, the radar waves are absorbed by the object's surface and are redirectedto another direction after it is absorbed. This reduces the radar signature of the object.

Questions:

With the commissioning of the two war ships, namely, INS Kolkata and INS Kamorta, theuse of stealth technology in defence equipments came into prominence once again. What isstealth technology? (10)

65 MoU Signed between National Cancer Institute,AIIMS, Jhajjar Campus and DBT, GOI

Background: The Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology, Govern-

ment of India and the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi an AutonomousInstitute under Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India through it upcomingNational Cancer Institute at Jhajjar have signed a Memorandum of Understanding for further-ance of Cancer Research taking into cognizance that cancer disease burden is fast reachingpandemic proportion in India.

Brief Details:

The Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Ministry of Science and Technology, Governmentof India and the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi an Autonomous Instituteunder Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India through it upcoming NationalCancer Institute at Jhajjar have signed a Memorandum of Understanding for furtherance of

Cancer Research. Cancer disease burden is fast reaching pandemic proportion in India.DBT, GOI funds research using modern tools of biology and AIIMS is a tertiary-care hospital

cum research centre. Both recognize the importance of collaborative & complimentary researchso as to bring about an improvement in public awareness on likely causes of cancer, preventionstrategies, early-detection and improved therapeutic interventions so as to improve the quality oflife and survival rate. Their efforts will specially focus on cancers unique to India such as Gall-bladder, oral and cervical & Naso-pharyngeal cancer, as also with high disease burden.

DBT has been supporting basic, clinical and molecular epidemiological cancer researchthrough its various schemes for the past 20 years. It promoted development of diagnostics for


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cervical cancer, indigenous cervical cancer vaccines, immuno-modulation clinical trials andbiomarker discovery.

AIIMS on the other hand is developing a National Cancer Institute at its upcoming JhajjarCampus where the focus is also on cancer research in addition to patient care & management.The project, to be developed at a cost of about Rs. 2000 crore as sanctioned by the Ministry ofHealth in the coming three and a half years is expected to be a big step in research in cancer

in the country and would play a significant role in cancer treatment. So far, India has about 28Regional Cancer Centres that mainly treats patients. However, research has not been a priority.Through this MoU, it is therefore planned to:

1. Set up a joint Research Advisory Board to:

Identify areas of research: immediate, medium and long-term planning.

Evolve consensus mechanism to harmonize administrative and financial processes and ap-provals (evaluation, funding and monitoring) through mutual discussion.

Develop a policy perspective including economic analysis and forecasting for technologywith potential for use in public health especially in cancer related areas

2. Scientific Research collaborations in the area of Cancer Biology to:

Promote development of new affordable technologies, introduction of the available technolo-gies in the system and provide support for diffusion of the technologies into the social system.To fulfil this, joint efforts would be undertaken for research work and its translation to publichealth in India; with specific focus on cancers unique to India.

Jointly design clinical trials.

Collaborate for joint development and evaluation of vaccines, diagnostics, biomarkers, thera-peutics etc.

Co-ordinate and collaborate for translational research in cancer related areas3. Co-design and Co-develop research labs / facilities at National Cancer Institute (NCI) lo-

cated at AIIMS-Jhajjar campus, for the purpose of Cancer Prevention/Research

4. Training of man-power by:

Offering joint clinical fellowships

Building capacity in the country within the medical schools or outside the system in trans-lational research with strong networking.

Opening the facility and infrastructure to scientists identified under the jointly agreed

programmes. Jointly support competence building through short term trainings in GLP, GCP, quality

control, IPR, regulation and clinical trial skills that are critical for development of newtechnologies.

5. Co-creating a state-of-the art Bio-bank with well annotated specimens.

6. Jointly support and forge partnership with industry for the development and evaluation of products for public health through Public Private Partnership within the framework of DBT/AIIMS Rules and Regulations


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Question:

Recently, collaboration has taken place between Department of Biotechnology (DBT), GoIand AIIMS to promote research on cancer at the latter's upcoming campus at Jhajjar, Haryana.What are the steps proposed to be taken to boost cancer research in India as per the MoUsigned? (10)

66 Incubation of Technology for Biodegradable andEdible Films for Food and PharmaceuticalsPackaging

Background: The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) under the Department of AtomicEnergy, Government of India through its Centre for Incubation of Technologies (BARCIT) hassigned a MoU with M/s Veena Industries, Nagpur for incubation of technology for 'Biodegrad-able and Edible films for Food and Pharmaceuticals Packaging' at Trombay, Mumbai.

Brief Details:

The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) under the Department of Atomic Energy,Government of India through its Centre for Incubation of Technologies (BARCIT) has signed aMoU with a private sector enterprise for incubation of technology for 'Biodegradable and Ediblefilms for Food and Pharmaceuticals Packaging'.

The biodegradable edible films for food and pharmaceutical packaging from natural re-sources have been developed by BARC for overcoming the disadvantages of plastic packagingmaterials. The films have comparable mechanical and barrier properties to commercially usedPVC (Poly-vinyl Chloride) cling films.

Scale up of this technology will be carried out at the incubation centre of BARC to developproducts as per market requirement. While scaling up this technology, emphasis will be given todevelop economically viable and user friendly product with improvement in the mechanical andbarrier product of the film. A suitable dose of Gamma radiation will be given to the raw material

to improve its mechanical and barrier properties such as tensile strength and water vapourtransmission rate. BARC will provide its technical knowhow and infrastructure; whereas, theprivate sector enterprise will provide market search, manpower and material at its own cost forthe incubation plan. Finally, the technology developed will be licensed to the private sectorenterprise.

It may be noted that Packaging constitutes the largest market for plastics, amounting to over12 million tons per year. Synthetic packaging materials are made up of petroleum based productswhich are non-biodegradable and non-renewable. Large scale use of such packaging material isthus a major environmental concern. This has led to a search for packaging material that isbiodegradable as well as recyclable. One of the alternatives is the development of packagingmaterial from biopolymers that are biodegradable, non-toxic and from completely renewableresources. Major limitation in the use of biopolymers as packaging materials are their relativelypoor mechanical and barrier properties such as tensile strength and water vapour transmissionrate as compared to their non-biodegradable counter-parts.

Question:

Biodegradable edible films for food and pharmaceutical packaging from natural resourceshave been developed by BARC for overcoming the disadvantages of plastic packaging materials.What are the disadvantages being referred to here? (5)

contemporary issues for mains 2014 - part 9

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