construction 1 seminar
TRANSCRIPT
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History of construction
Few things are more fascinating than how humans havechanged the world around them. Mankind has constructed
buildings and other structures since prehistory . TheHistory of Construction is not limited to buildings butcovers bridges, amphitheatres, dams, electricity pylons,road and canals to give just a few examples. Today wetake the incredible feats of engineering very much forgranted but virtually all of the building materials we usetoday have a long history and some of the structures builtthousands of years ago without the aid of moderntechnology still have the ability to amaze. The history of
construction is related to, but not identical with, thehistory of structural engineering. To understand whythings were constructed the way they were, we also needto rely on archaeology to record the form of the parts thatsurvive and the tools they used, economic history toinform us of how much they cost, social history to tell usabout how the builders lived, and architectural history totell us about the books and writings of the builders.Contents
• 1 Chronological Development o 1.1 Neolithic constructiono 1.2 Construction in Ancient Mesopotamia
1.2.1 Materials1.2.2 Major technical achievements
o 1.3 Construction in Ancient Egypto 1.4 Construction in Ancient Greeceo 1.5 Roman construction
1.5.1 Materials1.5.2 Organisation of Labour1.5.3 Technology1.5.4 Outstanding technicalAchievements
o 1.6 Medieval construction 1.6.1 Materials1.6.2 Design1.6.3 Labour1.6.4 Techniques
o 1.7 Construction in the Renaissance 1.7.1 Materials
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1.7.2 Design1.7.3 Labour1.7.4 Technical advances
o 1.8 Construction in the seventeenth century
1.8.1 Materialso 1.9 Construction in the eighteenth centuryo 1.10 Construction in the nineteenth century:
Industrial Revolutiono 1.11 Construction in the twentieth century
• 2 Construction history as an academic discipline o 2.1 Early writers on construction historyo 2.2 Nineteenth century studies on construction
historyo 2.3 The early twentieth century studies of theconstruction historyo 2.4 The late twentieth century
• 3 External links• 4 See also
• 5 Notes
Chronological Development
The history of construction is a complex subjectencompassing the history of building materials, the historyof engineering, the history of building techniques,economic and social history of builders and workmen, thehistory of construction machinery and temporary worksetc etc. Each of these has a complex literature devoted toit, but it perhaps worth providing the briefest of summaries here in the hope that will start new moredetailed pages.
Neolithic construction
The first bridges made by humans were probably woodenlogs placed across a stream. The first buildings weresimple huts , tents and shelters meant to suit the basicneeds of protection from the elements, built by theirinhabitants (see self-sufficiency ). The very simplestshelters, tents, leave no traces behind them. Because of
this, what little we can say about very early construction ismostly conjecture and based on what we know about the
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way nomadic hunter-gatherers and herdsmen in remoteareas build shelters today. The absence of metal toolsplaced limitations on the materials that could be worked,but it was still possible to build quite elaborate stone
structures with ingenuity using dry stone wallingtechniques .
Construction in Ancient Mesopotamia
The earliest large scale buildings for which any realevidence survives have been found in ancientMesopotamia . The smaller dwellings only survive intraces of foundations, but the later civilisations builtvery sizeable structures in the forms of palaces,temples and ziggurats and took particular care tobuild them out of materials that last. which hasensured that very considerable parts have remainedintact.
Material
The chief building material was the mud brick, formed inwooden moulds ( adobe ). Bricks varied widely in size and
format from small bricks that could be lifted in one handto ones as big as large paving slabs. Rectangular bricksare found but square format bricks were also common.
They were laid in virtually every bonding patternimaginable and used with considerable sophistication.Drawings survive on clay tablets from later periodsshowing that buildings were set out on brick modules. By3500BC bricks were also being fired and records survivesshowing a very complex division of labour into separate
tasks and trades.examples of which survive in thearchaeological museum in Tehran, the Louvre Museum inParis and the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.
Major technical achievements
The major technical achievements are in the constructionof great cities such as Uruk and Ur . The Ziggurat of Ur remains one of the most outstanding surviving buildings of the period, despite major reconstruction work. Anotherfine example is the ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil in modern
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Iran. Babylon ,the archaeological site in 1932, before majorreconstruction work undertaken by Sadam Hussein
Construction in Ancient Egypt
Aerial view of the Ramasseum in Thebes with itsassociated adobe structuresAdobe (sun-baked brick)construction was used for ancillary buildings and normalhouses in ancient times and is still common today. The hotdry climate was ideal for mud-brick, which tends to washaway in the rain. The Ramesseum in Thebes, Egypt (Luxor)provides one of the finest examples of mud brickconstruction, with extensive storehouses with mud-brickvaults surviving, all constructed with sloping courses toavoid the need for formwork.The grandest buildings wereconstructed in stone, often from massive masonry blocks.
Construction in Ancient Greece
The ancient Greeks , like the Egyptians and theMesopotamians,tended to build most of their commonbuildings out of mud brick, leaving no record behind them.However very many structures do survive, some of which
are in a very good state of repair, although some havebeen party reconstructed or re-erected in the modern era.
The most dramatic are the Greek Temples .No timberstructures survive (roofs, floors etc),
Roman construction
In striking contrast to previous cultures, an enormousamount is known about Roman building construction. A
very large amount survives, including complete intactbuildings like the Pantheon, Rome and very well preservedruins at Pompeii and Herculaneum . We also have the firstsurviving treatise on architecture by Vitruvius whichincludes extensive passages on construction techniques.
Materials
The great Roman breakthrough was the development of hydraulic lime mortar . Previous cultures had used limemortars but by adding volcanic ash the Romans managed
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have covered the immense spans they achieved, thelongest exceeding 30 metres.
Medieval construction
In the Middle Ages of Europe fortifications , castles andcathedrals were the greatest construction projects. TheRoman building techniques were lost.
Materials
Most buildings in Northern Europe were constructed of timber until c.1000 AD. In Southern Europe adoberemained predominant. Brick continued to bemanufactured in Italy throughout the period 600-1000 ADbut elsewhere the craft of brickmaking had largelydisappeared and with it the methods for burning tiles.Roofs were largely thatched. Houses were small andgathered around a large communal hall. Monasticismspread more sophisticated building techniques. TheCistercians may have been responsible for reintroducingbrickmaking to the area from Holland, through Denmarkand Northern Germany to Poland leading to
Backsteingotik . Brick remained the most popular prestigematerial in these areas throughout the period.
DESIGN
There were no standard textbooks on building in theMiddle Ages. Master craftsmen transferred theirknowledge through apprenticeships and from father toson. Trade secrets were closely guarded, as they were the
source of a craftsman's livelihood. Drawings only survivefrom the later period. Parchment was too expensive to becommonly used and paper did not appear until the end of the period. Models were used for designing structures andcould be built in large scales. Details were mostlydesigned al full size on tracing floors, some of whichsurvive.
Labour
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In general medieval buildings were built by paid workers.Unskilled work was done by labourers paid by the day.Skilled craftsmen served apprenticeships or learned theirtrade from their parents. It is not clear how many women
were involved in building work as pay generally went tothe men. Women do however occasionally occur inaccounts and it was not uncommon for widows to takeover their husband's businesses on their death.
Techniques
Romanesque buildings of the period 600-1100 AD wereentirely roofed in timber or had stone barrel vaultscovered by timber roofs. The Gothic style of architecturewith its vaults , flying buttresses and pointed gothic arches developed in the twelfth century and in the centuries thatfollowed ever more incredible feats of constructionaldaring were achieved in stone. The resulting thin stonevaults and towering buildings were constructed entirelyusing rules derived by trial and error. Failure werefrequent,
Construction in the Renaissance
The Renaissance in Italy, the invention of moveable type and the Reformation changed the character of building.
The rediscovery of Vitruvius had a strong influence. Duringthe Middle Ages buildings were designed by the peoplethat built them. The master mason and master carpenterslearnt their trades by word of mouth and relied onexperience, models and rules of thumb to determine thesizes of building elements.
Materials
The major breakthroughs in this period were to do with thetechnology of conversion. Water mills in most of WesternEurope were used to saw timber and convert trees intoplanks. Bricks were used in ever increasing quantities. InItaly the brickmakers were organised into guilds althoughthe kilns were mostly in rural areas because of the risk of fire and easy availability of firewood and brickearth.Brickmakers typically paid by the brick which gave them
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an incentive to make them too small. As a resultlegislation was laid down regulating the minimum sizesand each town kept measures against which bricks had tobe compared. An increasing amount of ironwork was used
in roof carpentry for straps and tension members. The ironwas fixed using forelock bolts.
Design
The rebirth of the idea of an architect in the renaissanceradically changed the nature of building design. IndeedMedieval buildings were conceived in totally differentterms. The Renaissance reintroduced the classical style of architecture. Leon Battista Alberti's treatise onarchitecture raised the subject to a new level, definingarchitecture as something worthy of study by thearistocracy. Previously it was viewed merely as a technicalart, suited only to the artisan. The resulting change instatus of architecture and more importantly the architectis key to understanding the changes in the process of design. The Renaissance architect was often an artist (apainter or sculptor) who had little knowledge of buildingtechnology but a keen grasp of the rules of classicaldesign. The architect thus had to provide detaileddrawings for the craftsmen setting out the disposition of the various parts.
Labour
showing the double skin structure.Labour in theRenaissance was much he same as that in the MiddleAges: buildings were built by paid workers. Unskilled work
was done by labourers paid by the day. Skilled craftsmenserved apprenticeships or learned their trade from theirparents. Craftsmen were organized in guilds whichprovided a limited form of building regulation in return formembers of the guild holding a monopoly on a particulartrade in a defined area (usually within the town walls).
Towns were in general very small by modern standardsand dominated by the dwellings of a small number of richnobles or merchants and cathedrals and churches.
Technical advances
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The wish to return to classical architecture createdproblems for the Renaissance buildings. The builders didnot use concrete and thus comparable vaults and domeshad to be replicated in brick or stone. The greatest
technical feats were undoubtedly in these areas. The firstmajor breakthrough was Brunelleschi's project for thedome of Santa Maria del Fiore . Brunelleschi managed todevise a way of building a huge dome without formwork,relying instead on the weight of the bricks and the waythey were laid to keep them in position and the shape of the dome to keep it standing. The exact way the domewas built is still subject to heated debate today as it is notpossible to take the dome apart to study its construction
without destroying it.Construction in the seventeenth century
The seventeenth century saw the birth of modern sciencewhich would have profound effects on buildingconstruction in the centuries to come. The majorbreakthroughs were towards the end of the century whenarchitect-engineers began to use experimental science toinform the form of their buildings. However it was not untilthe 18th century that engineering theory developedsufficiently to allow sizes of members to be calculated.Seventeenth century structures this relied strongly onexperience, rules of thumb and the use of scale models.
Materials
The major breakthrough in this period was in themanufacture of glass , with the first cast plate glass being
developed in France. Iron was increasingly employed instructures. Christopher Wren used iron hangers tosuspend floor beams at Hampton Court Palace , and ironrods to repair Salisbury Cathedral and strength the domeof St Paul's Cathedral . Most buildings had stone ashlar surfaces covering rubble cores, held together with limemortar. Experiments were made mixing lime with tarrassto provide a hydraulic mortar, but there was still noequivalent of the Roman Concrete. In England, France and
Holland cut and gauged brickwork was used to provide
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detailed and ornate facades. Some major examples arethe plumb-line , the slide-rule and the drafting compass .
Construction in the eighteenth century
A structural worker building the Empire State Building .Workers such as this man were often referred to as "oldtimers" because in that time era, mostly only middle-agedmen worked on building structures.The industrialrevolution was manifested in new kinds of transportation installations, such as railways , canals and macadam roads. These required large amounts of investment . Newconstruction devices included steam engines , machinetools , explosives and optical surveying .As steel was mass-produced from the mid-19th century, it was used, in formof I-beams and reinforced concrete . Glass panes also wentinto mass production, and changed from luxury to everyman's property. Plumbing appeared, and gave commonaccess to drinking water and sewage collection .
Construction in the twentieth century
With the Second Industrial Revolution in the early 20th
century, elevators and cranes made high rise buildingsand skyscrapers possible, while Heavy equipments andpower tools decreased the workforce needed. Other newtechnologies were prefabrication and computer-aideddesign . Trade unions were formed to protect constructionworkers' interests. Personal protective equipment such ashard hats and earmuffs also came into use.From the 20thcentury, governmental construction projects were used asa part of macroeconomic stimulation policies, especially
during the Great depression (see New Deal ).In the end of the 20th century, ecology , energy conservation andsustainable development have become more importantissues of construction.
Construction history as an academic discipline
The History of Construction is of interest to anyone whowants to know how and why things have been constructedthe way they are. There is no established academicdiscipline of construction history but there are a growing
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number of researchers and academics working in this fieldwho are structural engineers, archaeologists, architects,historians of technology and architectural historians.Although the subject has been studied since the
Renaissance and there were a number of importantstudies in the nineteenth century, it largely went out of fashion in the mid-twentieth century. [1] . In the last thirtyyears there has been an enormous increase in interest inthis field, which is vital to the growing practice of buildingconservation .
Early writers on construction history
The earliest surviving book detailing historical buildingtechniques is the treatise of the Roman author, Vitruvius ,but his appraoch was neither particularly scholarly norparticularly systematic. Much later, in the Renaissance ,Vasari mentions Filippo Brunelleschi 's interest inresearching Roman building techniques, although if hewrote anything on the subject it does not survive. In theseventeenth century, Rusconi's illustrations for his versionof Leon Battista Alberti 's treatise explicitly show Romanwall construction but most of the interest in antiquity wasin understanding its proportions and detail and thearchitects of the time were content to build using currenttechniques. While early archaeological studies andtopographic works such as the engravings of GiovanniBattista Piranesi show Roman construction they were notexplicitly analytical and much of what they do show ismade up.
Nineteenth century studies on construction history
In the nineteenth century, lecturers increasingly illustratedtheir lectures with images of building techniques used inthe past and these type of images increasingly appearedin construction text books, such as Rondelet's. Thegreatest advances however were made by English andFrench (and later German) architects attempting tounderstand, record and analyse Gothic buildings. Typicalof this type of writing are the works of Robert Willis in
England, Viollet-le-Duc in France and Ungewitter inGermany. None of these however were seeking to suggest
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that the history of construction represented a newapproach to the subject of architectural history. AugustChoisy was perhaps the first author to seriously attempt toundertake such a study.
The early twentieth century studies of theconstruction history
Santiago Heurta has suggested that it was modernism,with its emphasis on the employment of new materials,that abruptly ended the interest in construction historythat appeared to have been growing in the last fewdecades of the nineteenth century and the early years of the twentieth. With the advent of concrete and steel frameconstruction, architects, who had been the chief audiencefor such studies, were no longer as interested as they hadbeen in understanding traditional construction, whichsuddenly appeared redundant. Very little was thuspublished between 1920 and 1950. The revival of intereststarted in archaeology with the studies of Romanconstruction in the 1950s, but it was not until the 1980sthat construction history began to emerge as anindependent field.
The late twentieth century
By the end of the twentieth century steel and concreteconstruction were themselves becoming the subject of historical investigation.The Construction History Societywas formed in the UK in 1982. The First InternationalCongress on Construction History was held in Madrid in2003 This was followed by the Second International
Congress in 2006 in Queens' College, Cambridge, Englandand the Third International Congress held in Cottbus in2009. The Fourth International Congress is scheduled tobe held in Paris in 2012.
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION
In large construction projects, such as this skyscraper inMelbourne , cranes are essential.In the fields of architecture and civil engineering , construction is a
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process that consists of the building or assembling of infrastructure . Far from being a single activity, large scaleconstruction is a feat of human multitasking . Normally, the
job is managed by a project manager , and supervised by a
construction manager , design engineer , constructionengineer or project architect .
For the successful execution of a project , effectiveplanning is essential. Those involved with the design andexecution of the infrastructure in question must considerthe environmental impact of the job, the successfulscheduling , budgeting , construction site safety , availabilityof building materials , logistics , inconvenience to the public
caused by construction delays , and bidding , etc.Contents
• 1 Types of construction projects o 1.1 Building constructiono 1.2 Industrial construction
• 2 Construction processes o 2.1 Design teamo 2.2 Financial advisorso 2.3 Legal considerationso 2.4 Interaction of expertiseo 2.5 Procurement
2.5.1 Traditional2.5.2 Design and build2.5.3 Managementprocurement systems
• 3 Authority having jurisdiction• 4 Construction careers• 5 History• 6 See also• 7 References
• 8 External links
Types of construction projects
Construction of a prefabricated home
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In general, there are three types of construction:
1. Building construction2. Heavy / civil construction
3. Industrial constructionEach type of construction project requires a unique teamto plan, design, construct, and maintain the project.
Building construction
Building construction is the process of adding structure toreal property . The vast majority of building constructionprojects are small renovations, such as addition of a room,or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of theproperty acts as laborer, paymaster, and design team forthe entire project. However, all building constructionprojects include some elements in common - design,financial, and legal considerations. Many projects of varying sizes reach undesirable end results, such asstructural collapse, cost overruns, and/or litigation reason,those with experience in the field make detailed plans andmaintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a
positive outcome.Building construction is procuredprivately or publicly utilizing various deliverymethodologies, including hard bid, negotiated price,traditional, management contracting, constructionmanagement-at-risk, design & build and design-buildbridging.Residential construction practices, technologies,and resources must conform to local building authorityregulations and codes of practice. Materials readilyavailable in the area generally dictate the construction
materials used (e.g. brick versus stone, versus timber).Cost of construction on a per square metre (or per squarefoot) basis for houses can vary dramatically based on siteconditions, local regulations, economies of scale (customdesigned homes are always more expensive to build) andthe availability of skilled tradespeople. As residential (aswell as all other types of construction) can generate a lotof waste , careful planning again is needed here.The mostpopular method of residential construction in the United
States is wood framed construction. As efficiency codeshave come into effect in recent years, new construction
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technologies and methods have emerged. UniversityConstruction Management departments are on the cuttingedge of the newest methods of construction intended toimprove efficiency, performance and reduce construction
waste.
Industrial construction
Industrial construction, though a relatively small part of the entire construction industry, is a very importantcomponent. Owners of these projects are usually large,for-profit, industrial corporations. These corporations canbe found in such industries as medicine, petroleum,chemical, power generation, manufacturing, etc.Processes in these industries require highly specializedexpertise in planning, design, and construction. As inbuilding and heavy/highway construction, this type of construction requires a team of individuals to ensure asuccessful project.
Construction processes
Design team
Shasta Dam under construction in June 1942
In the modern industrialized world, construction usuallyinvolves the translation of designs into reality. A formaldesign team may be assembled to plan the physicalproceedings, and to integrate those proceedings with theother parts. The design usually consists of drawings andspecifications , usually prepared by a design teamincluding surveyors , civil engineers , cost engineers (orquantity surveyors ), mechanical engineers , electricalengineers , structural engineers , and fire protectionengineers . The design team is most commonly employedby (i.e. in contract with) the property owner. Under thissystem, once the design is completed by the design team,a number of construction companies or constructionmanagement companies may then be asked to make a bidfor the work, either based directly on the design, or on the
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basis of drawings and a bill of quantities provided by aquantity surveyor . Following evaluation of bids, the ownerwill typically award a contract to the most cost efficientbidder.The modern trend in design is toward integration of
previously separated specialties, especially among largefirms. In the past, architects, interior designers, engineers,developers, construction managers, and generalcontractors were more likely to be entirely separatecompanies, even in the larger firms. Presently, a firm thatis nominally an "architecture" or "constructionmanagement" firm may have experts from all relatedfields as employees, or to have an associated companythat provides each necessary skill. Thus, each such firm
may offer itself as "one-stop shopping" for a constructionproject, from beginning to end. This is designated as a"design Build" contract where the contractor is given aperformance specification, and must undertake the projectfrom design to construction, while adhering to theperformance specifications.
Several project structures can assist the owner in thisintegration, including design-build, partnering, andconstruction management. In general, each of theseproject structures allows the owner to integrate theservices of architects, interior designers, engineers, andconstructors throughout design and construction.
Financial advisors
Many construction projects suffer from preventablefinancial problems. Underbids ask for too little moneyto complete the project. Cash flow problems existwhen the present amount of funding cannot coverthe current costs for labour and materials, andbecause they are a matter of having sufficient fundsat a specific time, can arise even when the overalltotal is enough. Fraud is a problem in many fields,but is notoriously prevalent in the construction field.Financial planning for the project is intended toensure that a solid plan, with adequate safeguardsand contingency plans, is in place before the project
is started, and is required to ensure that the plan isproperly executed over the life of the
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project. Mortgage bankers , accountants , and costengineers are likely participants in creating anoverall plan for the financial management of thebuilding construction project. The presence of the
mortgage banker is highly likely even in relativelysmall projects, since the owner's equity in theproperty is the most obvious source of funding for abuilding project.
Construction law
Construction along Ontario Highway 401 , widening theroad from six to twelve travel lanes.
A construction project must fit into the legal frameworkgoverning the property. These include governmentalregulations on the use of property, and obligations thatare created in the process of construction.The projectmust adhere to zoning and building code requirements.Constructing a project that fails to adhere to codes will notbenefit the owner. Some legal requirements come frommalum in se considerations, or the desire to preventthings that are indisputably bad - bridge collapses orexplosions. Other legal requirements come from malumprohibitum considerations, or things that are a matter of custom or expectation, such as isolating businesses to abusiness district and residences to a residential district. Anattorney may seek changes or exemptions in the lawgoverning the land where the building will be built, eitherby arguing that a rule is inapplicable (the bridge designwon't collapse), or that the custom is no longer needed(acceptance of live-work spaces has grown in thecommunity).A construction project is a complex net of contracts and other legal obligations, each of which mustbe carefully considered. A contract is the exchange of aset of obligations between two or more parties, but it isnot so simple a matter as trying to get the other side toagree to as much as possible in exchange for as little aspossible. The time element in construction means that adelay costs money, and in cases of bottlenecks, the delaycan be extremely expensive. Thus, the contracts must bedesigned to ensure that each side is capable of performingthe obligations set out.
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Interaction of expertise
Design, finance, and legal aspects overlap and interrelate. The design must be not only structurally sound and
appropriate for the use and location, but must also befinancially possible to build, and legal to use. The financialstructure must accommodate the need for building thedesign provided, and must pay amounts that are legallyowed. The legal structure must integrate the design intothe surrounding legal framework, and enforce the financialconsequences of the construction process.
Procurement
Procurement describes the merging of activitiesundertaken by the client to obtain a building. There aremany different methods of construction procurement;however the three most common types of procurementare:
1. Traditional (Design-bid-build)2. Design and Build3. Management Contracting
There is also a growing number of new forms of procurement that involve relationship contracting wherethe emphasis is on a co-operative relationship betweenthe principal and contractor and other stakeholders withina construction project. New forms include partnering suchas Public-Private Partnering (PPPs) aka Private FinanceInitiatives (PFIs) and alliances such as "pure" or "project"alliances and "impure" or "strategic" alliances. The focus
on co-operation is to ameliorate the many problems thatarise from the often highly competitive and adversarialpractices within the construction industry.
Traditional
This is the most common method of constructionprocurement and is well established and recognized. Inthis arrangement, the architect or engineer acts as theproject coordinator. His or her role is to design the works,prepare the specifications and produce construction
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drawings, administer the contract, tender the works, andmanage the works from inception to completion. There aredirect contractual links between the architect's client andthe main contractor. Any subcontractor will have a direct
contractual relationship with the main contractor. Planning permission
In construction, the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) isthe governmental agency or sub-agency which regulatesthe construction process. In most cases, this is themunicipality in which the building is located. However,construction performed for supra-municipal authorities areusually regulated directly by the owning authority, whichbecomes the AHJ.During the planning of a building, thezoning and planning boards of the AHJ will review theoverall compliance of the proposed building with themunicipal General Plan and zoning regulations. Once theproposed building has been approved, detailed civil,architectural, and structural plans must be submitted tothe municipal building department (and sometimes thepublic works department) to determine compliance withthe building code and sometimes for fit with existinginfrastructure. Often, the municipal fire department willreview the plans for compliance with fire-safetyordinances and regulations.Before the foundation can bedug, contractors are typically required to notify utilitycompanies, either directly or through a company such asDig Safe to ensure that underground utility lines can bemarked. This lessens the likelihood of damage to theexisting electrical, water, sewage, phone, and cablefacilities, which could cause outages and potentiallyhazardous situations. During the construction of abuilding, the municipal building inspector inspects thebuilding periodically to ensure that the constructionadheres to the approved plans and the local building code .Once construction is complete and a final inspection hasbeen passed, an occupancy permit may be issued.Anoperating building must remain in compliance with the firecode . The fire code is enforced by the local firedepartment.Changes made to a building that affect safety,including its use, expansion, structural integrity, and fire
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protection items, usually require approval of the AHJ forreview concerning the building code.
Construction careers
Ironworkers erecting the steel frame of a new building atMassachusetts General Hospital , Boston There are manyroutes to the different careers within the constructionindustry which vary by country. However, there are threemain tiers of careers based on educational backgroundwhich are common internationally:
• Unskilled and Semi-Skilled - General site labour withlittle or no construction qualifications.
• Skilled - On-site managers whom possess extensiveknowledge and experience in their craft orprofession .
• Technical and Management - Personnel with thegreatest educational qualifications, usually graduatedegrees , trained to design, manage and instruct theconstruction process.
Skilled occupations in the UK require further education
qualifications, often in vocational subject areas. Thesequalifications are either obtained directly after thecompletion of compulsory education or through "on the
job" apprenticeship training . In the UK, 8500 construction-related apprenticeships were commenced in 2007.
Technical and specialised occupations require moretraining as a greater technical knowledge is required.
These professions also hold more legal responsibility. Ashort list of the main careers with an outline of the
educational requirements are given below:[4]
• Architect - Typically holds at least a 5 to 6-yeardegree in architecture. To use the title "architect" theindividual must hold chartered status with the RoyalInstitute of British Architects and be on the ArchitectsRegistration Board .
• Civil Engineer - Typically holds a degree in a relatedsubject. The Chartered Engineer qualification is
controlled by the Institution of Civil Engineers . A newuniversity graduate must hold a master's degree to
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become chartered, persons with bachelor's degrees may become an Incorporated Engineer .
• Building Services Engineer - Often referred to as an"M&E Engineer" typically holds a degree in
mechanical or electrical engineering. CharteredEngineer status is governed by the CharteredInstitution of Building Services Engineers .
• Project Manager - Typically holds a 2-year or greaterhigher education qualification, but are often alsoqualified in another field such as quantity surveyingor civil engineering.
• Quantity Surveyor - Typically holds a master's degreein quantity surveying. Chartered status is gained
from the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors .• Structural Engineer - Typically holds a bachelors or
master's degree in structural engineering, newuniversity graduates must hold a master's degree togain chartered status from the Institution of Structural Engineers .
Building material
Concrete and metal rebar used to build a floor
Building material is any material which is used for aconstruction purpose. Many naturally occurringsubstances, such as clay , sand , wood and rocks, eventwigs and leaves have been used to construct buildings.Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-madeproducts are in use, some more and some less synthetic .
The manufacture of building materials is an establishedindustry in many countries and the use of these materialsis typically segmented into specific specialty trades, suchas carpentry , plumbing , roofing and insulation work. Thisreference deals with habitats and structures includinghomes.
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Natural materials
Building materials can be generally
categorized into two sources,natural and synthetic. Naturalbuilding materials are those thatare unprocessed or minimallyprocessed by industry , such aslumber or glass. Synthetic materials are made in industrial settings after much humanmanipulations, such as plastics and
petroleum based paints . Both havetheir uses.
Mud, stone, and fibrous plants arethe most basic building materials,aside from tents made of flexiblematerials such as cloth or skins .People all over the world haveused these three materialstogether to create homes to suittheir local weather conditions.
Fabric
The tent used to be the home of choice among nomadicgroups the world over. Two well known types include theconical teepee and the circular yurt . It has been revived as
a major construction technique with the development of tensile architecture and synthetic fabrics. Modernbuildings can be made of flexible material such as fabric membranes, and supported by a system of steel cables,rigid framework or internal (air pressure.)
Mud and clay
The amount of each material used leads to different stylesof buildings. The deciding factor is usually connected withthe quality of the soil being used. Larger amounts of clay
Contents
• 1 Naturalmaterials
•
2 Fabric• 3 Mud and clay• 4 Rock• 5 Thatch• 6 Brush• 7 Ice• 8 Wood• 9 Concrete• 10 Metal•
11 Glass• 12 Plastic• 13 Foam• 14 Cement
composites• 15 Modern
industry• 16 Building
products• 17 References
• 18 External links
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usually mean using the cob / adobe style, while low clay soilis usually associated with sod building. The other mainingredients include more or less sand /gravel andstraw /grasses. Rammed earth is both an old and newer
take on creating walls, once made by compacting claysoils between planks by hand, now forms and mechanical pneumatic compressors are used.Soil and especially clayis good thermal mass ; it is very good at keepingtemperatures at a constant level. Homes built with earthtend to be naturally cool in the summer heat and warm incold weather. Clay holds heat or cold, releasing it over aperiod of time like stone. Earthen walls changetemperature slowly, so artificially raising or lowering the
temperature can use more resources than in say a woodbuilt house, but the heat/coolness stays longer.
Rock
Rock structures have existed for as long as history canrecall. It is the longest lasting building material available,and is usually readily available. There are many types of rock through out the world all with differing attributes thatmake them better or worse for particular uses. Rock is avery dense material so it gives a lot of protection too, itsmain draw-back as a material is its weight andawkwardness. Its energy density is also considered a bigdraw-back, as stone is hard to keep warm without usinglarge amounts of heating resources. Dry-stone walls havebeen built for as long as humans have put one stone ontop of another. Eventually different forms of mortar wereused to hold the stones together, cement being the mostcommonplace now.The granite -strewn uplands of Dartmoor National Park, United Kingdom, for example,provided ample resources for early settlers. Circular hutswere constructed from loose granite rocks throughout theNeolithic and early Bronze Age , and the remains of anestimated 5,000 can still be seen today. Granite continuedto be used throughout the Medieval period (see Dartmoorlonghouse ) and into modern times.
Thatch
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Thatch is one of the oldest of building materials known;grass is a good insulator and easily harvested. ManyAfrican tribes have lived in homes made completely of grasses year round. In Europe , thatch roofs on homes
were once prevalent but the material fell out of favour asindustrialization and improved transport increased theavailability of other materials. Today, though, the practiceis undergoing a revival. In the Netherlands, for instance,many new buildings have thatched roofs with special ridgetiles on top.
Brush
Brush structures are built entirely from plant parts and aregenerally found in tropical and sub-tropical areas, such asrainforests , where very large leaves can be used in thebuilding. Native Americans often built brush structures forresting and living in, too. These are built mostly withbranches, twigs and leaves, and bark, similar to a beaver 'slodge. These were variously named wikiups , lean-tos, andso forth.
Ice
Ice was used by the Inuit for igloos , but has also beenused for ice hotels as a tourist attraction in northern areasthat might not otherwise see many winter tourists.
Wood
Wood is a product of trees, and sometimes other fibrous plants, used for construction purposes when cut or
pressed into lumber and timber, such as boards,planks and similar materials. It is a generic buildingmaterial and is used in building just about any type of structure in most climates. Wood can be very flexibleunder loads, keeping strength while bending, and isincredibly strong when compressed vertically. Thereare many differing qualities to the different types of wood, even among same tree species. This meansspecific species are better for various uses thanothers. And growing conditions are important fordeciding quality.Historically, wood for building large
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structures was used in its unprocessed form as logs. The trees were just cut to the needed length,sometimes stripped of bark, and then notched orlashed into place.In earlier times, and in some parts
of the world, many country homes or communities hada personal wood-lot from which the family orcommunity would grow and harvest trees to buildwith. These lots would be tended to like a garden.Withthe invention of mechanizing saws came the massproduction of dimensional lumber . This madebuildings quicker to put up and more uniform. Thusthe modern western style home was made.
ConcreteConcrete is a composite building material made from thecombination of aggregate and a binder such as cement .
The most common form of concrete is Portland cementconcrete, which consists of mineral aggregate (generallygravel and sand ), portland cement and water . Aftermixing, the cement hydrates and eventually hardens intoa stone-like material. When used in the generic sense, thisis the material referred to by the term concrete.For aconcrete construction of any size, as concrete has a ratherlow tensile strength , it is generally strengthened usingsteel rods or bars (known as rebars ). This strengthenedconcrete is then referred to as reinforced concrete . Inorder to minimise any air bubbles, that would weaken thestructure, a vibrator is used to eliminate any air that hasbeen entrained when the liquid concrete mix is pouredaround the ironwork. Concrete has been the predominantbuilding material in this modern age due to its longevity,formability, and ease of transport. Recent advancements,such as Insulating concrete forms , combine the concreteforming and other construction steps (installation of insulation).
Metal
Metal is used as structural framework for larger buildingssuch as skyscrapers , or as an external surface covering.
There are many types of metals used for building. Steel isa metal alloy whose major component is iron , and is the
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usual choice for metal structural building materials. It isstrong, flexible, and if refined well and/or treated lasts along time. Corrosion is metal's prime enemy when itcomes to longevity.The lower density and better corrosion
resistance of aluminium alloys and tin sometimesovercome their greater cost . Brass was more common inthe past, but is usually restricted to specific uses orspecialty items today.Metal figures quite prominently inprefabricated structures such as the Quonset hut , and canbe seen used in most cosmopolitan cities. It requires agreat deal of human labor to produce metal
Glass
Glassmaking is considered an art form as well as anindustrial process or material.Clear windows have beenused since the invention of glass to cover small openingsin a building. They provided humans with the ability toboth let light into rooms while at the same time keepinginclement weather outside. Glass is generally made frommixtures of sand and silicates, in a very hot fire stovecalled a kiln and is very brittle. Very often additives areadded to the mixture when making to produce glass withshades of colors or various characteristics (such as bulletproof glass , or light emittance ).The use of glass inarchitectural buildings has become very popular in themodern culture. Glass " curtain walls " can be used to coverthe entire facade of a building, or it can be used to spanover a wide roof structure in a " space frame ".
Plastic
Plastic pipes penetrating a concrete floor in a Canadian highrise apartment buildingThe term plastics covers arange of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic condensation or polymerization products that can be molded orextruded into objects or films or fibers . Their name isderived from the fact that in their semi-liquid state theyare malleable, or have the property of plasticity . Plasticsvary immensely in heat tolerance, hardness, andresiliency. Combined with this adaptability, the general
uniformity of composition and lightness of plastics ensurestheir use in almost all industrial applications today.
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FOAM
Foamed plastic sheet to be used as backing for firestop
mortar at CIBC bank in Toronto .More recentlysynthetic polystyrene or polyurethane foam hasbeen used in combination with structural materials,such as concrete. It is light weight, easily shaped andan excellent insulator. It is usually used as part of astructural insulated panel where the foam issandwiched between wood or cement or insulatedconcrete forms where concrete is sandwichedbetween two layers of foam.
Cement composites
Cement bonded composites are made of hydrated cementpaste that binds wood or alike particles or fibers to makepre-cast building components. Various fiberous materialsincluding paper and fiberglass have been used asbinders.Wood and natural fibres are composed of varioussoluble organic compounds like carbohydrates, glycosidesand phenolics. These compounds are known to retardcement setting. Therefore, before using a wood in makingcement boned composites, its compatibility with cement isassessed.Wood-cement compatibility is the ratio of aparameter related to the property of a wood-cementcomposite to that of a neat cement paste. Thecompatibility is often expressed as a percentage value. Todetermine wood-cement compatibility, methods based ondifferent properties are used, such as, hydrationcharacteristics, strength, interfacial bond and morphology.Various methods are used by researchers such as themeasurement of hydration characteristics of a cement-aggregate mix; the comparison of the mechanicalproperties of cement-aggregate mixes and the visualassessment of microstructural properties of the wood-cement mixes. ] It has been found that the hydration testby measuring the change in hydration temperature withtime is the most convenient method. Recently, Karade etal. have reviewed these methods of compatibility
assessment and suggested a method based on the
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‘maturity concept’ i.e. taking in consideration both timeand temperature of cement hydration reaction.
Modern industry
Modern building is a multibillion dollar industry , and theproduction and harvesting of raw materials for buildingpurposes is on a world wide scale. Often being a primarygovernmental and trade keypoint between nations.Environmental concerns are also becoming a major worldtopic concerning the availability and sustainability of
certain materials, and the extraction of such largequantities needed for the human habitat .
Building products
In the market place the term building products oftenrefers to the ready-made particles/sections, made fromvarious materials, that are fitted in architectural hardwareand decorative hardware parts of a building. The list of building products exclusively exclude the buildingmaterials, which are used to construct the buildingarchitecture and supporting fixtures like windows, doors,cabinets, etc. Building products do not make any part of abajingo rather they support and make them working in amodular fashion.It also can refer to items used to put suchhardware together such as glues , caulking , paint, andanything else bought for the purpose of constructing abuilding.
Top 10 Cement Companies in
IndiaIndia, world's second largest cement producer after
China, is the home to a number of top cement companies.As various infrastructure projects, road networks andhousing projects are coming up, many of which are
backed by the government, the cement industry in India isgrowing at a great pace these days. With the capacity of
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151.2 Million Tones (MT), the Indian cement industry istruly big in size and hence accommodates a number of cement companies in the market. Not only that, moregrowth is further expected in the coming years, which will
also lead to the growth of top cement companies in India.Let's have a look at the top 10 cement companies inIndia.The Indian cement industry is largely dominated by afew companies. The top 20 cement companies account foralmost 70% of the total cement production of the country.During April-September 2009, the Indian cementcompanies produced 11 MT cement, whereas the totalcement product in the country in FY09 was 231 MT. It isfurther expected to reach 236.16 MT in FY11 and 262.61
MT in FY12.List of Top 10 Cement Companies in India
Following are the list of top 10 cement companies in India:
• ACC Limited• Gujarat Ambuja Cements Limited• Ultratech• Grasim• India Cements• JK Cement Ltd• Jaypee Group• Century Cement• Madras Cements• Birla Corp.
Name ACC Limited
Production 17,902Installed Capacity 18,640
Net Profit (Quarter endedSep 30, 2009) 41,550.89 lakhs
Name Gujarat AmbujaCements Limited
Production 15,094
Installed Capacity 14,860
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Net Profit (Quarter ended onSep 30, 2009) 31,848 lakhs
Name Ultratech
Production 13,707
Installed Capacity 17,000
Net Profit (in 2008-09) 97,700 lakhs
Name Grasim
Production 14,649
Installed Capacity 14,115
Net Profit (in 2008-09) 1,64,800 lakhs
Name India Cements
Production 8,434
Installed Capacity 8,810
Net Profit (in 2008-09) 43,218 lakhs
Name JK Cement Ltd
Production 6,174
Installed Capacity 6,680
Net Profit (in 2008-09) 14,234.40 lakhs
Name Jaypee Group
Production 6,316
Installed Capacity 6,531
Name Century Cement
Production 6,636
Installed Capacity 6,300
Name Madras Cement
Production 4,550
Installed Capacity 5,457
Net Profit (in 2008-09) 49,081 lakhs
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Name Birla Corp.
Production 5,150
Installed Capacity 5,113
Net Profit (in 2008-09) 9,061 lakhs
Cement Industry J K Lakshmi Cement
• J K Cement• Madras Cement• India Cements• Sanghi Industries• Dalmia Cement• ITD Cementation India• Dalmia Cement Bharat• Gujarat Ambuja Cements
India Steel IndustryIndia is the fifth largest producer of steel in the world.
India Steel Industry has grown by leaps and bounds,especially in recent times with Indian firms buying steelcompanies overseas. The scope for steel industry is hugeand industry estimates indicate that the industry willcontinue will to grow reasonably in the coming years withhuge demands for stainless steel in the construction of
new airports and metro rail projects. The government isplanning a massive enhancement of the steel productioncapacity of India with the modernization of the existingsteel plants.
IndustryStatistics
Government targets to increase the production capacityfrom 56 million tones annually to 124 MT in the first phasewhich will come to an end by 2011 - 12. Currently with a
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production of 56 million tones India accounts for over 7%of the total steel produced globally, while it accounts toabout 5% of global steel consumption. The steel sector inIndia grew by 5.3% in May 2009. Globally India is the only
country to post a positive overall growth in the productionof crude steel at 1.01% for the period of January - March in2009.
Export
About 50% of the steel produced in India is exported.India's export of steel during April - December 2008 was64.4 MT as against 9.7 MT in December 2007. In February
2009, steel export increased by 17% to 12.6 MT from 10.8MT in the same month last year. More than 50% of steelfrom India is exported to China. The Government'sdecision to reduce export duty on iron ore lumps from15% to 5% has given a major boost to the export of steel.
Hurdles
Power shortage hampers the production of steel
Use of outdated process for productionLags behind in the production of stainless steelDeficiency of raw materials required by the industryLabor productivity is low. It is 144 tons per worker peryear against 600 tons in Western Europe as per estimatesInadequate shipment capacity and transport structure
Strengths
There are many strong points of the industry that makes itone of the leading names in the global steel industry. Therate of labor wage in India is among one of the lowest inthe world thereby making large scale production feasible.
The boom witnessed in the automobile industry hasensured that the demand for steel is increasing graduallyand will continue to do so in the near future. There is hugemanpower in India which is another reason why steelproduction in India is high and the industry is doing prettywell both nationally and internationally.
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Investments
Numerous steel companies some major projects in thepipeline to invest in India Steel industry. Steel companies
have earmarked more than 100 million USD for the settingup of sponge iron units in Koppal and Bellary in Karnataka.As per Investment Commission of India more than 30billion USD are in the pipeline for investment over the nextfive years.
INDIAN MACHINERY INDUSTRY India Machinery Industry is the core around which all
the industrial manufacturing takes place in the country.
The machinery industry in India has amply demonstratedits potential in meeting the enormous demand of goodboth in the domestic as well as the international market.
The machinery industry in India forms the backbone of themanufacturing sector by supplying all the necessaryequipments and machinery required for production.Machinery of various types is required for production.Depending on the field in which they are used, machinerycan be large scale, medium scale or small scaled. India is
one of the leading exporters of machines required for thesteel industry, mining equipments for the mining industry,and equipments for the fertilizer industry, cementindustry, petrochemical manufacturing industry and heavyengineering equipments.
Constructionmachineryindustry The construction sector is another sector that makes useof machinery on a very large scale to meet their industrydemands. The government is undertaking severaldevelopmental activities and as a result embarking onhuge construction projects. More than $35 billion isearmarked for road and highway construction projects of which 20% is for construction machinery. The real estateand housing sector also demands huge investments forconstruction machinery to meet their targets. It isanticipated that through 2020 about $10billion of construction machinery will be required in the country.Major producers in India Machinery Industry include JCBIndia, Ashok Leyland, Voltas, Metso Minerals, Telco
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Construction Equipment, Bharat Earthmovers, Atlas Copco(India), B G Shirke Construction Equipment, TerexVectraEquipment Salgaocar Engineers, Punjab Tractors,Volvo Construction Equipment India, Larsen & Toubro,
Ingersoll Rand India, Caterpillar India, Escorts Construction.