Consider these questions:Consider these questions:

Why does Rachels focus on cultural Why does Rachels focus on cultural relativism, subjectivism, and relativism, subjectivism, and religious ethics towards the religious ethics towards the beginning of beginning of The Elements of Moral The Elements of Moral PhilosophyPhilosophy? ?

And why did we skip these chapters?And why did we skip these chapters?

A short answer: Because these are A short answer: Because these are examples of “ethics-avoidance disorders” examples of “ethics-avoidance disorders” that obstruct creative, constructive, ethical that obstruct creative, constructive, ethical thinking. thinking. Relativism and subjectivism can sometimes Relativism and subjectivism can sometimes

lead to “a kind of ethical laziness,” which could lead to “a kind of ethical laziness,” which could be called “rationalizing” or “offhand self-be called “rationalizing” or “offhand self-justification” (e.g., one often hears excuses justification” (e.g., one often hears excuses such as “That’s just what I think”).such as “That’s just what I think”).

Religious ethics can sometimes lead to Religious ethics can sometimes lead to dogmatism.dogmatism.

MetaethicsMetaethics

What is the status of moral values? Is What is the status of moral values? Is ethics a viable intellectual ethics a viable intellectual enterprise?enterprise?

Is the current state of moral Is the current state of moral discourse one of grave disrepair? (as discourse one of grave disrepair? (as suggested by Alasdair MacIntyre)suggested by Alasdair MacIntyre)

““Through the Moral Maze: TheThrough the Moral Maze: TheChallenge of Cultural Relativism”Challenge of Cultural Relativism”

Thinking about the Callatians, Greeks, and Thinking about the Callatians, Greeks, and Eskimos may lead to the view that there Eskimos may lead to the view that there are no absolute values, or no “universal are no absolute values, or no “universal truth in ethics.” This is cultural relativism. truth in ethics.” This is cultural relativism.

In short, the “Cultural Differences In short, the “Cultural Differences Argument” infers from the premise that Argument” infers from the premise that “different cultures have different moral “different cultures have different moral codes,” that “there is no objective truth in codes,” that “there is no objective truth in morality.”morality.”

Is this argument valid and sound? Is this argument valid and sound?

Problems with Cultural RelativismProblems with Cultural Relativism

Whose view do you sympathize with more, Calvin’s or Hobbes’?

Problems with Cultural RelativismProblems with Cultural Relativism

1. No blame of other cultures for 1. No blame of other cultures for ““wrong” or wrong” or ““evil” deeds. Are cultures morally infallible?evil” deeds. Are cultures morally infallible?

2. No criticism of our own culture.2. No criticism of our own culture. 3. No idea of moral progress.3. No idea of moral progress. 4. In a relativist society the view of the 4. In a relativist society the view of the

majority rules. majority rules. Is this fair?Is this fair? 5. Is tolerance a universal value, in which 5. Is tolerance a universal value, in which

case relativism is paradoxical?case relativism is paradoxical? 6. Isn’t relativism paradoxical in another 6. Isn’t relativism paradoxical in another

sense?sense? 7. Don’t we all instinctively believe that 7. Don’t we all instinctively believe that

some things are universally right and wrong?some things are universally right and wrong?

Soft UniversalismSoft Universalism The view that all cultures have at least some values The view that all cultures have at least some values

in common, even if they are buried beneath layers in common, even if they are buried beneath layers of different behavior patterns and systems of belief. of different behavior patterns and systems of belief.

Such values commonly cited are not lying, not Such values commonly cited are not lying, not stealing, and allowing enough young of the culture stealing, and allowing enough young of the culture to live (i.e., not killing) in order to preserve the to live (i.e., not killing) in order to preserve the culture. culture.

As Rachels states: “As Rachels states: “there are some rules that all there are some rules that all societies must embrace, because those rules are societies must embrace, because those rules are necessary for society to exist.necessary for society to exist.” (23)” (23)

A common standard: “A common standard: “Does the practice promote or Does the practice promote or hinder the welfare of the people affected by it?”hinder the welfare of the people affected by it?”

Benefits of Cultural RelativismBenefits of Cultural Relativism

1. It teaches us to be cautious about 1. It teaches us to be cautious about “assuming that all our preferences are “assuming that all our preferences are based on some absolute rational standard” based on some absolute rational standard” when “they are not.” (29)when “they are not.” (29)

2. It teaches us to be open-minded and to 2. It teaches us to be open-minded and to avoid dogmatism.avoid dogmatism.

Pluralism (diversity of points of view) is a Pluralism (diversity of points of view) is a view related to relativism that is generally view related to relativism that is generally viewed more positively by philosophers.viewed more positively by philosophers.

What do you know about What do you know about Friedrich Nietzsche?Friedrich Nietzsche?

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)

Some Major WorksSome Major Works The Birth of Tragedy The Birth of Tragedy (1872)(1872) Thus Spoke Zarathustra Thus Spoke Zarathustra

(1883-58)(1883-58) Beyond Good and Evil Beyond Good and Evil (1886)(1886) Twilight of the Idols Twilight of the Idols (1888)(1888) The Antichrist The Antichrist (1888)(1888)

Some Major IdeasSome Major Ideas ““God is Dead.”God is Dead.” Der Übermensch Der Übermensch

(the “Overman”)(the “Overman”) Master and Slave Master and Slave

moralitymorality

Some Key PointsSome Key Points

Nietzsche’s Aim: Towards a Nietzsche’s Aim: Towards a Revaluation of All ValuesRevaluation of All Values

Philology and Perspectivism: every Philology and Perspectivism: every view is only one among many view is only one among many possible interpretations.possible interpretations.

““Truth is a necessary lie.”Truth is a necessary lie.” Dionysus: the central metaphor for Dionysus: the central metaphor for

Nietzsche’s affirmative philosophyNietzsche’s affirmative philosophy

How do you interpret Z’s How do you interpret Z’s proclamation that god is dead?proclamation that god is dead?

No absolutes, transcendental values or absolute No absolutes, transcendental values or absolute

principles, e.g., Judeo-Christian tradition as ultimate principles, e.g., Judeo-Christian tradition as ultimate

moral authoritymoral authority

Emphasizes individual freedom in creation of valuesEmphasizes individual freedom in creation of values

““Once the sin against god was the greatest sin, but Once the sin against god was the greatest sin, but

god died, and these sinners died with him.” god died, and these sinners died with him.”

Forget otherworldly salvationForget otherworldly salvation

“…“…there is no devil and no hell. Your soul will be there is no devil and no hell. Your soul will be

dead even before your body: fear nothing further.” dead even before your body: fear nothing further.”

How do you interpret Z’s teaching of How do you interpret Z’s teaching of the overman? the overman?

““I teach you the overman. Man is something I teach you the overman. Man is something that must be overcome. What have you done that must be overcome. What have you done to overcome him?” to overcome him?”

““The overman is the meaning of the earth.” The overman is the meaning of the earth.” ““He is this lightning, he is this frenzy” He is this lightning, he is this frenzy” Man as a bridge from “beast to overman” Man as a bridge from “beast to overman” A “creator” A “creator” Essentially metaphoricalEssentially metaphorical Refers to humanity’s capacity for achieving a Refers to humanity’s capacity for achieving a

self-transformation of itselfself-transformation of itself

Nietzsche, The Natural History of Nietzsche, The Natural History of Morals in Morals in Beyond Good and EvilBeyond Good and Evil

Project: A Theory of Types of MoralityProject: A Theory of Types of Morality Against moralists, such as Kant: Against moralists, such as Kant:

”moral systems are only a sign-”moral systems are only a sign-language of emotions”language of emotions”

Moral systems are against Nature Moral systems are against Nature and Reason: they constrain freedom and Reason: they constrain freedom and narrow perspectivesand narrow perspectives

Master vs. Slave MoralityMaster vs. Slave Morality

Moral values Moral values originate in the originate in the ruling casteruling caste

Good and BadGood and Bad Good=noble, one Good=noble, one

who arouses fear, who arouses fear, necessary to have necessary to have enemiesenemies

Duty to equals, faith Duty to equals, faith in oneself, hard-in oneself, hard-hearted, no hearted, no sympathy, pridesympathy, pride

Moral values Moral values originate in those originate in those who are ruledwho are ruled

Good and EvilGood and Evil Evil: one who Evil: one who

arouses feararouses fear Sympathy, Sympathy,

kindness, warm-kindness, warm-hearted, patience, hearted, patience, humilityhumility

For Self-ReflectionFor Self-Reflection

Who is the source of your values? Do Who is the source of your values? Do they come from within yourself or they come from within yourself or through a reaction to others?through a reaction to others?

Do your values make you stronger or Do your values make you stronger or able to flourish or do they just help able to flourish or do they just help you cope in a cruel world?you cope in a cruel world?