condiments and spices

8/18/2019 Condiments and Spices

1/171

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265844733

Spices and Condiments

BOOK · JANUARY 2008

READS

819

3 AUTHORS, INCLUDING:

Parthasarathy Va

Bioversity International (CGIAR)

94 PUBLICATIONS 277 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

K. KANDIANNAN

ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research

60 PUBLICATIONS 79 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Available from: K. KANDIANNAN

Retrieved on: 17 March 2016

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Parthasarathy_VA?enrichId=rgreq-ce8dab0e-fff7-4a26-8530-48a6e420939d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NTg0NDczMztBUzoxNDQ1MDM0MzY0ODQ2MDlAMTQxMTQ2MzcxMzE0NQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_7https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Parthasarathy_VA?enrichId=rgreq-ce8dab0e-fff7-4a26-8530-48a6e420939d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NTg0NDczMztBUzoxNDQ1MDM0MzY0ODQ2MDlAMTQxMTQ2MzcxMzE0NQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_5https://www.researchgate.net/profile/K_KANDIANNAN?enrichId=rgreq-ce8dab0e-fff7-4a26-8530-48a6e420939d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NTg0NDczMztBUzoxNDQ1MDM0MzY0ODQ2MDlAMTQxMTQ2MzcxMzE0NQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_7https://www.researchgate.net/profile/K_KANDIANNAN?enrichId=rgreq-ce8dab0e-fff7-4a26-8530-48a6e420939d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NTg0NDczMztBUzoxNDQ1MDM0MzY0ODQ2MDlAMTQxMTQ2MzcxMzE0NQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_5https://www.researchgate.net/?enrichId=rgreq-ce8dab0e-fff7-4a26-8530-48a6e420939d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NTg0NDczMztBUzoxNDQ1MDM0MzY0ODQ2MDlAMTQxMTQ2MzcxMzE0NQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_1https://www.researchgate.net/profile/K_KANDIANNAN?enrichId=rgreq-ce8dab0e-fff7-4a26-8530-48a6e420939d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NTg0NDczMztBUzoxNDQ1MDM0MzY0ODQ2MDlAMTQxMTQ2MzcxMzE0NQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_7https://www.researchgate.net/profile/K_KANDIANNAN?enrichId=rgreq-ce8dab0e-fff7-4a26-8530-48a6e420939d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NTg0NDczMztBUzoxNDQ1MDM0MzY0ODQ2MDlAMTQxMTQ2MzcxMzE0NQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_5https://www.researchgate.net/profile/K_KANDIANNAN?enrichId=rgreq-ce8dab0e-fff7-4a26-8530-48a6e420939d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NTg0NDczMztBUzoxNDQ1MDM0MzY0ODQ2MDlAMTQxMTQ2MzcxMzE0NQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_4https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Parthasarathy_VA?enrichId=rgreq-ce8dab0e-fff7-4a26-8530-48a6e420939d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NTg0NDczMztBUzoxNDQ1MDM0MzY0ODQ2MDlAMTQxMTQ2MzcxMzE0NQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_7https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Parthasarathy_VA?enrichId=rgreq-ce8dab0e-fff7-4a26-8530-48a6e420939d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NTg0NDczMztBUzoxNDQ1MDM0MzY0ODQ2MDlAMTQxMTQ2MzcxMzE0NQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_5https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Parthasarathy_VA?enrichId=rgreq-ce8dab0e-fff7-4a26-8530-48a6e420939d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NTg0NDczMztBUzoxNDQ1MDM0MzY0ODQ2MDlAMTQxMTQ2MzcxMzE0NQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_4https://www.researchgate.net/?enrichId=rgreq-ce8dab0e-fff7-4a26-8530-48a6e420939d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NTg0NDczMztBUzoxNDQ1MDM0MzY0ODQ2MDlAMTQxMTQ2MzcxMzE0NQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_1https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265844733_Spices_and_Condiments?enrichId=rgreq-ce8dab0e-fff7-4a26-8530-48a6e420939d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NTg0NDczMztBUzoxNDQ1MDM0MzY0ODQ2MDlAMTQxMTQ2MzcxMzE0NQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_3https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265844733_Spices_and_Condiments?enrichId=rgreq-ce8dab0e-fff7-4a26-8530-48a6e420939d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NTg0NDczMztBUzoxNDQ1MDM0MzY0ODQ2MDlAMTQxMTQ2MzcxMzE0NQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_2


2/171

HORTICULTURE

VEGETABLE SCIENCE

(Vegetables, Tubers & Spice Crops)

Spices and Condiments

V.A.Parthasarathy and K.KandiannanIndian Institute of Spices Research (ICAR)

Calicut-673 012

(21.9.2007)

CONTENTS

Introduction

Export of Spices

Area and Production of Spices

Organizations

Black Pepper

Cardamom

Ginger

Turmeric

CloveNutmeg

Cinnamon

Allspice

Curry Leaf

Seed Spices

Coriander

Fenugreek

Fennel

Cumin

Dill

CelerySaffron

Vanilla

Rosemary

Appendix


3/171

Introduction

India is ‘The Land of Spices’ and the glory of Indian spices is known throughout the world.Satndard ISO 676: 1995 of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) definesspices and condiments as “vegetable products or mixtures thereof free from extraneous matter,used for flavouring, seasoning and imparting aroma in foods”. The term “applies equally to the

product in the whole form or in the ground form”. It includes 109 spices and the list of suchspices given in the Table 1.1. The list of spices differes from country to country. According toAmerican Spices Trade Association (ASTA) list, there are 41 items. Spices Board of India has52 spices under it’s list.

According to Bureau of Indian Standards, there are 63 items under spices / condiments. Spiceshave been so valued primarily for their ability to make food taste better and sometimes for a perceived ability to make people feel better and fight disease. Spices are even more importanttoday as around globe there is a clamour for tastier and’spicier’ foods. Spices or their extracts arealso used in medicine, pharmaceutical, perfumery, cosmetics and several other industries. Theirfunctional properties as antioxidants, preservatives, anti-microbial, antibiotic and medicinal have

been well recoganised and made use of. Spices have also characteristic, often very attractivecolours, which are an important part of their appeal to be used as natural colours in thefoodstuffs. The concept of flavour in spices comprises a range of olfactory and tastes perceptions. The constituents responsible for these sensations are the volatile / essential oil andresinous compounds, which are a wide range of different natural organic chemicals and whichgenerally have little or no nutritional value. These are also widely used for making ‘herbal’ teasand other medicinal applications.

Table 1.1: List of spices as per ISO 676: 1995

No. Botanical Name of the Plant Family Common Name of the

Spice in English

Name of the Part

of the Plant Used

as Spice

1 Acorus calamus L Araceae Sweet flag, myrtie flagCalamus, flag root

Rhizome

2 Aframomum angustifolium(sonn.) Schumann

Zingiberaceae Madagascarc cardamom Fruit, seed

3 Aframomum hanburyiSchumann

Zingiberaceae Cameroon cardamom Fruit, seed

4 Aframomum korarima(Peroira) Engl.

Zingiberaceae Korarima cardamom Fruit, seed

5 Aframomum melegueta(Roscoe) Schumann

Zingiberaceae Grain of paradise, Guineagrains

Fruit, seed

6 Allium ascalonicum L Liliaceae(Alliaceae)

Shallot Bulb

7* Allium cepa L Liliaceae(Alliaceae)

Onion Bulb

8 Allium cepa var. aggregatum Liliaceae(Alliaceae)

Potato onion Bulb

9* Allium tuberosum Rottlerex. Sprengel

Liliaceae(Alliaceae)

Indian leek, Chinese chive Bulb, leaf

10* Allium fistulosum L Liliaceae(Alliaceae)

Stony leek, Welsh onion,Japanese bunching onion

Leaf and bulb


4/171


Spice in English

Name of the Part

of the Plant Used

as Spice

11 Allium porrum L Liliaceae(Alliaceae)

Leek, winter leek Leaf and bulb

12* Allium sativum Liliaceae (Alliaceae) Garlic Bulb

13* Allium schoenoprasum L Liliaceae(Alliaceae) Chive Leaf

14 Alpinia galanga (L) wild Zingiberaceae Greater galangal longwas,Siamese ginger

Rhizome

15 Alpinia officinarum Hance Zigiberaceae Lesser galangal Rhizome

16 Amomum aromaticum Roxb. Zingiberaceae Bengal cardamom Fruit, seed

17 Amomum kepulagaSprague et Burk.Syn . Amomum campactum Sol. ex. Maton

Zingiberaceae Round cardamom, Chestercardamom, Siamesecardamom, Indonesiancardamom

Fruit, seed

18 Amomum krevanh PierreEx. Gagnepain

Zingiberaceae Cambodian cardamom Fruit, seed

19 Amomum subulatum Roxb. Zingiberaceae Greater Indian cardamom,

Large cardamom, Nepalesecardamom

Fruit, seed

20 Amomum tsao-ko CrevostEt Lemaire

Zingiberaceae Tsao-ko cardamom Fruit, seed

21* Anethum graveolens L Apiaceae(Umbelliferae)

Dill Fruit, leaf, top

22 Anethum sowa Kurz Apiaceae(Umbelliferae)

Indian dill Fruit

23 Angelica archangelica L Apiaceae(Umbelliferae)

Garden angelica Fruit, petiole, root

24 Anthriscuscereifolium (l.)Hoffm

Apiaceae

(Umbelliferae)

Chervil Leaf

25 Apium graveolens L. var

dulce (Miller) Pers.

Apiaceae

(Umbelliferae)

Celery, garden celery Fruit, root, leaf

26 Apium graveolens L. var.rapaceum (Miller) Gaudich

Apiaceae

(Umbelliferae)

Celeriac Fruit, root, leaf

27* Armoracia rusticana P.Gaertn.B. Meyer et Scherb.

Brassicaceae

(Cruciferae)

Horseradish Root

28* Artemisia dracunculus L Asteraceae(Compositae)

Tarragon, estragon Leaf

29* Averrhoa bilimbi L Averrhoaceae(Oxalidaceae)

Belimbing, bilimbicucumber tree

Fruit

30* Averrhoa carambola L Averrhoaceae(Oxalidaceae)

Carambola, caramba Fruit

31* Brassica juncea (L) Czernj.etCosson

Brassicaceae

(Cruciferae)

Indian mustard Seed

32* Brassica nigra (l) Koch Brassicaceae(Cruciferae) Black mustard Seed

33 Bunium persicum (Boiss)B.Fedtsch

Apiaceae

(Umbelliferae)

Black caraway Seed, tuber

34 Capparis spinosa L Capparidaceae Caper, common caper, caper Floral bud bush

35 Capsicum annum L 1) Solanaceae Capsicum, chillies, paprika Fruit

36 Capsicum frutescens L 1) Solanaceae Chiilies, Bird eye chilli Fruit

37 Carum bulbocastanum L Apiaceae(Umbelliferae)

Black caraway Fruit, Bulb


5/171


Spice in English

Name of the Part

of the Plant Used

as Spice

38* Crum carvi L Apiaceae(Umbelliferae

Craway, blond caraway Fruit

39 Cinnamomum aromaticum

Nees. Syn. Cinnamomumcassia Nees ex. Blume

Lauraceae Cassia, Chinese cassia Bark

40* Cinnamomum burmanii(Nees et T. Nees) Blume

Lauraceae Indonesian cassia Bark

41* Cinnamomum loureirii Nees Lauraceae Vietnamese cassia Bark

42 Cinnamomum tamala Nees Lauraceae Tejpat, Indian cassia Bark

43* Cinnamomum zeylanicumBlume

Lauraceae Sri Lankan cinnamon,Indian cinnamon

Bark

44* Coriandrum sativum L Apiaceae(Umbelliferae)

Coriander Leaf, Fruit

45* Crocus sativus L Iridaceae Saffron Stigma

46* Cuminum cyminum L Apiaceae(Umbelliferae)

Cumin Fruit

47* Curcuma longa L Zingiberaceae turmeric Rhizome, leaf48* Cymbopogon citratus (DC.)Stapl.

Poaceae (Gramineae) West Indian lemon grass Leaf

49 Cymbopogon nardus L.Randle

Poaceae (Gramineae) Sri Lankan citronella Leaf

50 Elettaria cardamomum (L)Maton var.minucula. Burk

Zingiberaceae Small cardamom Fruit, seed

51 Elettaria cardamomum (L.)Maton var. major. Thwaites

Zingiberaceae Sri Lankan cardamom Fruit, seed

52.152.252.3

Ferula assa-foetida L Ferula foetida Regel Ferula narthex Boiss

Apiaceae

(Umbelliferae) Asafoetida Rhizome exudate

53 Foeniculum vulgare Miller

ssp.capillaceum Millervar. vulgare

Apiaceae

(Umbelliferae)

Bitter fennel Leaf, twig, fruit

54 Foeniculum vulgare Millerssp.capillaceum Millervar. dulce

Apiaceae(Umbelliferae)

Sweet fennel Leaf, twig, fruit

55 Garcinia cambogia (Gaertn.)Desr.

Clusiaceae

(Guttiferae) Garcinia, Camboge Pericarp of the

fruit

56 Garcinia indica (Thouars)choisy

Clusiaceae(Guttiferae)

Garcinia , Kokum Pericarp of thefruit

57* Hyssopus officinalis L Lamiaceae(Labiatae)

Hyssop Leaf

58 Illicumverum Hook. f Illiaceae Star anise, chinese anise Fruit

59 Juniperus communis L Cupressaceae Common juniper Fruit

60 Kaempferia galanga L Zingiberaceae Galangal Rhizome61* Laurus nobilis L Lauraceae Laurel, true laurel, bay leaf,

sweet flagLeaf

62* Levisticum officinale Koch Apiaceae(Umbelliferae)

Garden lovage, lovage Fruit, leaf

63.163.2

Lippia graveolens Kunth Lippia berlandieri Schauer

Verbanaceae Mexican oregano Leaf, terminalshoot

64* angifera indica L Anacardiaceae Mango Immature fruit(Rind)


6/171


Spice in English

Name of the Part

of the Plant Used

as Spice

65* elissa officinalis L Lamiaceae(Labiatae)

Balm, lemon balm, melissa Leaf, terminalshoot

66* entha arvensis L Lamiaceae

(Labiatae)

Japanese mint, field mint,

corn mint

Leaf, terminal

shoot67 entha citrata L Lamiaceae(Labiatae)

Bergamol Leaf, terminalshoot

68* entha x piperita L Lamiaceae(Labiatae)

Pepper mint Leaf, terminalshoot

69* entha spicata L Lamiaceae(Labiatae)

Spear mint, garden mint Leaf, terminalshoot

70 urraya koenigii (L)Sprengel

Rutaceae Curry leaf Leaf

71 yristica argentea Warb Myristicaceae Papuan nutmegPapuan mace

KernelAril

72* yristica fragrans Houtt yristicaceae Indonesian type nutmegSiauw type nutmeg

Indonesian type maceSiauw type mace

Kernel

Aril

73 igella damascena L Ranunculaceae Damas black cumin, love ina mist

Seed

74* igella sativa L Ranunculaceae Black cumin seed

75* Ocimum basilicum L Lamiaceae(Labiatae)

Sweet basil Leaf, terminalshoot

76* Origanum majorana L Lamiaceae(Labiatae)

Sweet marjoram Leaf , floral bud

77* Origanum vulgare L Lamiaceae(Labiatae)

Oregano, origan Leaf, flower

78 Pandanus amaryllifoliusRoxb.

syn. Pandanus latifoliusHassk. Var minor

Pandanaceae Pandan wangi Leaf

79* Papaver somniferum L varnigrum

Papaveraceae Poppy, blue maw, maw seed Seed

80* Petroselinum crispum (Miller) Nyman ex. A.W Hillsyn. Petroselinum sativum Hoffm

Apiaceae(Umbelliferae)

Parsely Leaf, root

81* Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr Myrtaceae Pimento, allspice, JamaicaPepper

Immature fruit ,leaf

82* Pimenta racemosa (Miller)J. Moore

yrtaceae West Indian bay Fruit, leaf

83* Pimpinella anisum L Apiaceae

(Umbelliferae)

Aniseed Fruit

84 Piper guineense Schumannet Thonn. L

Piperaceae West African or Benin pepper

Fruit

85* Piper longum L Piperaceae Long pepper, Indian long pepper

Fruit

86* Piper nigrum L Piperaceae Black pepper, white pepper,green pepper

fruit

87* Punica granatum L Punicaceae Pomegranate Seed (dried withflesh)


7/171


Spice in English

Name of the Part

of the Plant Used

as Spice

88* Rosmarinus officinalis L Lamiaceae(Labiatae)

Rosemary Terminal shoot,leaf

89* Salvia officinalis L Lamiaceae

(Labiatae)

Garden sage Terminal shoot,

leaf90* Satureja hortensis L Lamiaceae(Labiatae)

Summer savory Terminal shoot,leaf

91* Satureja montana L Lamiaceae(Labiatae)

Winter savory Leaf twig

92 Schinus molle L Anacardiaceae American pepper,Californian pepper tree

Fruit wall (rind)

93 Schinus terebenthifolius Radde

Anacardiaceae “Brazilian pepper” Fruit

94* Sesamum indicum L Pedaliaceae Sesame, gingelly Seed

95* Sinapis alba L Brassicaceae(Cruciferae)

White mustard, yellowmustard

Seed

96* Syzygium aromaticum L.

Merr. Et Perry syn. Eugeniacaryophyllus Bullock et S.Harrison

Myrtaceae Clove Flower bud

97* Tamarindus indica L Caesalpiniaceae Tamarind Fruit

98* Thymus serpyllum L Lamiaceae(Labiatae

Mother of thyme, wildthyme, creeping thyme

Terminal shoot,leaf

99* Thymus vulgaris L Lamiaceae(Labiatae

Thyme, common thyme Terminal shoot,leaf

100* Trachyspermum ammi (L)Sprague

Apiaceae

Umbelliferae Ajowan (Bishop’s weed) Fruit

101* Trigonella foenum-graecum L

Fabaceae

(leguminosae) Fenugreek Seed, leaf

102 Vanilla planifolia Andrews

syn. Vanilla fragrans (Salisb.) Ames

Orchidaceae Vanilla Fruit (pod)

103 Vanilla tahitensis J . Moore Orchidaceae Vanilla Fruit (pod)

104 Vanilla pompona Schiede Orchidaceae Pompona vanilla Fruit (pod)

105 ylopia aethiopica (Dunal)A. Rich

Annonaceae Negro pepper, Guinean pepper

Fruit

106 Zanthoxylum, bungei Planchsyn. Zanthoxylum bungeanumMaxim

Rutaceae Chinese prickly ash pepperSechuang pepper

Fruit

107 Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC

Rutaceae Chinese pepper Fruit

108 Zanthoxylum piperitum DC Rutaceae Japanese pepper Fruit

109 Zingiber officinale Roscoe Zingiberaceae Ginger rhizome

Export of Spices

Agricultural commodities contribute around 7 % of total export from India and spices contributearound 3% of the total agricultural commodities exported from India. Spices share around 0.27% to the total export from India (Table 1.2.). An item wise export of spices and their individualshare both in volume and value of spices export is given in Table 1.3.


8/171

Table 1.2: Spices export from India and their share to total export in India

(Value Rs in Lakhs)

Sl No Commodity 2005-2006 %Share

2006-

2007(Apr-

Dec)

%Share

1 Pepper Long 652.34 0.0014 253.55 0.0006

2 Light Black Pepper 54.13 0.0001 98.5 0.0002

3 Black Pepper Garbled 6,111.66 0.0134 15,266.42 0.0366

4

Black Pepper Ungarbled 278.35 0.0006 280.38 0.0007

5

Dehydrated Green Pepper 1,049.01 0.0023 604.78 0.0015

6 Pepper Pinheads 48.15 0.0001 37.7 0.0001

7 Freez Dried Green Pepper 662.37 0.0015 483.57 0.0012

8 Fr0zen Pepper 396.24 0.0009 18.42 0

9

Othr Pepper Nthr Crshd Nor

Grnd

1,421.43 0.0031 1,367.81 0.0033

10

Crushed Or Ground Pepper 4,878.12 0.0107 5,147.33 0.0124

11 Chilly 24,757.60 0.0542 37,892.12 0.0909

12 Chilly Powder 13,398.62 0.0294 11,376.74 0.0273

13

Fruits Of The GenusCapsicum

0.51 0 20.97 0.0001

14 Chilly Seed 118.74 0.0003 30.96 0.0001

15

Pepper Jamaica (Pimenta/AllSpices)

1.04 0

16

Othr Fruits Of GensCapscm/Pmnta

933.89 0.002 748.75 0.0018

17 Vanila Bean 755.95 0.0017 1,148.87 0.002818 Vanilla Powder 96.82 0.0002 64.97 0.0002

19

Other Vanilla Excldng VnlaBean & Pwdr

121.11 0.0003 289.11 0.0007

20 Cassia 69.21 0.0002 111.5 0.0003

21 Cinnamon Bark 37.7 0.0001 27.66 0.0001

22 Cinnamon Tree Flowers 14.67 0 0.44 0

23

Pthr Cinmamn NotCrshd/Grnd

107.19 0.0002 73.81 0.0002

24

Cinnamon & Its Tree FlwrsCrshd Or Grnd

36.38 0.0001 73.53 0.0002

25 Cloves Extracted 84.91 0.0002 39.53 0.0001

26

Clove, Not Extracted (OtherThan Stem)

5.64 0 7.34 0

27 Cloves Stems 3.19 0 2.78 0

28 Other Cloves 105.94 0.0002 65.09 0.0002

29 Nutmeg In Shell 1,206.34 0.0026 640.58 0.0015

30 Nutmeg Not In Shell 1,699.73 0.0037 1,814.48 0.0044

31 Mace 126.85 0.0003 55.86 0.0001


9/171

32

CardamomsLarge(Amomum)

1,483.07 0.0032 1,477.55 0.0035

33

Cardamoms Small AlleppeyGreen

665.08 0.0015 350.73 0.0008

34

Cardamoms Small CoorgGreen

1,038.63 0.0023 200.94 0.0005

35

Cardamons SmallBlchd,Half-Blchd/Blchble

49.66 0.0001 35.85 0.0001

36

Cardamoms Small Seeds 18.96 0 14.74 0

37

Cardamom Small(Mixed) 0.2 0 59.7 0.0001

38 Cardamom Powder 145.52 0.0003 97.6 0.0002

39

Others(Incl.Large Seeds) 271.58 0.0006 147.77 0.0004

40 Anise of Seed Qlty 244.56 0.0005 266.61 0.0006

41Other Anise Seeds 146.96 0.0003 110.62 0.0003

42 Badian of Seed Qlty 4.85 0

43 Other Badian Seeds 15.05 0 3.13 0

44 Coriander of Seed Qlty 3,875.98 0.0085 3,429.92 0.0082

45 Other Coriander Seeds 3,221.96 0.0071 3,418.63 0.0082

46

Cumin Black of Seed Qlty 2,304.97 0.0051 3,053.20 0.0073

47

Other Cumin Black Seeds 1,619.86 0.0035 1,029.76 0.0025

48

Cumin,Othr Thn Blck ofSeed Qlty

2,475.44 0.0054 6,533.71 0.0157

49

Othr Cumin(Othr Thn Black)

Seeds

2,698.67 0.0059 8,215.22 0.0197

50 Caraway of Seed Qlty 24.72 0.0001 25.93 0.0001

51 Other Caraway Seeds 2.29 0 17.33 0

52 Fennel of Seed Qlty 2,001.65 0.0044 1,619.56 0.0039

53 Other Fennel Seeds 624.87 0.0014 1,070.85 0.0026

54 Juniper Berries of Seed Qlty 2.78 0 0.17 0

55 Othr Juniper Seeds 119.57 0.0003 21.72 0.0001

56 Ginger Fresh 928.28 0.002 407.36 0.001

57 Ginger Dried Unbleached 1,507.37 0.0033 1,229.23 0.003

58 Ginger Dried Bleached 543.84 0.0012 267.62 0.0006

59 Ginger Powder 1,179.61 0.0026 1,122.16 0.0027

60 Ginger,Nes Incl Dried 421.5 0.0009 451.11 0.001161 Saffron Stigma 63.35 0.0001 137.11 0.0003

62 Saffron Stamen 124.98 0.0003 52.99 0.0001

63 Other Saffron 12.83 0 129.21 0.0003

64 Fresh 6,148.92 0.0135 4,600.87 0.011

65 Dry 4,040.45 0.0089 3,709.08 0.0089

66 Powder 5,689.48 0.0125 4,959.97 0.0119

67 Other Turmeric 652.53 0.0014 580.96 0.0014


10/171

68

Tejpat (Leaves Of CassiaLignea)

130.18 0.0003 70.17 0.0002

69 Thymes 45.16 0.0001 121.68 0.0003

70 Bay Leaves 74.89 0.0002 58.02 0.0001

71 Curry 1,225.89 0.0027 2,066.92 0.005

72

Mixtrs Of Two Or Mors

Prodcts Of Diff Hdg

2,684.06 0.0059 2,851.56 0.0068

73 Celery Seed 1,670.28 0.0037 1,307.35 0.0031

74 Fenugreek Seed 2,980.28 0.0065 2,049.29 0.0049

75 Dill Seed 581.84 0.0013 372.95 0.0009

76

Ajwan Seed (Bishop Seed) 482.62 0.0011 296.78 0.0007

77 Cassia T0rea Seed 357.39 0.0008 711.78 0.0017

78 Other Spices N.E.S 1,141.74 0.0025 935.67 0.0022

79 Cassia Powder 657.92 0.0014 730.36 0.0018

80 Cumin Powder 1,141.30 0.0025 1,281.18 0.0031

81 Celery Powder 97.06 0.0002 97.29 0.0002

82 Fenugreek Powder 354.27 0.0008 366.37 0.000983 Dill Powder 8.83 0 60.18 0.0001

84 Poppy Powder 12.91 0 10.31 0

85 Mustard Powder 67.54 0.0001 86.11 0.0002

86

Other Powder Of OtherSpices N.E.S.

4,954.71 0.0109 3,476.46 0.0083

87 Cardamom Husk 207.29 0.0005 67.14 0.0002

88 Spices Husk/Spent, N.E.S., 460.24 0.001 372.62 0.0009

89 Other Spices N.E.S. 987.76 0.0022 1,014.45 0.0024

Spices Total 123928.01 0.2717 64,491.44 0.1546

India's Total Export 45,641,788.00 41,668,588.00

(Source : Department of Commerce, Export Import Data Bank, Export :: Commodity-wise 8 digitlevel) http://commerce.nic.in/eidb/ecom8.asp?hs=09 (Accessed on 13-09-2007)

http://commerce.nic.in/eidb/ecom8.asp?hs=09http://commerce.nic.in/eidb/ecom8.asp?hs=09


11/171

Table 1.3: Item-wise share of Export of Spices from India

Source: Spices Board, Cochin. http://www.indianspices.com/html/mjr_spc_exp.html (Accessed on13-09-2007)

Quantity

Value

Fig 1.1: India's share in world trade of spices – 2006


12/171

Table 1.4a: Item-wise export of spices from India

Source : Spices Board, Cochin (http://www.indianspices.com/html/s0420sts.htm) accessed on 13-09-2007


13/171

Table 1.4b: Item-wise import of spices into India

Source : Spices Board, Cochin (http://www.indianspices.com/html/s0420sts.htm) accessed on 13-09-2007

In2005-06. It indicated that strong domestic market is exists and we consume more than 90 % ofour production only < 10 % is exported. India also imports considerable amount of spices (Table

1.4b). Traditionally we export freesh or dried produces but in recent times value added productsare in great demand. The produce subjected to value addition chain. During which it is made into powders, oils, oleoresins etc., they are in great demand in culinary preparations and pharmaceuticals etc.

For the export of spices and spice products, the exporting countries have to comply with thespecifications laid down by the regulatory agencies in impor

dia produced 38,17,900 tonnes of spices during 2004-05 and exported 3,20,530 tonnes during

ting countries. Before the beralisation, exporters had to comply with the pre-shipment inspection and quality control asli


14/171

per the AGMARK Grade Specification prescribed by the Directorate of Marketing andInspection (DMI). Export Inspection Agency, under the Export Inspection Council of India, alsohas the mandate for pre-shipment inspection and quality control certification. With theliberalization pre-shipment inspection and quality control was withdrawn and the exporters arefree to export the spices and spice products as per the specifications prescribed by the importing

countries. As per the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) signed between Ministry ofCommerce and Industry, Govt. of India and the United States Food and Drug Administration(USFDA), export of Black Pepper to USA can be made with the pre-shipment inspection anduality control certification by Export Inspection Agency.

rements as per ASTA Cleanlinessused to

req e exporting co p pe n.

Countries like UK, Germany etherland v forspic Spice Associ (ESA) c i nionhas come out with the "quality minima for herbs and spices". This serves as a guidelinespe ember count in Europe is yet to finalise thecle pecification for spices and spice pr In a e cleanliness spe ation, the i r for par like pesticide re , aflatox r robialcontamination. Individual member countries in Euro esidueLevels (MR res d spice prod USA and Underthe r pesticide es have n iative tofix the MRLs for spices at the Codex level. European xin as5 ppb, for Aflatoxin B1 and l0 ppb for Aflatoxin tota andothers have fixed limits for aflatoxin varying from 1 ppb to 20 ppb.

Importing countries are cautious on the microbial co port.Alm e importing countries have fixed the absent in 25g.Specifications have been prescribed laid out by m bial par uch as Total Plate C (TPC), E. limits forthe above parameters vary ntry.The cleanliness specification, the limits for con prescribed by the port o board websiteonl p://www.indianspice l/s14 .

q The most popular specification for spices and herbs the world over is the "ASTA CleanlinessSpecifications for Spices, Seeds and Herbs". The unified ASTA, USFDA CleanlinessSpecifications for Spices, Seeds and Herbs was made effective from 1-1-1990. Major producingcountries have built up their facilities to meet the requiSpecification. The importing countries where they do not have specifications for spices,

uest th untries to sup ly spices as r the ASTA Specificatio

and N s ha e laid down cleanliness specificationes. European ation ompris ng of the members of the European U

cifications for m ries an Union. European Unionanliness s oducts.

ddition to th cific mpo ting countries insist on the specificationameters sidues in, t ace metal contamination and mic

pean Union have fixed Maximum R Ls) for pesticide residues. European Union has not prescribed the limits for pesticide

s.idues in spices anRLs fo

ucts. Japan has prescribed the MRLs in spice Codex, M residu ot been prescribed. India has taken the init

Union has prescribed limits for aflatol. Member countries in European Union

ntamination in spices at the time of imost all th limits for Salmonella as

ajor importing countries for the microameters s ount coli, Yeast, Mould, Coliforms, etc. The

from country to cousticide residues, aflatoxin and microbial pe

taminants major im ing c untries are given in spicesine (htt s.com/htm 90qua htm).

Are oduction of Spice

The im d condim e illies,Black Pepper, Cardamom, Turmeric, Ginger, Coriander, Fennel, Fenugreek, Cumin, and Garlic.

a and Pr

portant spices ans

ents under comm rcial or large scale cultivation are Ch


15/171

The total area under spices is over 2.6 m.ha with a production of 3.8 m tones and our domesticconsum n is around 80 % of th oduction (T eTable 1.5: State Wise Area and Production and Important Spices Grown in India (2004-05)

Area (‘000 Producti

(‘000 tonne

ptio e pr abl 1.5).

Important Spices GrownState ha) on

s)

Andaman & Nicobar 1.87 3.1 Black pepper, Chilli, Ginger, Clove, Nutmeg,

CinnamonAndhra Pradesh 354.6 1217.1 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Coriander, Mustard

Seed, Garlic, TamarindArunachal Pradesh 6.7 37.3 Chilli, Ginger, TurmericAssam 26.0 17.6 Chilli, TurmericBihar 10.9 10.9 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Coriander, Mustard

Seed, GarlicChhattisgarh 12.4 8.7 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Mustard Seed, Garlic

260.4 279.4 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Coriander, Cumin,k, Ajwan Seed, Dill Seed,rlic

m riander, Garlicffron

rn inger,

inger,, Nutmeg,

hh Mustard Seed, Tejpat

icn 10.8 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Mustard Seedd 209.4 266.5 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Coriander, Mustard

Seed, Garlic13.7 70.3 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Garlic

Mustard

4.0 22.2 Chilli, Celery, Garlichan 574.2 492.8 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Coriander, Cumin,

Fennel, Fenugreek, Ajwan Seed, Dill Seed,

k i, Ginger,

tard Seed, Garlic,, Vanilla

ericeric, Coriander, Fennel,

Fenugreek, Garlic

Uttaranchal 1.1 .5 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Coriander, Fenugreek,

West Bengal 76.8 10 .4 Large Cardamom, Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric

GujaratFennel, FenugreeMustard Seed, Ga

Hi achal Pradesh 2.9 14.9 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, CoJammu & Kashmir 4.3 8.3 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Garlic, Sa

, GKa ataka 151.4 214.4 Black pepper, Cardamom, ChilliTurmeric, Coriander, Mustard Seed, Garlic,Tamarind, Clove, Nutmeg, Cinnamon, SweetFlag, Vanilla

Kerala 326.4 178.9 Black pepper, Cardamom, Chilli, GeTurmeric, Garlic, Tamarind, Clov

Cinnamon, VanillaMa arastra 105.6 83.8 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, GarlicMe alaya 19.7 73.6 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric,

38.3 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, GarlMizoram 7.4Ma ipur 15.0Ma hya Pradesh

NagalandOrissa 145.8 194.4 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Coriander,

Seed, GarlicPunjabRajast

MustardericSik im 31.8 40.1 Large Cardamom, Ginger, Turm

Tamil Nadu 140.0 263.0 Black pepper, Cardamom, ChillTurmeric, Coriander, MusTamarind, Clove

Tripura 4.5 9.4 Chilli, Ginger, TurmUttar Pradesh 51.7 134.0 Chilli, Ginger, Turm

6Garlic

5

Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, New Delhi and State Departments & Arecanut and Spices Database,Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut & Spices Board, Cochin


16/171

Organizations

Research

• Indian Institute of Spices Research(ICAR), Calicut, Kerala

• National Research Center for Seed Spices(ICAR), Ajmer, Rajasthan

•

National Research Center for Onion and Garlic(ICAR), Pune, Maharashtra• Indian Institute of Horticultural Research(ICAR), Bangalore, Karnataka

• National Research Center for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants(ICAR), Anand, Gujarat

• Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants(CSIR), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

• Central Food Technological Research Institute(CSIR), Mysore, Karnataka

• All India Coordinated Research Project on Spices(ICAR), Calicut, Kerala

• Indian Cardamom Research In My dumpara, Kerala

•

orate of Arec and M ent, Cali

d, Coch

d Pr d Produ t Authority, New Delhi

National Agricultur l Cooperative Federation of India Ltd. , New Delhi

• India Pepper & Spice Trade Association [IPSTA], Cochin, Kerala

All India Spices Exporters Forum [AISEF], Cochin, Kerala

ducer, consumer and

stitute(Spices Board),

R)(ICAR), Appangala, Karnataka

la

Cardamom Research Center (IIS

• State Agricultural Universities

• CSIR Labs

Development

•

Direct anut, Spices edicinal Plants Developm cut

Export

• Spices Boar

• Agricultural an

•

in, Kerala

ocessed Foo cts Export Developmen

a

•

• Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Faridabad, Haryana

BLACK PEPPER

Intorudction

Black pepper ( Piper nigrum) (Family: Piperaceae) is a perennial climbing vine grown for its berries extensively used as spice and in medicine. India is a leading proexporter of black pepper in the world. During 2005-06, 17, 563 tonnes of black pepper worthRs. 150. 95 crore were exported to various countries accounting for 5.74 % of export earningsamong spices. Black pepper is cultivated to a large extent in Kerala and Karnataka and to alimited extent in Tamil Nadu and other states. The crop is grown in about 2, 57, 020 hectares in

India with a production of 79,640 tonnes annually. Kerala (94.1%) account for a major portion of production of black pepper in the country and Karnataka contributes around 3.6 %.


17/171

Co I R, Ca

Com

The comTable om osition of black r

MoisTotal Nitro volatile etherextraVola tract

Nonv tractAlco

4.1 %

2.64.2

.2%

1.54.4-12.0%

St h yd lysCrudeC e pi Pi rine m ical as

Acid ins h (sand)

282.

1.

3.0.03-0.55%

urtesy: IS licut

position

position of black pepper is given in Table 2. 12.1: C p peppe

turenitrogengen in noncttile ether ex

olatile ether exhol extract

8.7-1

1.55- 0%2.70- 2%

0.3-4

3.9-1 %

arc (by acid hfibre

ro is)

rud perine

pe (spectro etr ly) Total h

oluble as

8.0-49.0%.7-18%8-9.0%

7-7.4%

6-5.7%

Uses

Its value as an essential preservative of eats and other perishable foods wascentu is, therefore el use m t p in i pic ingconf ry and prepara f vera n f th i val p per i b y tocorrect the seasoning of dishes. Just before the end of cooling, a final dash of pepper can be usedeffectively to adjust the flavour. It is an im any

rmulae of seasonings for poultry dr

asonings. Oil is a valuab eats, soups, table saucesd certain beverages and

Piperine is used to impart a pungent taste to brandy. It is also being tried as an insecticide.Oleore or flavourin uces, ages, ys, et commercial scale, sincethe use of standardized oleoresin results in production of processed foods of uniform quality andflavour Aryan dere a l re or v d orders ofanatom ystem and pres it as fecti e fo psia i deliriumtremors, haemorrhoids, etc. T yptia d it for embalm e A s it as anaphrodisiac. The Dutch and French housewives use it as an insect nt an iller.

Area and production

Betwee d 2002, worl ctio ppe nigr eas atically from189,000 tons to 341,000 tons, with an a rowt of 12 ann e ase in production is m stly attributable to Vietnam ergence as a mafrom the other producing countries also increased substantially during this period, with increased production com Brazi a, Ind , Ma Sri L and C Tab 2.2 &2.3).

m known for ries. It , larg y d by ea ackers and cann ng, kling, bak

ectione tion o be ges. O e o e princ pal ues of ep s its a ilit

portant constituent of whole pickling spice and mground spice fo essings, sausages, hamburger and Frankfurter

le adjunct in flavouring of sausages, canned msean liquors. It is used in perfumery and in medicine.

sin is used f g of sa sasus chutne c., on

. The ancient s consi d it as powerfu medy f arious isical s cribed an ef ve cur r dyspe , malar a,

he Eg ns use ing. Th sians u ed-repelle d moth k

n 1997 an d produ n of pe r (piper um) incr ed dramnuual g h rate % per um. Th incre

o ’s em jor pepper producer but output

ing from l, Indi onesia laysia, anka hina ( le


18/171

Table 2.2 ry-w a o

COUNTRY 3 2004

Count ise Are f pepper

2000 2001 2002 200

IPC Countries 432,206 461,748 472,544 492,130 493,317

Brazil 30,000 39,000 45,000 50,000 45,000India 214,910 218,670 222,460 213,160 231,880

In a 145,830 159,884 160,606 184,000 171,000donesi

Malaysia 13,400 13,011,500 13,100 00 13,000

Sri La 30,794 1,378 31,9 32,437nka 29,966 3 70

Non-IPC

Countries54,075 61,198 67,590 74,300 75,800

Vietna e) 36,106 2,000 48,8 50,000m 30,000 4 00

China e) 15,700 5,700 15,7 16,000 e), P.R. 15,500 1 00

Mada e) 4,000 4,000 e) 4,0 4,000 e)gascar 4,000 e) 00 e)

Thaila 2,892 2,890 e) 2,8 2,800 e)nd 2,575 00 e)

Others e) 2,500 3,000 e) 3,0 3,000 e)2,000 e) 00 e)

T O T 4 522,946 34 566,4 569,117A L 86,281 540,1 30

e) estimate

per

UN 2000 200 20 2

Source: International Pepper Community, Jakarta

Table 2.3 Country-wise total production of pep

CO TRY 1 02 003 2004

IPC Co esuntri 200,176 215,841 227,600 228,660 194,820

Brazil 30,000 43,00 45,0 50,0 450 00 00 ,000India 58,000 79,0 80,0 65,0 600 00 00 2,000Indone 77,500 59,000 6,000 0,000 5sia 6 8 5 ,000Malaysia 20,00024,000 27,000 24,000 21,000Sri Lanka 12,82010,676 7,841 12,600 12,660Non-IPC

Countries 73,635 92,395 113,460 133,500 151,659

Vietnam 45,000 56,000 75,000 85,000 100,000e)

China, PR. 18,600 21,700 23,000 33,000 35,000 e)Thailand 6,535 8,820 9,960 9,500 9,500 e)

Madagascar 1,500 3,375 2,500 2,500 2,500 e)Others 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,659 e)

T O T A L 273,811 308,236 341,060 362,160 346,479

e) estimateSource: International Pepper Community, Jakarta

The pepper production in India for the past ten years is given in Table 2.4 and cultivation ismainly confined to the Southern States of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.


19/171

Table 2.4: Area, Production and Consumption of Pepper in India

Year Area (ha) Production (Tons) Consumption (Tons)

1994 190,990 50,000 20,000

1995 193,270 55,000 25,000

1996 198,110 65,000 30,0001997 179,590 60,000 25,000

1998 181,550 65,000 27,000

1999 238,320 75,000 30,000

2000 214,910 58,000 35,000

2001 218,670 79,000 50,624

2002 222,460 80,000 52,000

2003 213,160 65,000 58,000

2004 220,620 62,000 60,000

Mean 206,513.64 64,909.09 37,511.27

Table 2.5 State-wise Area, Production and yield of Black pepper in India(Area:’000 ha, production:’000 tonnes, Yield:kg/ha)

1992-93 2001-02 2004-05State

Area Prodn. Yield Area Prodn. Yield Area Prodn.

Karnataka 2.98 0.75 252 12.10 20.76 1716 13.07 2.84

Kerala 183.48 49.67 271 203.96 58.24 286 237.67 74.98

Tamilnadu 2.81 0.28 100 4.11 0.91 221 4.12 0.91

Andamans 0.11 0.05 455 0.45 0.09 200 0.66 0.12

All India 189.49 50.76 268 220.62 80.00 363 257.02 79.64

Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, New Delhi

Botany

Piper nigrum L. belongs to the family piperaceae, which is pan-tropical in distribution,concentrated mainly in South and Central America and South Asia. Over 1000 species werereported from the genus Piper of which about 110 are of Indian origin. In India, thesouthwestern and northeastern regions were recognized as two independent centres ofdistribution for Piper.A few of the economically important species of Piper along with black pepper are P. betle L.(betelvine), P. longum L.(Indian long pepper), P. retrofactum Vahl.(Javalong pepper), P. mullesua Ham. and P. cubeba Lf. (cubebs or tailed pepper) used in indigenousmedicine.

Piper nigrum is a perennial glabrous woody climber growing up to a height of 15 m or more.

The height of the vine depends on the height of the support; it climbs, under cultivation as amonocrop. The height is restricted to 4-6 m giving a columnar appearance. They are trailed oneither living or nonliving standards.

The pepper vine has two types of branches, the orthotropic climbing branches and the plagiotropic fruiting branches. The growth of orthotropic branches is vegetative and hasmonopodial growth habit. After climbing a support, they become woody with thick bark, whichforms the central axis of the column. The nodes are swollen and each node has a cordate orovate leaf. At each node, there may be 8-15 short adventitious clinging roots, which adhere


20/171

firmly to the support while climbing. At the axil of each leaf there is an axillary bud, which can

grow into short black pepper bushes.

ine has 10-20 main adventitious roots, 2-3 m long from the base of the stem

above the base which is round, acute or cordate; leaf size varies with cultivars and maye 3-20 cm or more long and 3- 15 cm or more broad. Inflorescence is a filiform, pendant,

es are monoeciousxhibiting great variability in the composition of male, female and hermaphrodite flowers in the

lding cultivars have as much as 70-100 per cent bisexual flowers indicating that

with short filaments.he globose ovary is one celled, sessile with a single orthotropous ovule; stigmas 3-5, fleshy,

later turn black. They may be receptive up to ten days with

re at thee time, exhibiting synchrony of male and female phases. Though there is protogyny in many

theajor mechanism effecting pollination. The presence of dew or water drops on the spike may

further enhance dispersal of pollen grains. Cross-pollination may also occur to a limited extentaided by either insects or wind.

develop into plagiotropic branches, which produce flowers and fruits. Both types of shoots branch but only orthotropic shoots produce further climbing shoots with roots at every node,which are used for propagation of pepper vines. The sympodially growing fruiting brancheswhen rooted and planted

A mature pepper vand there is an extensive mat of surface feeding roots; about 80-90% of the feeding roots are inthe upper 40 cm of soil.

Leaves are simple, alternate and often unequal sided. Leaves are coriaceous, dark green andshiny above, pale and gland dotted below, cordate to ovate in orthotropic shoots and ovate toovate-elliptic on plagiotropic shoots; lamina is entire with 5-7 vines arising from the leaf base orslightly bspike borne opposite to the leaves on fruiting branches. The spikes are terminal in development

but pushed aside by the new shoot developing from the axillary bird, so as to make it appearopposite to the leaf. The spikes are 2- 17 cm or more long bearing 5-100 or more minuteflowers borne in the axi1s of ovate, fleshy and cupular bracts; cultivated typespike; high yiehigher percentage of bisexual flowers results in greater productivity.

Under intense shade conditions a few of the varieties with bisexual flower produce more offemale and less of hermaphrodite flowers and sometimes the anthers fail to emerge out of the bracts or emerge late. The sessile flowers have no perianth. Male flower is represented by twonaked two-celled anthers, one on either side of the ovary, 1-2 mm in sizeT papillose, white when receptive, peak receptivity from third to fifth day. The pollen grains are small and usually in smallaggregates.

Self-pollination is predominant in most of the cultivars and there is no active pollen transfermechanism. In bisexual types, the presence of anthers on either side of the gynoecium ensureseffective self-pollination, especially in types where both male and female flowers matusamcultivars, in most of them the female phase coincides with the male phase at least at some stage,so that the female flowers are exposed to the pollen from the same spike. Geitenogamy ism

The fruit, though known as berry is a sessile globose drupe with a pulpy pericarp. The greenunripe fruit turns red upon ripening and turns black after drying. The size and number of drupes per spike varies with different cu1tivars. The seed has a minute embryo with little endospermand copious perisperm.


21/171

Climate and soil

Black pepper is a plant of humid tropics requiring adequate rainfall and humidity. The hot andhumid climate of sub mountainous tracts of Western Ghats is ideal for its cultivation. It growssuccessfully between 20° North and South latitude, and from sea level up to 1500 m above meansea level. The crop tolerates temperatures between 10 and 40° C. A well-distributed annual

rainfall of 125-200 cm is considered ideal for black pepper. Black pepper can be grown in a widerange of soils with a pH of 4.5 to 6.5, though in its natural habitat it thrives well in red lateritesoils.

The black pepper growing areas in the West Coast of India include 1) coastal areas where black pepper is grown in homesteads 2) midlands and where black pepper is extensively cultivated ona plantation scale and 3) hills at an elevation of 800-1500 m above mean sea level, where thecrop is mostly grown on shade trees in coffee, cardamom and tea plantations

Propagation

Black pepper vines develop three types of aerial shoots, namely 1) primary stem with long

ternodes, with adventitious roots which cling to the standards 2) runner shoots which originate

eldom used since they develop a bushyabit. However, rooted lateral branches are useful for raising bush pepper.

roduction of Rooted Cuttings

high yielding and healthy vines are kept coiled onthe shoots from coming in contact with soil

and rikin he vine during February-March, andafter trimm ither in nursery beds or in pol ene shade has to be provided and the polythene bags

gs become ready for planting during May-June.

2. Rapid m technique developed at Sri Lanka has been modi ick and easy multiplication of black pepper vines

infrom the base of the vine and have long internodes which strike roots at each node and 3) fruit bearing lateral branches. Cuttings are raised mainly from runner shoots, though terminal shootscan also be used. Cuttings from lateral branches are sh P

1. Traditi

woo en peonal method: Runner shoots from

d gs fixed at the base of the vine to prevent st g roots. The runner shoots are separated from t

ing the leaves, cuttings of 2-3 nodes each are planted eyth bags filled with fertile soil. Adequate

are to be irrigated frequently. The cuttin

ultiplication method: An efficient propagationfied for adoption in India for qu .

Courtesy : IISR, Calicut

this met width and convenient length is made. The trenchfilled wi , sand and farmyard manure in 1:1:1 ratio. S

alves of b lves of PVC pipes of 1.25-1.50 m length and 8-10diam ter p ta at 30 cm intervals are fixed at 45° angle on a strong support.

In hod, a trench of 60 cm depth, 30 cmis th rooting medium comprising of soil plith amboo with septa or split ha cm

e rovided with plastic sep


22/171

Rooted cut ench at the rate of one cutting for each bamboo split. Thewer port are filled with rooting medium (preferably weathered coir

ust-farm y 1 ratio) and the growing vine is tied to the bamboo split inedium. The tying can be done with

ried bana e irrigated regularly. As the cuttings grow

bam o sp ode is pressed down to the rootingmedium an a (1 kg), super phosphate (0.75 kg),mur te of (0.25 kg) in 250 litres of water isapp d @ ine at 2 week intervals. When the vine reaches the top (3-4 mfter planti terminal bud is nipped off and the vine is crushed at about three

in order to activate the axillary buds. After about 10 days, the vine is cut atved from the rooting medium and cut between each node. Each

utting with the bunch of roots intact is planted in polythene bags filled with fumigated potting

able 2.6: Cost of production of rooted black pepper cuttings using Rapid Multiplication

tings are planted in the tr lo ions of the bamboo splitsd ard manure mixture in 1:such a way so as to keep thed

nodes pressed to the rooting mna leaf sheath fibers. The cuttings ar , the

bo lits are filled with rooting medium and each nd tied. For rapid growth, a nutrient solution of ureia potash (0.5 kg) and magnesium sulphate to belie 0.25 litre per v onths

a ng of the cutting) thenodes above the base,the crushed point and remocmixture. Trichoderma @ 1g and VAM @ 100 cc/kg of soil can be added to the potting mixture.Care should be taken to keep the leaf axil above the soil. The polythene bags should be kept in acool and humid place, or should be covered with thin polythene (200 gauge) sheet to retain

humidity. The buds start developing in about 3 weeks and the polybags can then be removed andkept in shade.

The advantages of this method of propagation are rapid multiplication (1:40), well-developedroot system, higher field establishment and vigorous growth as a result of better root system. Thecost of production of single cutting is Rs. 5(Table 2.6).

T

SI.No Items Cost I Non- recurring expenditure 124000

1 Cleared, leveled nursery area with good drainage Available

2 Semi-permanent nursery structure of size 24x 6 m with G 97000

3 Masonary charges including cost of cement 15000

4 Shade net 12000

II. Recurring Expenditure (Once in 3 Years) 30980

1 Bamboo 200 numbers @ Rs.54/ pc 10800

2 Arranging bamboo splits (10 man days) @ Rs. 120 / day 1200

3 Mother vines @ Rs 6.00 for 600 nos. 3600

4 FYM @ Rs b/cft (260 cft) 5200

5 Forest soil @ 600 / cft (650 cft) 3900

6 Sand @ Rs. 9/cft (560 cft) 2340

7 Fumigation of pitting mix 1300

8 Coir dust (60 ft) 120

9 Preparation of rooting medium 240 cft (6 man days) 72010 Preparation of potting mixture 982 cft (15 man days) 1800

III. Recurring Expenditure (every 3 year) 62145

1 Fertilizers

a. Urea 29 Kg @ Rs. 4.65/Kg 135

b. Super phosphate 29 kg @ Rs. 3.10 / kg 90

c. Muriate of Potash 15 Kg @ Rs. 4.35/Kg 65

d. Magnesium sulphate 7kg @Rs. 3.50 / Kg 25


23/171

e. Application of cow dung slurry 1002 Plant protection chemicals

a. Ridomil 1kg @ Rs.1300/kg 1300

b. Phorate 22 kg @ Rs.50 / Kg 1050

c. Quinolphose 1 lit @Rs. 320 320

d. Copper Oxy Chloride 10 kg @ 14.61/ Kg 610

3 Charges for application of nutrient solution and pesticide 1950

4 Labour charges for tying vines, i 38000rrigation and maintenance

5 Cost of temporary shed (1000 c 9500apacity 12m x 6m)

6 Cost of shade net 9000

Annuity value @ 11 % 26315

Total cost of production 88460

Cost of Production / cutting (Rs) 4.95

3. Trench method: A pit of 2.0 m x 1.0 m x 0.5 m size is dug under a cool and shaded area.Single nodes of 8-10 cm length and with their leaf intact, taken from runner shoots of fieldgrown vines are planted in polythene bags (25 cm x 15 cm, 200 gauge) filled at the lower halfwith a mixture of sand, soil, coir dust and cow dung in equal proportion. The single nodes are toe planted in the bags in such a way that their leaf axil is above the potting mixture. The

h the planted single nodes are arranged in the pit. After keeping the bags in

fter 2-3 weeks of planting, the cuttings will start producing roots which are visible through the

r plants.As the plant grows and produces few nodes small polythene bags (20x10 cm)

illed with potting mixture may be kept under each node. The node may be kept gently pressed

b polythene bags witthe pit, the pit should be covered with a polythene sheet. This sheet may be secured in position by placing weights on the corners. The cuttings should be watered at least two times a daily witha rose can and the pit should be covered with the polythene sheet immediately after watering. Itis advisable to drench the cuttings 2-3 times with copper oxychloride (2g/litre).

A polythene bags. After about 1 month, new shoots start emerging from the leaf axil. At this stageit is advisable to keep the pit open for about 1 hour per day so that the cuttings would harden andwill not dry when they are taken out of the pit. The cuttings can be taken out of the pit after 2months of planting and kept in a shaded place and watered twice a day. These cuttings will beready for field planting after about 2 ½ months. Foliar application of nutrient solution will alsoenhance the growth of the cuttings. The advantage is simple, cheap and efficient technique for propagating black pepper from single nodes of runner shoots. By this method 80-85% successcan be obtained.

4. Serpentine method: In a nursery shed with roofing sheet or shade net, rooted black peppercuttings are planted in polythene bags holding about 2 kg potting mixture, which will serve asmothe

f in to the mixture assuring contact with the potting mixture with the help of a flexible twig suchas mid rib of a coconut leaflet to enable rooting at that junction. Roots start growing from the


24/171


nodes and the cuttings keep on growing further. The process of keeping potting mixture filled polythene bags at every node to induce rooting at each node is repeated. In 3 months the first 10to 12 nodes (from the mother plants) would have rooted profusely and will be ready for harvest.Each node with the ploythene bag is cut just below the rooted node and the cut end buried into

e mixture to induce more roots. The rooted nodes will produce new sprouts in a week timth e and

added to the potting mixture @ 1 g of product containing 1010 cfu/g

spots with a chlorotic halo.rdeaux mixture 1% alternating with carbendazim 0.1% is effective against the

will be ready for field planting in 2-3 months time. Daily irrigation can be given with a rose can.

On an average, 60 cuttings can be harvested per mother plant in a year by this method. Cheaper propagation technique for production of rooted cuttings of black pepper is serpentine layering.

Nursery Diseases

1. Phytophthora infections: The condition favouring are continous heavy rainfall/irrigation,high humidity, low temperature. Phytophthora infections are noticed on leaves, stems and rootsof cuttings in the nursery. Dark spots with fimbriate margins appear on the leaves, which spreadrapidly resulting in defoliation. The infections on the stem are seen as black lesions which resultin blight. The symptoms on the roots appear as rotting of the entire root system.

Spraying Bordeaux mixture 1% and drenching with copper oxychloride 0.2 % at monthly

intervals prevents the disease. Alternatively, metalaxyl 0.01% (1.25 g of Ridomil-Mancozeb/litre water) or potassium phosphonate 0.3% could also be used. The potting mixturemay be sterilized through solarization. To the sterilized mixture, biocontrol agents such as VAM@ 100 cc/kg of mixture and Trichoderma @ 1g/kg of soil (Trichoderma population @ 10

10

cfu/g) may be added at the time of filling of nursery mixture in polythene bags. Pseudomonasluorescens (IISR-6) may be f

to enhance growth and to suppress root pathogens. Since the biocontrol agents protect the rootsystem only, the aerial portion may be protected with chemicals. If Bordeaux mixture is usedcare must be taken to prevent dripping of fungicide to the soil. Alternatively, systemic fungicidessuch as metalaxyl and potassium phosphonate which are compatible with Trichoderma may beused.

2. Anthracnose: The disease is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. The fungus infectse leaves causing yellowish brown to dark brown irregular leaf th

Spraying Bodisease.

3. Leaf rot and blight: The disease is caused by Rhizoctonia solani and is often serious innurseries during April-May when warm humid conditions prevail. The fungus infects both leaves


25/171

and stems. Grey sunken spots and mycelia threads appear on the leaves and the infected leavesare attached to one another with the mycelia threads. On stems, the infection occurs as dark brown lesions which spread both upwards and downwards. The new flushes subtending the points of infection gradually droop and dry up. Leaf spots caused by Colletotrichum sp. arecharacterized by yellow halo surrounding the necrotic spots. A prophylactic spray with Bordeaux

mixture 1% prevents both the diseases.

4. Basal wilt: The disease is mainly noticed in nurseries during June-September and is caused bySclerotium rolfsii. Grey lesions appear on stems and leaves. On the leaves white mycelium areseen at the advancing edges of the lesions. The mycel le the stem resulting indrooping of leaves be e poi ion anc ro dryup. Small whitish to oured g ike sclero odies appe the mature lesions. Thedisease can be controlled, if noticed early, by adopting phytosanitary measures. The affectedcuttings along with defoliated leaves should be rem d and dest d. Later all cuttingsshould be sprayed with carbendazim 0.2% or Bordeaux mixture 1%.

5. ctions in nursery learing ic, yellow specks, mottli smallleaf are the most obvious symptoms dentifying al infection the nursery sare in natur imary spread occurs through planting m ial since bla epper isvegetatively propagated. When infected plants are used as source of planting ial, thecuttings will also be in cted. Hen lection of virus free healthy mother plants is very

t. Secondary spread of the disease occurs through insects such as aphids and

. Nematode infestation in the nursery: Root-knot nematodes ( Meloidogyne spp.) and thelus similis are the two important nematode species infesting

tings developow decline at a later date.

Soil solarization can be done for sterilizing the nursery mixture. The solarized nursery mixturemay be fortified with biocontrol agents such as Pochonia chlamydosporia or Trichoderma harzianum @ 1-2 g/kg of soil, the product containing 10

6.5 cfu fungus/gm of substrate.. A

prophylactic application of nematicide is also necessary to check the nematode infestation. Forthis, make three equidistant holes of 2-3 cm depth in the bag around the cuttings and place phorate 10 G @ 1g/bag or carbofuran 3 G @ 3g/bag in these holes and cover with soil. A lightirrigation may also be given to ensure adequate soil moisture.

arieties: A majority of the cultivated types are monoecious (male and female flowers found inthe s ale to completefemale is found. Over 75 cultivars of ultivated in India. Karimunda is the

ia threads later girdyond th

cream colnt of infect

rain land in adv

tia bed stages the

ar onoted cuttings

ove roye the

Viral infe the : Vein c , mosa ng and for i vir s in . As viruse systematic e, pr ater ck p

mater fe ce se

importanmealybugs. Because of closed placing of seedlings in the nursery, chances of spread throughthese insects are more. Hence regular monitoring of the nursery for insects and spraying withinsecticides like dimethoate or monocrotophos @0.05% should be resorted to whenever they areseen. Besides, regular inspection and removal of infected plants should also be done.

6

burrowing nematode, Radophorooted cuttings in the nursery. The damage caused to roots by nematode infestations result in poor growth, foliar yellowing and some times interveinal chlorosis of leaves. The establishmentof nematode infected cuttings will be poor when planted in the field and such cutsl

Cultivation

V

ame spike) though variation in sex expression ranging from complete m black pepper are being c


26/171

most popular of all cultivars in Kerala. The other important cultivars (Table 2.7) are Kottanadanouth Kerala), Narayakodi (Central Kerala), Aimpiriyan (Wynad), Neelamundi (Idukki),

Kuthiravally (KozhikodeUd Karnataka). lly and Ba ex rnimportant cultivars and their salient features are in below. In te u ot

has the highest oleoresin (17.8%) content follo imp (15

2.7: Im of black pepper and their characteristic features

Quality attributes

(Sand Idukki), Balancotta, Kalluvally

Kuthirava(North Kerala), Malligesara and

hibit alte

iriyan

dagare ( lancotta given

wed by A

ate berms of q

.7%).

arin itg habality, K

A fewtanadan

Table portant cultivars

Cultivar yield

oresin

(%)

erine

(%)

ssentia

(%)

D covery

(%)n .0 7 2.6

Mean

(fresh)

(kg/vine)

Ole Pip E l oil ry re

Aimpiria 4-5 15 4. 34Arakulan 8 4 4.7

ta 9.3 2 5.1da 11.0 4 4.0 5y 11.8 5.4 3.0 38

anadan .8 6.6 2.5 34-35Kuthiravally 3 15.0 6.0 4.5 35

di 4 4.0 6lamundi 2 13.9 4.6 3.3 33-34

2 3.2

2 9. 4. 33mundaBalankot 1-2 4. 35KarimunKalluvallKott

2-31-2 8.4-5 17

4.2.5-

335-

Narayako Nee

1-2 11.0 5. 3

Vadakkan 3 10.8 4. -

oved v r have b eleased cultiva giveniyur-1 r Research Station, Panniyurand h Cheriya adan eir fe andy. II Malab cel are two h ds in proc of

release from Ind Spices Research.

t

of s gro slope slope ing shou ethe north tern slopes preferred for planting so that the

orching effect of the southern sun during summer.

Ten impr 2.8). P

arieties of black peppe and Pann

een r for tion n below (Tablean

(Kerala)iyur-3 are hybrids evolved at the Peppe

ave Uthirankotta and kaniak as th male male parents,respectivel SR Girimunda and IISR

ian Institute of ar Ex the ybri the ess

Establishmen of plantations

1. Selection

avoided andsite: When black pepper i lower half of northern and

wn in eas

s, the s fac south ld b

vines are not subjected to the sc

Girimunda Shakthi

Courtesy: IISR, Calicut


27/171

T r and their charactersable 2.8: Improved varieties of black peppe

Quality attributesVariety Pedigree Mean

yield

(dry)

(kg/ha)

Dry

recovery

(%)Piperi-

ne (%)

Oleor-

esin

(%)

Essen

tial oil

(%)Panniyur-1(KAU)

Hybrid between Uthirankotta xCheriyakaniakadan

1242 35.3 5.3 11.8 3.5

Panniyur-2(KAU)

Selection (Cul. 141) from cv.Balancotta

2570 35.7 6.6 10.9 -

Panniyur-3(KAU)

(KAU) Hybrid (Cul. 331)Uthirankotta xCheriyakaniakadan

1953 27.8 5.2 12.7 -

Panniyur-4 Selection from Ku(KAU)

thiravallyType

1277 34.7 0 9.2 0

3.6 5.6 10.6 1.5

SR Thevam* Clonal selection of Thevamundi 2481 32.0 1.65 8.15 3.1

Tolerant to foot rot disease

Panniyur -6(KAU)

Clonal selection fromKarimunda

2127 32.9 4.9 8.3 1.3

anniyur -7 Open pollinated progeny 1410 3P

(KAU) selection from Kuthiravally

Subhakara(IISR)

Selection from Karimunda (KS-27)

2352 35.5 3.4 12.4 6.0

Sreekara (IISR) Selection from Karimunda (KS-14)

2677 35.0 5.3 13.0 7.0

Panchami(IISR)

Selection from Aimpiriyan(Coll. 856)

2828 34.0 4.7 12.5 3.4

Pournami(IISR)

Selection from Ottaplackal(Coll. 812)

2333 31.0 4.1 13.8 3.4

IISR Shakti Open pollinated progeny ofPerambramundi

2253 43.0 3.3 10.2 3.7

II

IISR Girimunda Hybrid between Narayakodi x Neelamundi

2880 32.0 2.2 9.65 3.4

IISR MalabarExcel

Hybrid between Cholamundi xPanniyur-1

1440 32.0 4.95 14.6 4.1

*

Malbar Excell Thevam

Courtesy: IISR, Calicut


28/171

2. Preparation of land and planting standards: With the receipt of the first rain in May-June, primary stem cuttings of Erythina sp.(Murukku) or Garuga pinnata (kilinjil) or Grevillearobusta (silver oak) are planted in pits of 50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm size filled with cow dung and

p soil, at a spacing of 3 m x 3 m which would accommodate about 1111 standards per hectare

anthus malabarica ( Matti ) can also be planted and the black pepper vines can beailed on it after 3 years when they attain sufficient height). Whenever E. indica is used asapplication of phorate 10 G @ 30 g may be done twice a year (May/June and

With the onset of monsoon, 2-3 rooted cuttings of black pepper are plantedind d

4. C ltrequireartificia ot onlyfor oAdequaEast m void root damage. Duringthe c be donealso toencoura Growing cover crops like Calapogonium mucunoides and Mimosa invisa are also recommendedunder West Coast conditions as an effective soil cover to prevent soil erosion during rainyseason. Further, they dry during summer, leaving a thick organic mulch.

5. Manuring and fertilizer application: Manuring and fertilizer application for pepper vines isto be done for black proper establishment and growth of plants. Recommended nutrient dosagefor black pepper vines are as follows.

NPK 50:50:150 g/vine/year (General recommendation) NPK 50:50:200 g/vine/year (for Panniyur and similar areas) NPK 140:55:270 g/vine/year (for Kozhikode and similar areas)

year. The full dose is given from the third year onwards. It is better to applyo split doses, one in May-June and the other in August-September. The

fert elayer o ith roots of black pep r.during so be applied. Application of lime @ 500 g/vine in

to

(Seedlings of Alitr standard,September/October) to control nematodes and stem and root borer. When E. indica and G. pinnata are used, the primary stems are cut in March/April and stacked in shade in groups. Thestacked stems start sprouting in May. The stems are planted in the edge of the pits dug for planting black pepper vines.

3. Planting:

ivi ually in the pits on the northern side of each standard.

u ural practices: As the cuttings grow, the shoots are tied to the standards as often asd. The young vines should be protected from hot sun during summer by providingl shade. Regulation of shade by lopping the branches of standards is necessary n

pr viding optimum light to the vines but also for enabling the standards to grow straight.te mulch with green leaf or organic matter should be applied towards the end of North

onsoon. The base of the vines should not be disturbed so as to ase ond year, the same cultural practices are repeated. However, lopping of standards should

carefully from the fourth year onwards, not only to regulate height of the standards, butshade the black pepper vines optimally. Excessive shading during flowering and fruitingges pest infestations.

Only one-third of this dosage should be applied during the first year which is increased to two-thirds in the secondthe fertilizers in tw

iliz rs are applied at a distance of about 30 cm all around the vine and covered with a thickf soil. Care should be taken to avoid direct contact of fertilizers w

pe Organic manures in the form of cattle manure or compost can be given @ 10 kg / vineMay. Neem cake @ 1 kg/vine can al


29/171

Apr M eficient in zinc, foliarapp a ) isreco m Pla

Disease the most

the n plant p poor dr Sympt

•

il- ay during alternate years is also recommended. In soils that are dlic tion of 0.25% zinc sulphate twice a year (May- June and September-October m ended.

nt protection

s

1. Foot rot disease: Foot rot (quick wilt disease) caused by Phytophthora capsici isdes ctru tive of all diseases and occurs mainly during the south west monsoon season. All parts of

vi e are vulnerable to the disease and the expression of symptoms depend upon the site orart infected and the extent of damage. The continuous high rainfall, high humidity, andainage would favour the diseases occurrence.oms

• One or more black spots appear on the leaves which have a characteristic fine fibre like projections at the advancing margins which rapidly enlarge and cause defoliation.

The tender leaves and succulent shoot tips of freshly emerging runner shoots trailing on

the soil turn black when infected. The disease spreads to the entire vine, from theseinfected runner shoots and leaves, during intermittent showers due to rain splash.

• If the main stem at the ground level or the collar is damaged, the entire vine wiltsfollowed by shedding of leaves and spikes with or without black spots. The branches break up at nodes and the entire vine collapses within a month.

• If the damage is confined to the feeder roots, the expression of symptoms is delayed tillthe cessation of rain and the vine starts showing declining symptoms such as yellowing,wilting, defoliation and drying up of a part of the vine. This may occur during October- November onwards. These vines may recover after the rains and survive for more thantwo seasons till the root infection culminates in collar rot and death of the vine.


Management: The disease can be controlled by adopting integrated disease management

strategies.a. Phytosanitation

• Removal and destruction of dead vines along with root system from the garden is

essential as this reduces the build up of inoculum (fungal population).

• Planting material must be collected from disease free gardens and the nursery preferablyraised in fumigated or solarized soil.

b. Cultural practices

• Adequate drainage should be provided to reduce water stagnation.


30/171

• Injury to the root system due to cultural practices such as digging should be avoided.

•

The freshly emerging runner shoots should not be allowed to trail on the ground. Theymust either be tied back to the standard or pruned off.

• The branches of support trees must be pruned at the onset of monsoon to avoid build up

of humidity and for better penetration of sunlight. Reduced humidity and presence of

iven. Drenching and spraying are to be repeated

oon is prolonged.

pray with potassium phosphonate 0.3% is also to be given. A second drenching and spraying with potassium phosphonate 0.3% is to be repeated during August-September. If the monsoon is

prolonged, a third round of drenching may be given during October. L• After the receipt of a few monsoon showers, all the vines are to be drenched with 0.125%

Ridomil mancozeb @ 5 to10 litres/vine. A foliar spray with Ridomil mancozeb 0.125%may also be given.

• At the onset of monsoon (May-June), apply Trichoderma around the base of the vine @

50g/vine (this quantity is recommended for a substrate containing Trichoderma @ 1010

cfu). A foliar spray with potassium phosphonate 0.3% or Bordeaux mixture 1% is also to be given. A second application of Trichoderma and foliar spray of Bordeaux mixture 1%

eptember.

s. It is seen in serious condition when theand flowering and spiking occur during June-July. These

sunlight reduces the intensity of leaf infection.c. Chemical control: Any of the following chemical control measures can be adopted.

•

After the receipt of a few monsoon showers (May-June), all the vines are to be drenchedat a radius of 45-50 cm with copper oxychloride 0.2% @ 5-10 litres/vine. A foliar spraywith Bordeaux mixture 1% is also to be gonce again during August-September. A third round of drenching may be given duringOctober if the mons

• After the receipt of a few monsoon showers, all the vines are to be drenched with potassium phosphonate 0.3% @ 5-10 litres/vine. A foliar s

or potassium phosphonate 0.3% are to be given during August-S 2. Pollu disease (Anthracnose): This disease is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. It

can be distinguished from the pollu (hollow berry) caused by the beetle by the presence ofcharacteristic cracks on the infected berries. The disease appears towards the end of themonsoon. The affected berries show brown sunken patches during early stages and their furtherdevelopment is affected. In later stages, the discolouration gradually increases and the berriesshow the characteristic cross splitting. Finally, the berries turn black and dry. The fungus alsocauses angular to irregular brownish lesions with a chlorotic halo on the leaves. The disease can be controlled by spraying Bordeaux mixture 1%.

3. Spike shedding: Spike shedding especially in varieties like Panniyur-1 at higher elevationslike Kodagu and Idukki is one of the emerging diseasere-monsoon showers are delayed p

spikes predominantly produce female flowers instead of bisexual flowers. Heavy spike sheddingmay occur due to lack of pollination. Irrigation of vines from second fortnight of March coupledwith prophylactic spraying with bordeaux mixture 1% or carbendazim 0.2% reduces the intensityof spike shedding.

4. Stunt disease: This disease which is caused by viruses is noticed in parts of Kannur,Kasaragod, Kozhikode, Waynad and Idukki Districts of Kerala and Kodagu, Hassan and UtharaKannada districts of Karnataka. The vines exhibit shortening of internodes to varying degrees.


31/171

The leaves become small and narrow with varying degrees of deformation and appear leathery, puckered and crinkled. Chlorotic spots and streaks also appear on the leaves occasionally. Theyield of the affected vines decreases gradually.

Two viruses namely Cucumber mosaic virus and a Badnavirus are associated with the disease.

The major means of spread of the virus is through the use of infected stem cuttings. The diseasecan also be transmitted through insects like aphids and mealy bugs. The following strategies arerecommended for the management of the disease.

• Use virus free healthy planting material

imethoate or monocrotophos @ 0.05%.

• Regular inspection and removal of infected plants; the removed plants may be burnt or buried deep in soil

• Insects such as aphids and mealy bugs on the plant or standards should be controlled with

insecticide spray such as d

Stunted diseases affected plant. Courtesy: IISR, Calicut

e leaves become small and chlorotic, and the internodes are also shortened. Thelaterals give a witches broom appearance. Severely affected vines become

5. Phyllody disease: This disease which is caused by phytoplasma is noticed in parts of Waynadand Kozhikode districts of Kerala. The affected vines exhibit varying stages of malformation of

spikes. Some of the floral buds are transformed into narrow leaf like structures. Such malformedspikes show leafy structures instead of floral buds, exhibiting phyllody symptoms. In advancedstages, thaffected fruitingunproductive. In severely affected vines the entire spike is converted into small branches whichappear chlorotic and the vines decline rapidly. The infected vine becomes unproductive within 2to 3 years. The infected vines are to be destroyed to prevent the further spread of the disease.

Phyllody Courtsy: IISR, Calicut

6. Slow decline (slow wilt) (Nematodes): Slow decline is a debilitating disease of black pepper.Foliar yellowing, defoliation and die-back are the aerial symptoms of this disease. The affectedvines exhibit varying degrees of root degeneration due to infestation by plant parasitic


32/171

nematodes. The diseased vines exhibit foliar yellowing from October onwards coinciding withdepletion of soil moisture. With the onset of south west monsoon during May/June, some of theaffected vines recover and put forth fresh foliage. However, the symptoms reappear insubsequent seasons after the cessation of the monsoon and the diseased vines gradually lose theirvigour and productivity. The affected vines show varying degrees of feeder root loss and the

expression of symptoms on the aerial parts occur after a considerable portion of the feeder rootsare lost. The root system of diseased vines show varying degrees of necrosis and presence of rootgalls due to infestation by plant parasitic nematodes such as Radopholus similis and Meloidogyne incognita leading to rotting of feeder roots. The damage to feeder roots is caused by thesenematodes and P. capsici either independently or together in combination. There is no spatialsegregation of plant parasitic nematodes and P. capsici in the soil under field conditions. Hence,it is necessary to adopt a combination of fungicide and nematicide application for themanagement of the disease.

In areas severely infested with root knot nematodes, cuttings of the resistant variety ‘Pournami’may be planted. Biocontrol agents like Pochonia chlamydosporia or Trichoderma harzianum

can be applied @ 50g/vine twice a year (during April-May and September-October). The fungusload in the substrate should be 10

8 cfu/g.

While applying nematicides, th d in the basin of the vine lightly withoutormly in the basin

e ofnematicide application. The control measures should be taken up during early stages of the

ender leaves and spikes. The females lay eggs ontender spikes and berries. The grubs bore into and feed on the internal tissues and the infested

• Severely affected vines which are beyond recovery should be removed from the plantation and destroyed.

•

The pits for planting should be treated with phorate 10 G @ 15 g or carbofuran 3 G @ 50g at the time of planting.

• Nematode free rooted cuttings raised in fumigated or solarized nursery mixture should be

used for planting in the field.

• Phorate 10 G @ 30 g or carbofuran 3 G @ 100 g/vine should be applied during May/June

(with the onset of south west monsoon) and September/October. Along with phorate the basins should be drenched with either copper oxychloride 0.2% or potassium phosphonate 0.3% or metalaxly 0.125%.

e soil should be rakecausing damage to the root system and the nematicide should be spread unif and covered with soil immediately. Sufficient soil moisture should be ensured at the tim

disease.

Insect pest

1. Pollu beetle: The pollu beetle ( Longitarsus nigripennis) is the most destructive pest of black

pepper and is more serious in plains and at altitudes below 300 m. The adult is a small black beetle measuring about 2.5 mm x 1.5 mm, the head and thorax being yellowish brown and thefore wings (elytra) black. Fully-grown grubs are creamy-white and measure about 5 mm inlength. The adult beetles feed and damage t

spikes turn black and decay. The infested berries also turn black and crumble when pressed. Theterm pollu denotes the hollow nature of the infested berries in Malayalam. The pest infestation is


33/171

more serious in shaded areas in the plantation. The pest population is higher during September-October in the field.

Regulation of shade in the plantation reduces the population of the pest in the field. Sprayingendosulfan or quinalphos (0.05% each) during June/July and September/October or endosulfan

or quinalphos (0.05% each) during July and Neemgold (0.6%) (neem-based insecticide) duringugust, September and October is effective for the management of the pest. The underside ofAleaves (where adults are generally seen) and spikes are to be sprayed thoroughly.

Pollu beetle damage to leaf and berries, Courtesy : IISR, Calicut

2. Top shoot borer: The top shoot borer (Cydia hemidoxa) is a serious pest in younger plantations in all black pepper areas. The adult is a tiny moth with a wing span of 10-15 mm withcrimson and yellow fore wings and grey hind wings. The larvae bore into tender terminal shootsand feed on internal tissues resulting in blackening and decaying of affected shoots. Fully-grownlarvae are greyish green and measure 12-15 mm in length. When successive new shoots areattacked, the growth of the vine is affected. The pest infestation is higher during July to Octoberwhen numerous succulent shoots are available in the vines. Spray monocrotophos or endosulfan

(0.05% each) on tender terminal shoots; repeat spraying at monthly intervals (during July-October) to protect emerging new shoots.

Top shoot borer , Leaf gall infection


3. Leaf gall thrips: Infestation by leaf gall thrips ( Liothrips karnyi) is more serious at higheraltitudes especially in younger vines and also in nurseries in the plains. The adults are black andmeasure 2.5ñ3.0 mm in length. The larvae and pupae are creamy white. The feeding activity ofthrips on leaves causes the leaf margins to curl downwards and inwards resulting in theformation of marginal lea nkled and malformed. Insevere cases of infestation, the growth of younger vines and cuttings in the nursery is affected.

f galls. Later the infested leaves become cri


34/171

Spray monocrotophos or dimethoate (0.05% rgence of new flushes in youngvines in the field and cu

cts: Among the various scale black pepper, mussel scale s piperis) and coconut scale ( As se serious damage to black

altituudes and also to n the plains. Females ofe elongated (about 1 mm le and that of coconut scalescircular (about 1 mm in diameter) and yellowish e sedentary, remaining

ixed to plant parts and appear s and berries. Theyfeed on plant sap and cause yellowing and wilting of infested portions; in severe cases of

portions of vines dry up. The pest infestation is more severe during theeriods.

Clip off and destroy severely infested branches. Spray monocrotophos or dimethoate (0.1% eachon affected vines); repeat spraying after 21 days to control the infestation completely. Initiatecon l t infestation. In nurseries spraying neem oil 0.3% or

nee ntrolling the pest infestation.

5. M illars, especially Synegia sp., damage leaves and spikes ofyou e idges andaph raying of monocrotophos (0.05%) may beund a infestation on roots can be controlled bydren i nd undertaking control measures against Phytophthora and m

hnolgy

The crop is ready for harvest in 6-8 monthsfrom l eason extends from November to January in the plains and Januaryto March in the hills. During harvesting the whole spike is hand picked when one or two berries

ge. The berries are separated from the spikes and dried in the sun for be separated manually or mechanically using threshers. Threshers

with capacities varying between 0.5 to 1.5 tonnes/ hour are available. This enhances speedy andhygienic separation of black pepper berries. When dried, the berries retain the characteristicwri le commerce. The fresh berries are dipped in hot water fora m which results in an attractive black colour and also reduces thedry ek paste,cement floor and high density black polythene which gives better appearance and cleanliness to

copra drier, convection drier and cascade type drierscan s ned in mechanicaldrie age, climate, management, soil,var wever, yield may go upeve p The h from freshly harvested berries or dry pepperusin s tion. The recovery of white pep r ost popular technique for

each) during emettings in the nursery.

4. Scale inse insects recorded on( Lepidosaphe pidiotus destructor ) cau

pepper vines at higher older cuttings in nurseries imussel scales ar ngth) and dark brown brown. Scale insects ar

permanently f as encrustations on stems, leave

infestation the affected post monsoon and summer p

tro measures during early stages of pes

mgold 0.3% or fish oil rosin 3% is also effective in co

inor pests: Leaf feeding caterpng r vines and can be controlled by spraying quinalphos 0.05%. Mealybugs, gall mids infest tender shoots especially in nurseries. Spert ken if infestations are severe. Mealybugch ng with chlorphyriphos 0.075% a

ne atode infections.

Harvesting and Post Harvest Tec

In Kerala, black pepper flowers during May-June.f owering. The harvest s

in the spike turn bright oran7-10 da rries canys. The be

nk d appearance of black pepper ofinute before drying in the suning time. The recommended drying surfaces are bamboo mat coated with fenugre

the dried product. Mechanical driers such as al o be employed for drying. The optimum temperature to be maintairs should be around 60ºC. The yield of vine varies with

iety. In general, 1 to 2 kg dry pepper vine is obtained in plains. Hon u to 5 to 10kg dry pepper per vine.

w ite pepper of commerce is prepared either g pecial techniques such as retting, steaming and decortica

pe from ripe pepper berries is about 25%. Water steeping is the m


35/171

preparing white pepper in which ripe pepper berries are soaked in water for 8-10 days and theuter skin is removed, washed and sun dried. The berries of Panniyur-1 are ideal to prepare white

of pepper berries and the maturity level atwhich berries should be harvested for ensuring best results (Table 2.9).

Table 2.9: Harvest stage for different end use

Products Maturity at harvest

o pepper. The following describes the intended use

Pepper in brine/ Canned pepper Green and tender (4-5 months)

White pepper Fully matured (ripened)

Black pepper Fully mature and near ripe

Dehydrated Green pepper 10-15 days before full maturity

Oil and Oleoresin 15-20 days before maturity

Pepper powder Fully matured with maximum starch

Products and grades

1. Green pepper products

• Canned green pepper in brine

• Bottled green pepper in brine

• Bulk packed green pepper in brine

• Cured green pepper (w

• Frozen green pepper

• Green p

condiments and spices

Documents