condensed version of res101 notes

© Islamic Online University.com Research Methodology 101

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ISLAMIC RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CONDENSED VERSION OF NOTES FROM CLASSES

By Dr. Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips

SESSION 1:

Introduction

THE ‘Q’ PRINCIPLE

Research driven by questions:

1. How and why?

2. Where is information available?

3. What to do with the information?

Beginner researcher challenged with more issues than the experienced researcher.

Experienced researcher knows the path is not straight.

DRIVING QUESTION – THE ‘Q’ PRINCIPLE

1. Planning is success for research

2. Plan for writing up the report

3. Plans usually modified as you go along

RESEARCH PROCESS BEGINS WITH TWO FOUNDATIONS:

1. ‘Q’ principle

2. Plan – how to and what to do?

RESEARCH COULD BE:

1. Historical

2. Gathering facts/statistics

3. Scientific



DEFINITION OF RESEARCH:

ROOT: 2 words:

1. RE: to do it again

2. SEARCH: to look for, or to search intensively

TECHNICAL DEFINITION:

Gathering or seeking out facts for the purpose of representing facts in another way, toextract additional information; to restructure.

Research gathers information to solve problems which have been identified.

Research should begin with a question.

The library, the internet represent twenty five centuries of research

Teachers devote their time to research

TYPICAL QUESTION - “WHY WRITE UP RESEARCH?”

1. To improve on what you thought you had.

You may see better on paper what you didn’t in your head. Ideas in your head canchange.

2. To remember what you did.

Your arguments are weak if you can’t remember. I.e. Imam Sha’fee said, “You shouldn’tfollow blindly on what rulings we make. There is no scholar among us that hasn’tforgotten a Sunnah.”

3. To better understand it.

When you write, you arrange the data in a particular form and establish a structure.

4. To test your thinking.

You are better able to evaluate.

We write to remember accurately, understand better and evaluate what we think moreobjectively.



WHY DO WE HAVE TO FOLLOW A STANDARD FORMAT?

When we write in a structured way, we are writing for others, not for ourselves. We aredisentangling our thoughts and wishes that are mixed up in our mind. We are taking theessential elements and making it look appealing and attractive for our presentation.Format organizes thought.

SESSION 2:

CONNECTING WITH THE READER

Because we are writing for others, we have to connect with them. We have to find some way oflinking them to the material we are conveying. We have to address our research from both theperspective of the writer of the research, as well as the reader of the research. We have to lookat the research from both sides in order to be an effective study.

When we are preparing a paper we can either treat those that we are preparing it for aspeople who are specialists in our field, or as people with little knowledge and we are informingand education them. We have to decide when we are setting up our paper which role we aregoing to put ourselves in and the readers in.

If we mix up those rules, meaning that we are in fact writing a paper for colleagues, but wehave written it for the ignorant masses. How are our colleagues going to respond to our paper?They will look at the writer as being condescending because he is talking of details that theywon’t have to go into. I.e. we are presenting a paper from a hadeeth class. We’ve all studiedUsool al Hadeeth together and your colleagues are all familiar with it, and you are going topresent some aspect of which is a fabricated hadeeth commonly used and you want to clarifyor prove its fabricated status and discussing the impact that it has on education, da’wah etc.

If in that class you start your presentation by going back to “What is a Hadeeth?” how are yourcolleagues going to look at your presentation? They will find it boring and irrelevant. By notaddressing your audience properly, you lose the interest of your readers. If the paper is notread, then half of the value is gone. If we look at the other way around and you presented to anaudience who were common people who didn’t know details and you presented to them atechnical paper where you go straight into the fabrications and the fabricators. What’s going tohappen to the common person? You’ve not connected with your reader. It is important toidentify the role otherwise your paper will be unsuccessful.



We have to present something which will catch their attention. So you have to come off with apresentation of more than gathering facts. You are proving a point, addressing something newthat other people never thought of, you are solving a problem which exists. This is properresearch.

Firstly, In order to catch the audience you have to have something new, or you’ve lost youraudience right from the beginning. Secondly, you now have to make that something newinteresting to them. You’ve caught their attention. You now win them over by proposing thatthis new thing is a solution to the problem that they have. When you’ve done that, now youhave caught their attention, and you’ve gotten from them commitment to stay and findsomething out.

ROLE OF THE WRITER AND READER

The approach of finding a solution to a practical problem is for common readers who are notnecessarily colleagues. When you are dealing with colleagues, more importantly you mayexpress it from the perspective that “I’ve found an answer for an important question”. This iswhat’s going to hold their attention. In general, the average reader wants to be entertained i.e.some stories related to the topic that will keep it lively and not too boring. Or they may comefrom the perspective that they want to understand something better, but it’s not a problem.I.e. Giving a tafseer of the Quran. How do you know which is the better tafseer? They need toget a deeper understanding of tafseer and the process of it to be able to put things in propercontext to better understand the Quran.

The role that you will be playing is asking the question, “Does my paper answer this? Is it givingthem a deeper understanding? Is it solving a problem? Is it entertaining them? Though thecontent is more important that the package. People generally speaking are attracted to thatcontent by the package. So therefore it is important to have it packaged in a way that it isrelatively entertaining and would hold the reader through the research from beginning to end.

FOUR BASIC QUESTIONS TO ASK SELF FOR PRESENTATION:

1. Who will read my research?2. What do they expect me to do with the topic?3. How much can I expect them to already know?4. How will readers respond to the solution/answer in my presentation?

HOW TO PLAN?



We need to go back now to the ‘Q’ principle and the plan. “How do we plan the project?”

The ‘Q’ principle will be in operation all the way through. When we go to the planning it willcome from questions again. By answering the questions we will be able to lay the plan.

2 PARTS OF A PLAN”

1. Content- how to plan research2. Writing up of the project

PLANNING THE PROJECT

1. TOPICa. Is it sufficiently narrowed down to be workable, not vast and wide?- Determine

the topic.b. Who are we addressing?c. How do we represent it?d. Do we have to explain it or just present it?

2. QUESTIONThe topic should be attractive to audience.

Find an element of the topic which catches their interest. I.e. praying to others besidesAllah. This is a general topic. Narrowed down then to - Praying to the prophet.

How to catch the interest in terms of the topic? You need to ask questions which willbring out aspects of the topic. I.e. will praying to the prophet send people to hell? Aretheir halal aspects of praying to the prophet? Did the companions pray to the prophet?

3. EVIDENCEa. How much is there?b. How to develop the topic?c. Is there evidence to support the argument?

Look for other aspects of the topic? You need a catchy way to develop it.

4. AVAILABILITY This is in relation to data. Look at the body of data available; the more data the more

interesting. You may go back and make changes for pieces to fall into place.



GENERAL ADVICE

a. It’s good to work with others doing similar projects. You will get ideas.

b. Create a writers group.

c. Research in isolation is more difficult, you may slip.

d. If others question you, you can see if you have the main line of reason.

e. They act like an audience.

f. They question you on what you may have overlooked.

SESSION 3:

DEVELOPING RESEARCH TOPICS

1. INTEREST OF TOPIC: Choose areas of interest rather than that of no care or concern. Otherwise you

will lose momentum. List your areas of interest and choose 2 topics. Do a quick search for info at the library. Check reference works; periodicals etc

and see what you can come up with. Use recognised reference work only i.e. encyclopedia, blogs Look for topics i.e. the world of the Jinn – origin- Is Satan a Jinn or not? Focus on

possession Scan more reference material on your topic i.e. encyclopedia, periodicals Use “Google – scholar” – focus on scholarly journals and books

2. TOPIC: You are looking at a specific aspect of the topic Add words/phrases to narrow down the topic i.e. conflict between jinn and human

beings or jinn possession of humans.

3. NARROWING DOWN: There is a danger in the process of narrowing down that no data is available so go

more general.

4. QUESTIONS: This is concerning the topic. What will make the topic more interesting to the reader? You need to question the topic to find the aspect of interest to the average reader.



If it’s only interesting to a small group you are not successful in your task. The standard research related questions are: What? Where? When? Who? Then move beyond the research related questions to the How’s and Whys? This implies more critical thinking. Bring out the most important aspects. Historical question are good to ask about the topic i.e. Did Muslims invent exorcism?

Or was it Christians or Jews? Where does exorcism in Islam fit in? What were themethods used? Were their similarities?

Also ask questions concerning where exorcism fits in to Muslim practice. I.e. is itmubah, makruh, haram etc.? What aspects of it are?

The questions should cause us to look at the topic from a new perspective not justdata but a comparative perspective i.e. between Christianity and Islam. I.e. why areChristians successful with exorcism?

5. SIGNIFICANCE: This is the “so what?” question. If it is an attractive topic and relevant you can

answer the question of ‘so what’.

SESSION 4:

FRAMEWORK OF RESEARCH

FLESHING OUT THE TOPIC

STEP 1:

NAMING THE TOPIC:

This is the answer to the question, “what are you writing about?” i.e. ‘female writers ofhadeeth’. This is too general as there are many narrators. If we narrow it down we get, ‘leadingfemale narrators among the prophet’s wives’, which is workable.

STEP 2:

ADD AN INDIRECT QUESTION:

“What is it that we want to find out”?



You should bring out something you don’t know. I.e. I’m studying....leading femalenarrators....because I want to find out how they taught hadeeth.

Indicate what is important to you. I.e. The goal is how they taught the method.

STEP 3:

“SO WHAT!”

“Why you want readers to care about your topic?”

This tells whether the question is of interest to others besides you. Use “in order to” i.e. I’mstudying..... In order to help the reader understands how women contributed to learning inearly Islam.

Identify what others would benefit from the topic.

Researchers are unable to flesh out the last step until the first draft is finished. It is possible tobegin without the 1st step but you can’t finish the paper until the last question is answered.

The answer must solve a problem for it to be of real value.

Many researchers write as if their only task is to find an answer to a question which onlyconcerns them. However, their answer must solve a problem that others in the communitythink needs a solution.

PRACTICAL PROBLEMS

A practical problem is caused by some condition in the world that makes us unhappy because itcosts us time, respect, security, pain and even our lives. We solve a practical problem by doingsomething that eliminates the cause of the problem.

Practical problems help to give research relevance.

Practical problems = doing something

Look to where there is a problem in the topic and where you can resolve it.

1. Practical problems lead or motivate the research to make a research question. Thisquestion defines the research problem



2. Practical problems lead to research answer

3. Practical problems help us to solve practical problems

CONCEPTUAL RESEARCH PROBLEMS

A conceptual problem arises when we simply do not understand something about the world aswell as we would like. We solve such problems by answering a question that helps usunderstand it better, not by doing something.

Conceptual problems = answering a question to better understand something.

Islamic research should be focused in practical areas in general

Both types have a 2 part structure:

1. a situation or condition, and

2. undesirable consequences caused by that condition

To state a practical problem so that others understand it clearly, both of its parts must bedescribed

a. Its condition: Women currently not allowed to give lectures to mixed audiences.

b. Its costs: Valuable knowledge not being conveyed

Note: It’s not you who judge the significance of your problem by the cost you pay, but yourreaders who judge it by the cost they pay if you do not solve it. So what you think is a problem,they might not. To make your problem their problem, it must be framed from their point ofview, so they see its cost to them.

SESSION 5:



NATURE OF CONCEPTUAL PROBLEMS

a. SITUATION, CONDITION PRACTICAL PROBLEMS

b. UNDESIRABLE CONSEQUENCES

I.e. undesirable consequences of women not able to give lectures

1. Distorts women in Islam

2. Discourages women from scholarship

3. Loss of benefit of knoweldge from what they have to offer

The problem must be framed from their point of view, so they can see the consequences.

What is the care or concern that the others should have from the topic?

Identify the problem which our project will resolve.

Present the thesis from either of 2 ways:

1. From the perspective of the problem

2. Or choose a topic and answer questions –which is the standard way

A more complete project is to address what others say and what their line of argument is.

Look at the opposing view and evidence - although it is not necessary, it adds to your project.

An honest and unbiased researcher does not have predetermined ideas. This is weak,ineffective and misleading research.

Those who are not honest will ignore the evidence that contradicts the points and are justtrying to prove a point, not seeking the truth.

DIFFERENT CONDITIONS AND COSTS:

People in research fall into 2 groups:

1. Pure research



2. Applied research

Pure research has no practical consequence in the world only understanding of a particulargroup.

Applied research has practical consequences

I.e. PURE RESEARCH = to help understand the concepts of folklore in Islam.

The 3rd question represents the 4th step = Potential practical applied research gives practicalrelevance.

1. TOPIC

2. CONCEPTUAL QUESTION

3. CONCEPTUAL SIGNIFICANCE

4. POTENTIAL PRACTICAL APPLICATION

“The pursuit of knowledge for its own sake”

Most research project in humanity and natural social science has not application to daily life i.e.studying Van Gough as an artist.

Researchers in the field however, consider pure research superior; to know more not for poweror money but for the transcendental good of greater understanding and a richer life of themind.

This is in direct opposition to Islam- knowledge for the sake of knowledge. Islamic knowledgealways is focused on practical research.

The prophet said, “Oh Allah, I seek refuge in you from knowledge of no benefit”.

Muslims focus on applied research which is a benefit to the community.

Avoid knowledge for the sake of knowledge and no benefit.

The prophet also said, “the best of people are those most beneficial to people”.

Not the superior knowledge, but what he can convey.

There are Minor occasions where pure research is acceptable in the course of Islamic research.

Conceptual problems when compared to practical problems have something related toknowing.



Practical problems will be related to conditions- something which is displeasure able.

i.e. Ibn Umar used to imitate the prophet. Did he do it in everything? It is knowledge to betterour understanding of his imitation of the prophet. Is it a conceptual or practical prblem?

The answer is it is a practical problem.

We need to ask the questions, “Did others do what he did?” No.

Practically should we imitate him in everything or not? No. This is not Sharee’ah.

Pure research is a waste if there is no practical application according to Islam.

SESSION 6:

PROBLEMS SOURCES

1. Primary Sources

2. Secondary Sources

3. Tertiary Sources

Primary –material on the topic of that time i.e. Quran and Sunnah, books in 15th CE Europe

Secondary – research papers that have used primary sources i.e. Qiyas, Ijmaa’, encyclopedia

Tertiary – i.e. articles, books reporting on secondary sources designed for the general publicwritten about Islam

LOCATION OF SOURCES:

1. Inside Libraries

2. Outside Field Research

Library = major source

Field research = exceptional i.e. study in Indonesia

Plan how to use the library

Have internet presentation of them, can search from there - go to the library.

START GENERAL THEN SPECIFIC



When starting research, speak to the experts in the field. I.e. Experts in hadeeth literature

They can direct you to the primary sources.

1. General –

Encyclopedia, then specialized encyclopedia

2. Internet –

Other major sources for research

3. Evaluate –

The material after gathering it

4. Skim read –

The material i.e. Go to the first paragraph of hate introduction and conclusion. Look atthe bibliography and the chapters related to your topic to determine its relevance.

5. Reliability –

How reliable is it? Was it posted by reputable press? Were the works or articlesreviewed by peers of the author? Is the author a reputable scholar?

If he is experience in something else and talks on something else, then he is notreputable.

i.e. Dealing with the status of the sunnah in Islam – if they are not using foot notes, justchatting, and giving ideas to thoughts, no use of classical works or Quran and sunnahand no references = unreliable.

If using Wikipedia mentions the sources -go to it and quote from the original source.This is more thorough.

6. Using of people as primary sources of research-

I.e. research on Elijan sect. Went to place it evolved from and spoke to the people whoknew him. They then become primary sources.

Discussions are usually secondary sources that point to primary sources.

Take into account the harm of mentioned the people i.e. group may be violent. Getpermission to quote from them.



Ethical issue - to protect sources, so no harm comes to them from gathering yoursources of information.

The importance of reliability i.e. hadeeth must be authentic if doing research on it.

SESSION 7:

ENGAGING SOURCES

How to utilize resources

TYPES OF EVIDENCE

DIFFERENT FIELDS = DIFFERENT EVIDENCE

Make sure bias doesn’t influence their reading

Use an open mind.

Be careful to read critically.

Be prepared to go another direction.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL DATA

1. Author

2. Title

3. Editor/translator

4. Edition

5. Volume

6. Place of publication

7. Publisher

8. Date of publication

9. Page numbers

INTERNET USE



If using the internet, mention:

a. URL of the site you get material from.

b. Date of access

c. data base, or webmaster

d. may photocopy

MATERIAL GATHERED

In the course of reading secondary or tertiary material one may find where the problem exists.The use of this source of material will help to solve the problem.

SECONDARY SOURCES

These are used to plan the argument we want to develop.

This can become the basic data used for evidence of the point we are trying to reach in thestudy.

1. Problem

2. Argument

NOTES

1. Quote

All of the words of the author

Word for word

Stronger than paraphrase

If dealing with primary evidence bring quote i.e. statement of Sahabah, Quran andSunnah

Verses could be taken out of context to create an argument



Keep material in proper context, otherwise it is weak

2. Paraphrase

Mostly our words – re-expressing

When quote doesn’t stress, use paraphrase

Paraphrase when the way you want to express is your words from the author

Don’t quote authors words, replace what he said in your words

Not as powerful evidence as a quote

3. Summarize

Our own words

Summarize for basic points only with what the paragraph is dealing with

Good to put summary in a context

Not to use authors work in part

In the course of checking your sources you may find that they agree or disagree.

Identify the reason why they agree or disagree.

Many summarized works do not follow this procedure.

Shouldn’t use them as reference

You may be able to extract useable information from them

SESSION 8:

RESEARCH ARGUMENT



1. Claim

2. Reason

3. Evidence

4. Acknowledgment

5. Response

REASON EVIDENCE DIFFERENCES

WARRANTS

We need to put our material in a systematic way

The term argument in research is used in reference to discussion with people who share acommon idea. It is more reason and logic, as opposed to wrong and right, or a heatedargument.

CLAIM: needs to be new

Support your claim with sound reason and good evidence to convince the readers.

There is benefit in gathering data. It may be used for your presentation.

After you have presented the evidence people will ask about “what others say”. Youacknowledge what others say and then give a response.

You may have to explain the principles of your reasoning for them to understand how you gotthere.

Add principles to help the transition.

FIVE ‘Q’ THAT NEED TO BE ANSWERED FOR AND ARGUEMNT TO BE GIVEN:

1. What is my claim?

2. What reasons support my claim?

3. What evidence supports my reason?

4. Do I acknowledge objections and how do I respond?



5. What principles make my reasons relevant to my claim?

These are used to define an argument. i.e. children not to stand in the front line ofprayer

TOPIC:

Permissibility of children to stand in the front line

CLAIM:

We bring them where ever we go, where there is a place available – no special sections– like the church- anyone can stand anywhere- if they arrived before everyone else –they should stand there.

EVIDENCE:

Negative – no prohibition from the prophet.

Positive – we do have a narration of children standing in the line without distinction

One of the Sahabah lead solah when he was 6 – if he can lead, then he can stand in thefront line.

COUNTER ARGUMENT/ACKNOWLEDGMENT:

Children should stand together behind adults - first line males, 2nd children, and 3rd

women. There are narrations for this.

RESPONSE:

This narration is not authentic, can’t use as evidence.

If children are alone there will be confusion and mischief, this is impractical and aproblem. The solution is to stand with the parents in any line.

The claim has to be clear, backed up by reasons and evidence.

Claims should be supported by reasons. Value of reason to convince audience to accept theclaim

For them to accept the claim, they will ask the reasons which is linked to the evidence.



The reason and the evidence can be the same in certain contexts.

I.e. Reason - whatever good is done, you are rewarded for it; whether now or later. It is withAllah.

Evidence – “Is there any reward for good other than good?”

The reason and the evidence are the same.

The terms, reason and evidence are not synonyms. They don’t mean the same.

We don’t say: “What is the reason for your evidence?”

We say: “What is the evidence for your reason?”

Another example:

We say: “Where do I go to see your evidence?”

We don’t say: “Where do I go to see your reason?”

Reason based on logic. It could be correct or incorrect.

Evidence is not produced by the logical working of the mind.

Evidence is what our readers can see, touch, taste, smell or hear. It is grasped by thesenses.

We say: “What are the logical steps you took to arrive at your reason?”

We don’t say: “What are the logical steps you took to arrive at your evidence?”

Core of research: claim reason evidence

This makes research more comprehensive

You should acknowledge other points of view to show how the reason is relevant to the claim –part of logical argument.

THE WARRANT:

Linking the claim to the reason



Relevant, rational for using reason

The warrant gives validity to the claim. i.e. “We should leave now, it looks like it’s going to rain”.

Here you are not asked for evidence, but to link the reason to the claim there is a logicalargument.

It is additional reason, not evidence. Further reasoning used to convince the person if they havea doubt.

EXAMPLE:

Presentation of argument: violence on TV

Claim: psychological effect- harmful

Reason: those exposed adopt values seen on TV

Evidence: Smith- researcher said, “Children 5-7yrs old who watch 3hrs of TV a day are 25% morelikely to say what they saw on TV was happening in real life”.

Statistics used to support the claim

Warrant: need to bring when there is no direct connection between the claim and the reason

Constant exposure to violent images makes children unable to distinguish fantasy from reality

SESSION 9:

THE CLAIM: CORE OF ARGUMENT

1. Determine the type

2. Evaluate

a. Specific

b. Significant

1. What kind of claim should we make?

2. Is the claim specific enough?



3. Will readers think it significant enough to have an argument to support it?

I.e. PROBLEM: Islamic schools are not producing graduates who have the desire to further theireducation in Islamic fields.

I.e. CLAIM: Islamic schools are producing few graduates who desire to further their education inIslamic fields.

Is this a practical or conceptual problem?

Practical problems contain 2 elements within the claim:

1. Explain the cause of the problem

2. How we propose to fix it

CAUSE:

The majority of studies in the curriculum are not Islamic studies and not linked to Islamicthought. The result is disinterest in further Islamic education.

PRACTICAL= Cause of the problem

The way the content is taught is uninteresting.

Not related to daily life.

Made to look too strict/hard/difficult to follow

Importance of Islam is not understood

SOLUTION: Islamize subjects

Link to daily life, make the content interesting by bringing out the importance simplyand easily rather than strict and hard, make it fun to learn.

PRACTICAL CLAIM: different evidence to conceptual claim



1. Can it be implemented in a reasonable amount of time and reasonable amount of effortand what is your solution feasible?

2. Why will is cost less to implement than the cost of the problem?

3. Why will it not create a bigger problem that the one it solves?

4. Why is it cheaper and faster than alternative solutions?

PRACTICAL CLAIM: identify practical solution

Explain cause of problem

CONCEPTUAL CLAIM

If the subject of the problem is not practical but conceptual, can we make a conceptualproblem for Islamic schools? Yes.

I.e. with the rise of Muslim schools in the last 3 decades, there has been a great sense ofawareness of Islam with the youth who have grown up in this period.

This problem is an issue for discussion.

Not looking for a solution, so it is conceptual.

EVALUATING

1. Specific- work with a specific chunk

2. Significant- others would find it worth finding a solution for.

SPECIFIC:

Paper shouldn’t be too wordy

PROBLEM 1:

CLAIM: Since the majority of subjects in western Islamic schools are un-Islamic, the majority ofstudents graduate with no desire to further pursue Islamic studies in college.



Few would be teachers; others would follow their own interest while continuing contact withIslamic knowledge because Islamic schools in the Muslim world entered those schools becausethey couldn’t get into other higher schools (private schools) that’s when you go to Islamicschool. They only end up knowing the local language and Islamic studies and are untrained tocontribute to society; caught in a rut, cant branch out and effect the wider circle.

SO WHAT?

We want the student to have exposure to other areas and be well rounded in studies. If theydon’t’ interact, people will talk about areas they don’t know, or they will argue incorrectly.

EVALUATION OF CLAIM

Involves making it specific

Concern for Islamic knowledge

Prophet taught to seek knowledge. There should be a desire to seek Islamic knowledge. This iswhy the problem is important.

SOLUTION: By islamization of the majority of subjects in western Islamic schools which are un-Islamic, the majority of students would graduate with a desire to further pursue Islamic studiesin college.

SIGNIFICANCE

If a person accepts the claim, will it challenge any ideas it had?

They would want to read their paper to find out why, how etc

The level of significance of the claim is determined by the degree to which the reader had tochange his /her perception.

PRINCIPLE ISSUE OF SIGNIFICANCE

The greater the challenge, the greater the interest



The lesser the challenge, the lesser the interest

HEDGING

Involves adding statement which remove the claim from being absolute

Finding words like: all, always, never, this is how it is

These imply absolute knowledge

Rather use words like: “in most cases”, “in many cases”, “we believe”, “things appear”

Admitting uncertainty- Limit the amount of certainty, not too much,

Using – “the majority of students” needs proof and statistics which would bring out desire, case,concern etc

Using - “Majority of subjects” implies no need for evidence – it is obvious

Hedging on the obvious implies weakness

SESSION 10:

REASONS AND EVIDENCE

1. Reasons are the plan for arguments

2. Evidence and reason re-visited

3. Evidence and its reports

4. Evaluation evidence

a. ACCURACY

b. PRECISION

c. SUFFICIENCY



SESSION 11:

ACKNOWLEDGMENT AND RESPONSES

TWO TYPES OF QUESTIONS: INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SOUNDNESS

1. Role playing

2. imagine alternative

3. What to acknowledge

a. SELECTING

b. ADMITTING

4. Framing Response

5. Vocabulary of Acknowledgement

6. The Main 3 Objectives:

SESSION 12:

WARRANTS

1. Common examples

2. Academic arguments

3. Logical argument

4. Reliability or warrant

5. When to use

6. Challenging warrants



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