concrete construction report

8/18/2019 concrete construction report

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

A project is always a coordinated and scheduled team effort, but it can never reach

completion without proper guidence and encouragement.

Words are short for expressing our deepest and sincere thanks towards our project

guide S.D. P.V. MANE Bharati Vidya peeth Deemed Univerity C!""e#e !$

P%ne.

We are thankfull to the principal Dr. A.&. Bha"era! !$ Bharati Vidya peeth

Deemed Univerity C!""e#e !$ En#ineerin#' P%ne for graniting us a wonderful

opportunity.

We are also thankful to our principal Shri. S.V. Andhare ( )ead !$ the

Department Pr!$. *Mr.+ V.S. S!h!ni * )ead !$ Civi" Department+ for their

support that has being given to us in the form of Infrastructure and Facilities.

ast but not. We must thank all the other teaching and non!teaching staff of civil

department for their assistance.

S& NO. NAME

, PAWA& OMEA& -UL/KA&

0 TANWA& MO)D AWAD MO)D SAK/L


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EECT O CL/MATE ON CONC&ETE

Name12 PAWA& OMEA& -UL/KA&

Mem3erhip n!12 45656

C!%re12 T.En##. Civi" Part //

A/CTE /ntit%ti!n1

Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed Univerity C!""e#e

En#ineerin#' P%ne 7 5,,859 *Maharahtra+

S& NO. NAME MEMBE&S)/P

NO.

COU&SE

, PAWA& OMEA&

-UL/KA&

45656 T.ENGG. C/V/L

PA&T //

A:ademi: ;ear 12 08,6208,<

DEPA&TMENT O C/V/L ENG/NEE&/NG




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EECT O CL/MATE ON CONC&ETE

A "roject submitted in partial fulfillment of

#.$ngg. %ivil "art II in A&I%$

'iploma in %ivil $ngineering

PAWA& OMEA& -UL/KA&

(y

Mem3erhip n!. 45656

(

TANWA& MO)D AWAD MO)D SAK/L

Mem3erhip n!. 45084

)nder the *uidance of

S.D. P.V. MANE

BVDUCOEP PUNE259

#he Institution of %ivil $ngineering +India

-/0!-/1


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A:ademi: ;ear 12 08,6208,<

DEPA&TMENT O C/V/L ENG/NEE&/NG



CE&T//CATE

#his is to certify that the "roject entitled 2 %omparative 3tudy 4f %onstruction

Work (etween ocal %ontractor And 5ualified %ontractor 6.

The m!di$ied =!r> d!ne %nder 3y #%idan:e in partia" $%"$i""ment !$ the

t%dent $!r the a=ard !$ T.En##. Civi" Part // in Civi" En#ineerin# $!r

A:ademi: ;ear 08,6208,


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EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON CONCRET

Reinforced concrete more liable to damage under

climate change

Concrete structures, such as buildings, bridges and

harbours, reinforced with internal metal bars for added

strength are an integral part of social and economic

activities in modern societies, with some infrastructures

built to last hundreds of years. However, it is thought that

higher atmospheric CO2 and rising temperatures

projected under a changing climate could increase the

rate of corrosion of the reinforcing metal resulting in

serious cracking of reinforced concrete structures.

Weakened infrastructure will cost more to repair and

disrupt the use of facilities in the future. his study

investigated climate change impacts on the risk of

corrosive damage to concrete structures over !"" years,

from 2""" to 2!"", by modelling changes in CO2

concentration, temperature and humidity in two

#ustralian cities$ %ydney &representative of a temperate

climate' and (arwin &representative of a tropical climate'.

hree scenarios were compared with a baseline of

keeping CO2 concentrations at 2""" levels$ !' high CO2

emissions, 2' medium CO2 emissions and )' reduced CO2

emissions brought about by policy measures to mitigate

climate change, but still higher than baseline levels.

Concrete structures were located in di*erent types of

sites e+posed to a range of water impacts, for e+ample,

submerged, in a tidal one and dry inland. Corrosion


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impacts were modelled from two sources$ e+posure to

CO2 in the atmosphere &-carbonation' and e+posure to

chloride, from salty water and air. /t was found that

reinforced concrete structures were more susceptible tocorrosion by carbonation, a*ected by increased CO2

levels in the atmosphere, than by chloride0induced

corrosion under all three future scenarios. 1y 2!"", it is

likely that 2"0" per cent of all concrete infrastructure, in

these two cities representing two climate types, will be

damaged, re3uiring maintenance or repairs. 4or the worst

case scenario, with the greatest CO2 emissions,

carbonation damage is up to 5" per cent higher than for

the base case &where emissions remain the same as year

2""" levels' for dry inland regions or temperate climates.

%tructures here would need e+tra attention to adapt to

the more damaging environment. #lthough higher

temperatures under climate change will increase

chlorine0induced corrosion under all emission scenarios,

the risk of corrosive damage will increase by a ma+imum

of !6 per cent under the worst case scenario, compared

with the base case scenario. 7evertheless the risk of

corrosion is already high for marine structures located in

tidal splash areas, so these structures especially re3uire

further protective measures to adapt to the e+tra risk of

damage caused by climate change. /n planning future

infrastructure using reinforced concrete, the costs

associated with adaptations &such as e+tra concrete cover

or special coatings' to mitigate anticipated increases in

corrosion damage should be factored into the design of

the structures.


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IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON CORROION AN!

!AMAGE RI" TO CONCRETE INFRATR#CT#RE

"e$%ord&' Corrosion, climate change, risk assessment,

deterioration, carbonation

Ab&tract(

/ncreases in atmospheric CO2 concentrations, and

changes in temperature and humidity due to a changing

climate will, especially in the longer term, cause an

acceleration of deterioration processes and conse3uently

acceleration in the decline of the safety, serviceability

and durability of concrete infrastructure. #n investigation

of concrete carbonation0induced deterioration in typical

#ustralian and Chinese cities under a changing climate is

described in this paper. /t is based on 8onte0Carlo

simulation analysis that involves three emission

scenarios, i.e. #!1, #!4/ and 66" ppm stabilisation. he

probabilistic analysis included the uncertainty of climate

predictions, deterioration processes, material properties,

dimensions, and predictive models. (eterioration of


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concrete structures is represented by the probability of

reinforcement corrosion initiation and corrosion induced

damage at a given calendar year between 2"!" and

2!"", and all of them are a*ected by the changingclimate depending on locations. /t was found that

carbonation depths may increase by more than 69 for

inland locations in #ustralia. /t was also found that

carbonation0induced damage risks can increase threefold

by 2!"" to 29 for Canberra. he :ndings provide a basis

for the development of climate adaptation strategies

through the improved design of concrete structures.

INTRO!#CTION

Concrete is the predominant construction type used in

critical infrastructure in many countries. he deterioration

rate of such structures depends not only on the

construction processes employed and the composition ofthe materials used but also on the environment.

/ncreases in atmospheric CO2 concentrations, and

changes in temperature and humidity due to a changing

climate will, especially in the longer term, cause an

acceleration of deterioration processes and conse3uently

acceleration in the decline of the safety, serviceability

and durability of concrete infrastructure. he/ntergovernmental ;anel on Climate Change fourth

assessment report &/;CC 2""


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trend. /n comparison with pre0industrial temperatures, the

best estimation of the temperature increase from !>>"

caused by increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration can

be ?;rofessor and (irector, Centre for /nfrastructure;erformance and @eliability, he Aniversity of 7ewcastle,

7%W, 2)"=, #ustralia B;h( Candidate, Centre for

/nfrastructure ;erformance and @eliability, he Aniversity

of 7ewcastle, 7%W, 2)"=, #ustralia C%/@O Climate

#daptation 4lagship and C%/@O Dcosystem %ciences,

Highett, Eic, #ustralia.

8ark F. %tewart, Gihengli ;eng and iaoming Wang

2.!IC for 66" ppm CO2, )."IC for


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predict concrete deterioration under a changing climate

in #ustralia, in terms of changes in probability of

reinforcement corrosion initiation and corrosion induced

damage due to &i' increase in the concentration of CO2 inthe atmosphere, and changes to temperature. hese time

and spatial variables will a*ect the penetration of

aggressive agents CO2 and chlorides into concrete, and

the corrosion rate once corrosion initiation occurs

&%tewart et al. 2"!!, 2"!2'. /t has been shown by Wang

et al. &2"!"c' that additional carbonation0induced

damage risks for the #!4/ emission scenario is up to !59

higher if there are no changes to how concrete structures

are designed or constructed. /n practical terms, this is

e3uivalent to e+pecting that an additional !59 of all

concrete surfaces by the year 2!"" will be damaged and

in need of costly maintenance or repair. While there is

much research on deterioration of concrete studies, there

is relatively little research on how deterioration is

a*ected by a changing climate. %tewart and ;eng &2"!"'

used a simpli:ed deterioration model and global /;CC

&2""


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damage &severe cracking' for concrete infrastructure for

the #ustralian cities of %ydney and Canberra. /t was found

that carbonation0induced damage risks increases to 2"9

to "9 for #!4/, #!1 and 66" ppm emission scenarios. he additional damage risks for chloride0induced

corrosion is only )9 over the same time period due to

temperature increase, but without consideration of ocean

acidity change in marine e+posure. However, these

models still relied on relatively straightforward time0

dependent deterioration models, and ignored the e*ect of

changes in humidity on the deterioration process. he

e*ect of climate change on chloride0induced corrosion

has also been the subject of relatively little research,

however, 1astidas0#rteaga et al. &2"!"' have calculated

60!69 increases in probability of corrosion initiation due

to climate change. alukdar et al. &2"!2' have predicted

carbonation depths in Canada for climate change

scenarios, but did so using a deterministic model and

assuming constant @H. #n investigation of concrete

carbonation0induced deterioration in typical #ustralian

and Chinese cities under a changing climate is described

in this paper. /mproved deterioration models are used

that accurately predict carbonation depth when CO2

levels, temperature and humidity are timedependent

variables. /t is based on 8onte0Carlo simulation analysis

that involves three emission scenarios, i.e. #!1, #!4/ and

66" ppm stabilisation, representing medium, high and

policy0intervened FHF emission scenarios. he

probabilistic analysis included the time0dependent

changes in atmospheric CO2 concentration, temperature


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and humidity, and the uncertainty of climate predictions,

deterioration processes, material properties, dimensions,

and predictive models. (eterioration of concrete

structures is represented by the probability ofreinforcement corrosion initiation and corrosion induced

damage at a given calendar year between 2"!" and

2!"", and all of them are more or less a*ected by the

changing climate depending on locations. his paper

seeks to provide insights into the likely impacts of climate

change on the durability and damage risks of concrete

structures in #ustralia and China, under a range of

climate change scenarios, which will have similar

implications for other countries. he :ndings from the

investigation provide a basis for the development of

climate adaptation through the improved design of

concrete structures. %ince the main environmental driver

to increased concrete deterioration is CO2 concentration,

temperature and humidity, then this will a*ect all

concrete infrastructure globally, not just #ustralia or

China. While the present study focuses on concrete

infrastructure, changes in temperature and relative

humidity will also a*ect the corrosion of steel structures,

but these e*ects are beyond the scope of the present

paper.

2 ;@O1#1/G/%/C 8O(DGG/7F O4 C#@1O7#/O70/7(ACD( (#8#FD @/%J%

2.! #nthropogenic #spects of Climate Change 4uture

climate was projected by de:ning carbon emission

scenarios in relation to changes in population, economy,


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technology, energy, land use and agriculture, represented

by a total of four scenario families, i.e., #!, #2, 1! and 12

&/;CC 2"">5',

speci:cally related to #!4/, #!1 and 66" ppm CO2

stabilisation scenarios. heir low and upper bounds are

also described to consider CO2 projection modelling

errors. /f low and high values shown in 4igure ! are taken

as !"th and >"th percentiles, respectively, of a normal

distribution then the statistical parameters for CO2

concentrations are$ mean LCO2&t' is e3ual to mid value,

and standard deviation MCO2&t' is &high0low'N2.65. he

COE increases with time to a ma+imum value of

appro+imately "."5 for all emission scenarios. 4or the

reference &best' emission scenario based on constant

year 2""" CO2 concentration then LCO2&t' )5>.2 ppm

and MCO2&t' ". /n all cases the probability distributions


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are censored at year 2""" CO2 concentration. o project

spatially dependent temperature increases in the future

under di*erent emission scenarios, various climate

models or #tmosphere0Ocean Feneral Circulation 8odelsOFC8s' have been developed based on physical

principles at the continental scale. %electing an #OFC8 to

be used in an impact assessment is not a trivial task,

given the variety of models. he /;CC suggested that due

to the varying sets of strengths and weaknesses of

various #OFC8s, no single model can be considered the

best. herefore, it is necessary to use multiple models to

take into account the uncertainties of models in any

impact assessment. /n the current study, climate

projections from nine climate models are used 0 for more

details see Wang et al. &2"!"' and /;CC &2""


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e+ample, 4igure 2 shows the projected median

temperatures for the lowest and highest of the nine FC8

projections, for #!4/, #!1, 66" ppm and Kear 2"""

emission scenarios for %ydney, Canberra and iamen. he mid global temperature mid&t' is modelled as a

normally distributed random variable where the standard

deviation M&t' is &high0low'N2.65. he Coefficient of

Eariation &COE' increases with time from ".) for t2"""

to a ma+imum value of appro+imately ". to ".6 for all

emission scenarios. /n all cases the probability

distributions of mid&t' are censored at ero temperature

rise.

2.2 ime to Corrosion /nitiation Carbonation depth

depends on many parameters$ concrete 3uality, concrete

cover, relative humidity, ambient carbon dio+ide

concentration and others. he impact of carbonation has

been studied by many researchers and various

mathematical models have been developed with the

purpose of predicting carbonation depths &for review see

e.g., (uracrete !>>=, %tewart et al. 2""2'. /t is observed

that corrosion may occur when the distance between the

carbonation front and the reinforcement bar surface is

less than !06 mm &e.g., Koon et al. 2""


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&!>>=', Koon et al. &2""


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&de Garrard !>>>'$ &)' 4our new variables are now

included$ !. CO2&t' time0dependent increase in

atmospheric CO2 concentration, 2. ksite factor to

account for increased CO2 levels in non0remoteenvironments, ). f&t' time0dependent change in

di*usion coeUcient due to changes in temperature, and

. f@H&t' time0dependent change in di*usion coeUcient

due to changes in relative humidity. # number of studies

have shown elevated CO2 levels in urban environments

due to higher pollution, e+haust fumes, etc. %tewart et al.

&2""2' recorded CO2 concentrations of up to 6


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and Juwait and values of ksite calculated for these three

categories. #s most infrastructure are close to the

ground, height impact has been taken into consideration

when observation height is larger than )" m and so amultiplication factor of !.""< is applied to observation

values made at height larger than )" m. %ince the sie of

every city is di*erent, the de:nitions of rural, suburban

and urban areas depend on the sie of the city. /n order to

make ksite comparable, the de:nition of rural, suburban

and urban are given as follows. able 2 de:nes an urban

area based on population sie and distance from the

central business district &C1(' or downtown area. /f the

population of the city is less than ".6 million then the city

is considered as suburban. # rural area is de:ned as the

area outside of cities and towns, and typically much of

the land is devoted to agriculture. #n area that is neither

rural nor urban is de:ned as suburban. able ) shows the

statistical parameters for ksite obtained from the data. #s

e+pected, ksite increases for urban areas, most likely due

to higher pollution levels and -urban domes. ;opulation

&million' ".6 0 ! !02 206 60!"to 2.6. he @H factor f@H

e+ceeds one when @H is less than 569, and reduces to

ero when @H is e3ual to !""9. #s presented by

@ichardson &!>==' reports that insuUcient water is

available for carbonation to commence for a relative

humidity of 269 and lessT hence, a lower limit of

@H269 is set. Carbonation tends to be highest for

relative humidities @H&t' of 6"9 to


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for increases in CO2 concentrations it needs to be

recognised that D3n. &!' is a point0in0time predictive

model 0 i.e., the carbonation depth at time t assumes that

CO2 is constant, and assumes that ( is constant for alltimes up to time t. %tewart et al. &2"!!' considered this

phenomenon and calculated carbonation depths due to

enhanced atmospheric CO2 concentration conditions

using the average CO2 concentration over the time

period, and not the peak value at time t. /f we consider

the carbonation process as a steady state modelled by

4icks 4irst Gaw, where CO2 concentration and

temperature and @H correction factors are time0

dependent, then &


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statistical parameters for a temperature of 2" oC given

by (uracrete &!>>=', see able . hese values take into

account the concrete grades suggested for the

corresponding e+posure classes. #n increase intemperature will increase corrosion rate, and the model

described by (uracrete &2"""' is used$ &=' where icorr02"

is the corrosion rate at 2" oC given in able , and

J"."26 if &t'2" oC. (uracrete &2"""' notes that D3n.

&5' is a close correlation to #rrhenius e3uation, at least

for temperature below 2" o C, but may be conservative

for &t'X2" oC. # 2o C temperature increase will increase

the corrosion rate by !69. here is little data on time0

dependent e*ects on corrosion rate for carbonated @C

structures. Hence, the present analysis assumes a time0

invariant corrosion rate for carbonation. his is likely to

be a conservative assumption as corrosion rate will

generally decrease with time due to the build up of rust

products thus impeding the corrosion process &e.g., Eu

and %tewart 2"""'. D+posure Class 8ean %tandard

(eviation (istribution C! 0 (ry "."a "." Gognormal C2 0

Wet0 rarely dry &unsheltered' ".)6 L#Ncm2 ".26>

L#Ncm2 Gognormal C) 0 8oderate humidity &sheltered'

".!>='. 2. ime to Crack /nitiation &!st' #s

there is a porous one around the steel reinforcing bar

the corrosion products must :rstly :ll this porous one

before the products start to induce internal pressure on


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the surrounding concrete. herefore, not all corrosion

products contribute to the e+pansive pressure on the

concrete. his approach to crack initiation has been used

by Dl 8aaddawy and %ouki &2""


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con:nement around e+ternal reinforcing bars. /f the

reinforcing bar is in an internal location then kc!, but

for rebars located at edges and corners of @C structures

then kc is in the range of !.2 to !.. #lthough the data islimited, there appears to be a trend where kc increases

as Zcp increases. /n this study kc is taken as !.". #

statistical analysis of model accuracy to account for

variabilities between model prediction and e+perimental

data is essential for stochastic or reliability analyses

where statistics for model error are re3uired. Hence, the

statistics for model error for rcrack &8Drcrack' are$

mean&8Drcrack' !." and COE&8Drcrack' ".">

&8ullard and %tewart 2"!!'. 4or more details of this

improved cover cracking model see 8ullard and %tewart

&2"!!'. he cover cracking model developed by 8ullard

and %tewart &2"!!' was based on chloride0induced

corrosion. Concrete strength is time0variant, and the time0

dependent increase in concrete compressive strength

after one year using the #C/ method is fc!.!52fc&2='

where fc&2=' is the 2= day compressive strength. ime0

dependent gains in strength beyond one year are not

considered in the present analysis. 2.5 ime to Corrosion

(amage &sev' %ince corrosion rate is a time0dependent

function of temperature then times to corrosion damage

need to be corrected since D3ns. &>0!2' assume a time0

invariant &constant' corrosion rate. /f we assume that the

amount of corrosion products needed to cause cracking

&mcorr' for a constant corrosion rate is directly

proportional to icorr&!stQsev' then

mcorricorr&!stQsev'. he time to corrosion damage


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for a variable corrosion rate &sp' is such that the

corrosion amounts &mcorr' for constant and variable

corrosion rates are e3ual. /t follows that sp is obtained

from solving the unknown sp from the followinge3uation$ &!)racking of the concrete surface to reach a

crack width of w mm is$

2.5 ;robability of ime to Corrosion /nitiation

Corrosion will take place when the carbonation depth

reaches the surface of the reinforcing bar, and so the

cumulative probability of corrosion initiation at time t is

&!' where +c&t' is the carbonation depth obtained from

D3n. &


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Computational 8ethod

8onte0Carlo simulation is used as a computational

method for the time0dependent reliability analysis. 7ote

that the CO2 concentration is fully correlated with time. )@D%AG% ).! (urability (esign %peci:cations in #ustralia

and China Dnvironmental e+posure in #ustralia is

classi:ed by the #ustralian Concrete %tructures Code

#%)5""02""> as three climatic ones &arid, temperate

and tropical', see 4igure . he selected sites of %ydney

and Canberra represent two very di*erent durability

design re3uirements with design cover for many locationsin %ydney being "06" mm due to its coastal location,

and )" mm cover for Canberra due to its inland location.

Climatic Pones (e:ned by the #ustralian Concrete

Code#%)5"".

Concrete inside buildings with low air humidity, or that ispermanently submerged in water, generally has a low

e+posure to carbonation, while concrete surfaces subject

to long0term periodic water contact, concrete inside

buildings with moderate0to0high air humidity, and


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e+ternal concrete sheltered from rain have high

e+posures to carbonation. 4or this reason the reliability

analyses to follow will focus on corrosion predictions for

sheltered structures for carbonation. he durabilitydesign re3uirements speci:ed in #%)5"" relate to

minimum concrete cover and concrete compressive

strength, and assume standard formwork and

compaction. able 6 shows the durability design

speci:cations related to the #%)5"" e+posure

classi:cations #! to C for carbonation. able 5 presents

the Chinese durability design re3uirements for bridges

&F.(520 2""'. Clearly, the environmental categories

are de:ned di*erently, however, the durability

re3uirements for bridges in Chinese standard are

generally the same as #ustralian standards, but the

re3uirements for normal buildings &F16""!"02"!" 2"!"'

are lower than that for bridges. able 6 also shows the

parameter values for the deterioration models. he

e+posure classi:cations of most relevance for concrete

infrastructure in %ydney and Canberra are near0coastal

&1!' and coastal e+cluding tidal and splash ones &12' for

%ydney, and #2 for Canberra.

able 5$ Chinese (urability (esign %peci:cations

&F.(5202""' and (eterioration 8odels, for Carbonation

in %heltered Conditions, and for 1ridge %tructures &;iers,Darth @etaining %tructures, Culverts, 1eams, ;lates,

#rches, %pandrel %tructures'. able < shows the statistical

parameters for corrosion parameters, material properties

and dimensions 0 these are representative of concrete


26/65

structures in #ustralia. Clearly, the uncertainty and

variability of deterioration parameters is considerable.

However, improved deterioration modelling may reduce

this variability, as could 1ayesian updating based onconditions or other site speci:c data for e+isting or new

structures. Anless noted otherwise, all results in the

following sections refer to the average of nine FC8

temperature simulations. @einforcement bar diameter is

2" mm, and ksite is based on statistical parameters for

an urban environment for %ydney and iamen, and

suburban environment for Canberra . 7ote that the same

value of ksite applies for all emission scenarios including

the year 2""" scenario.

%tatistical ;arameters for Corrosion ;arameters, 8aterial

;roperties and (imensions he impact assessment is

focused primarily on the relative change in corrosion

initiation and damage risks due to enhanced CO2 levels,

temperature and humidity when compared to year 2"""levels, and not on the absolute estimates of risk. he

deterioration models are mostly derived from the !>>50

!>>> Duropean (uracrete project which has formed the

basis for the probabilistic durability design of many

important structures and the :b model code for service

life design &:b 2""5'. However, many other deterioration

models have been developed for concrete durability,which if deemed more appropriate, can readily be

incorporated into the stochastic and reliability framework

developed in the present study. While di*erent

deterioration models will produce di*erent estimates of


27/65

absolute risk, deterioration model selection will have

signi:cantly less inRuence on comparative risks. ).2

Corrosion (amage @isks 4igure 6 shows the mean

carbonation depth for four emission scenarios ande+posure classi:cations, for %ydney, Canberra and

iamen. he #ustralian Concrete %tructures Code

#%)5""0 2""> %)5"" 2"">' speci:es improved

concrete compressive strength and other enhanced

durability design speci:cations, which will result in a

reduced rate of carbonation. his is evident in 4igure 6&a'

where e+posure classi:cation C with wNc"." concrete

has a carbonation depth signi:cantly less than e+posure

classi:cation #2 with wNc".65. he #!4/, #!1 and 66"

ppm emission scenarios have a signi:cant e*ect on

carbonation depths, but the carbonation depths for these

emission scenarios vary by no more than 5 mm by 2!""

in all the three cities. 4or e+ample, in 4igure 6&b', the #!4/

emission scenario increases carbonation depth by

appro+imately 69 when compared to reference year

2""" CO2 emissions for e+posure classi:cation #2 for

Canberra. he e*ect of the nine FC8 temperature

prediction models on probabilities of corrosion initiation

and corrosion damage is shown in %tewart et al.s work

&%tewart, Wang et al. 2"!!', for #!4/ emission scenario

and #! e+posure classi:cation in %ydney. here are 5.=9

and !


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likelihood of corrosion initiation is less than ".")9, and

less than "."")9 for corrosion damage, for e+posure

classi:cations 12 and C in %ydney, see 4igure 5. hese

probabilities are negligible irrespective of the emissionscenario. Corrosion initiation and corrosion damage risks

are highest for e+posure classi:cations #2 and 1!, as

these are e+posures most susceptible to carbonation for

structures located well away from the coast. here is

unlikely to be any signi:cant corrosion damage for the

:rst "06" years service life, but the likelihood of

corrosion damage then increases to !9 to 2.69 for #!4/,

#!1 and 66" ppm emission scenarios for %ydney. /n

practical terms, this is e3uivalent to e+pecting that !9 to

2.69 of every concrete surface by the year 2!"" will be

damaged and in need of maintenance or repair. Of most

interest in this paper is the e+posure classi:cations 1!

and 12 for %ydney &up to 6"km from coast'. he

probability of corrosion damage for the worst case

scenario !4/' is up to !" times higher than that

observed for the reference &best' mitigation scenario for

1!, and for 12 e+posure classi:cations. 4or Canberra,

damage risks increase to 29 by 2!"" for emission

scenarion #!4/. 4or iamens bridges there is up to 69

probabilities of 8ark F. %tewart, Gihengli ;eng and

iaoming Wang corrosion damage for #!4/, #!1 and 66"

ppm emission scenarios by 2!"". his indicates that the

higher CO2 concentration could lead to a signi:cant

likelihood and e+tent of corrosion damage that may need

costly and disruptive repairs during the service life of

many concrete structures in #ustralia, China, and


29/65

elsewhere. 1ecause the de:nition of environmental

e+posure in the two countries standards are di*erent,

the results cannot be compared directly. However, in

order to make the comparison between structures in%ydney and iamen more reasonable, the results of

similar structures could make sense. 4or e+ample, we

could e+plore how does the damage risk for a bridge 6

km from the coast in %ydney di*ers from one in iamen

that is also 6 km from the coast for the same e+posure

and same use. herefore, the e+posure classi:cation for

structures in %ydney and bridges in iamen should be 1!

and //, respectively. /n both cases, ksite is based on

statistical parameters for an urban environment &see

able )'. he results of all the possible e+posure

categories for %ydney and iamen are presented in able

=. /t can be easily :nd out from able = that the corrosion

of iamens bridges are more severe than in %ydney. 4or

beams of a bridge 6 km from the coast in %ydney and

iamen, the e+posures for them are 1!and //,

respectively. he probabilities of corrosion damage for

iamens bridges are double than that of %ydney. he

warmer weather and greater temperature increase in the

>" years prediction in iamen might be one cause of

higher damage risks, but lower 4c and cover might be

more critical.

CO7CGA%/O7%

his paper describes a probabilistic and reliability0based

approach that predicts the probability of corrosion

initiation and damage &severe cracking' for concrete


30/65

infrastructure subjected to carbonationinduced corrosion

resulting from elevated CO2 levels, @H and temperatures

due to a changing climate. he probabilistic analysis

included the uncertainty of CO2 concentration,deterioration processes, material properties, dimensions,

and predictive models. /t was found that

carbonationinduced damage risks can increase threefold

by 2!"" to 29 for Canberra. he results were most

sensitive to increases in atmospheric CO2. hese

structures may merit appropriate and cost0e*ective

climate adaptation measures to ameliorate the adverse

e*ects of a changing climate.

@D4D@D7CD%

#%)5"". 2"">. Concrete %tructures. %ydney$ %tandards

#ustralia. 1astidas0#rteaga, D., Chateauneuf, #., %anche0

%ilva, 8., 1ressolette, ;h., and %choefs, 4. 2"!". /nRuence

of weather and global warming in chloride ingress into

concrete$ a stochastic approach, %tructural %afety, )2$

2)=02>. (ay, .#., Fober, ;., iaong, 4.%. and Went, D.

2""2. emporal ;atterns in 7ear %urface CO2

Concentrations over Contrasting Eegetation ypes in the

;heoni+ 8etropolitan #rea. #griculture and 4orest

8eteorology. !!"$ 22>026. de Garrard, 4. !>>>. Concrete

8i+tures ;roportioning$ a %cienti:c #pproach. Gondon$

D[47 %pon. (uraCrete. !>>=. 8odelling of (egradation,(uraCrete 0 ;robabilistic ;erformance based (urability

(esign of Concrete %tructures. DA \ 1rite Du@am ///.

Contract 1@;@0C>60"!)2. ;roject 1D>60 !)


31/65

Eariables in the Gimit %tate 4unctions. (uraCrete 0

;robabilistic ;erformance based (urability (esign of

Concrete %tructures, DA 0 1rite Du@am ///. Contract 1@;@0

C>60"!)2. ;roject 1D>60!), !)" p. (uraCrete.2"""b. ;robabilistic Calculations, (uraCrete 0 ;robabilistic

;erformance based (urability (esign of Concrete

%tructures. DA 0 1rite Du@am ///. Contract 1@;@0C>60

"!)2. ;roject 1D>60 !)


32/65

!"2!0!")

@ichardson,8.F. !>==. Carbonation of reinforced

concrete$ /ts Causes and 8anagement. @ussel, (.,

1asheer, ;.#.8., @ankin, F./.1. and Gong, #.D.. 2""!. D*ect

of relative humidity and air permeability on prediction of

the rate of carbonation of concrete. ;roceeding of the

/nstitution of Civil Dngineers0%tructures and 1uildings.

!5&)'$)!>0)25. %tewart, 8.F., eply, 1. and Jralova, H.

2""2. he D*ect of emporal and %patial Eariability of

#mbient Carbon (io+ide Concentrations on Carbonation

of @C %tructures. >th /nternational Conference on

(urability of 1uilding 8aterials and Components. C%/@O.

;aper 25 &C(0@O8'. %tewart, 8.F. and ;eng, . 2"!".

Gife Cycle Cost #ssessment of Climate Change #daptation

8easures to 8inimise Carbonation0/nduced Corrosion

@isks, /nternational ournal of Dngineering Ander

Ancertainty$ Haards, #ssessment and 8itigation, 2&!02'$

)605. %tewart, 8.F., Wang, .8. and 7guyen, 8.7. 2"!!.

Climate change impact and risks of concrete

infrastructure deterioration. Dngineering %tructures ))&'$

!)250!))


33/65

Conte+t of Flobal Climate Change$ ;arts ! and 2, Cement

[ Concrete Composites &in press'. Eu, J.#.. and %tewart,

8.F. 2""". %tructural @eliability of Concrete 1ridges

/ncluding /mproved Chloride0induced Corrosion 8odels.%tructural %afety. 22&'$ )!)0))). Wang, ., Chen, (. and

@en, P. 2"!". #ssessment of climate change impact on

residential building heating and cooling energy

re3uirement in #ustralia, 1uilding and Dnvironment,

6&


34/65

?oF +-/o% 1

1oF +/1o% <

0

o

F +/

o

% //@oF +@o% /@

;oF +!/o% />

-oF +!?o% 3et will not occur

#he retardation of initial setting time by the use of admixture is affected

by three factors, that is, the ambient temperature, the dosage used, and

the time of adding to the batch.

Temperat%re E$$e:t !n &etardati!n !$ /nitia" Settin# Time

#emperature can have a detrimental effect to concrete strength

development. owever, proper cold weather concrete curing will

enhance concrete strength development. ot weather is defined as any

combination is high ambient temperature, high concrete temperature,low relative humidity, and wind velocity. %old weather period, as

defined by A%I %ommittee ;1, is when one of the following conditions

occur for three consecutive days9

• Average daily air temperature is less than @oF

• #he air temperature is not greater than 0oF for more than one!half

of any -@ hour period.

#he effect of concrete temperature and retardation of setting time is

given by "%A in the chart below. It is concluded from the chart that the

retardation effect is more pronounced when a higher concrete


35/65

temperature is used.

$ffect of %oncrete #emperature and 7etarder on 3etting #ime

7etardation of setting time is influenced by the type of admixtures used.#he chart below illustrates the effect of various lignosufonates +/ and -

and carboxylic +; and @ admixtures on setting time.


36/65

#he time of adding the admixture to the batch here is significant and

may affect final results. &ore retardation may take place if the

admixture is added as the last ingredient and the cement is wet.

D!a#e E$$e:t !n &etardati!n !$ /nitia" Settin# Time

igher dosage may be used up to a certain level only prior to when any

rapid stiffening and slump loss occurs. #his admixture is sensitive to

ambient temperature when introduced to the batch. #he lower the

ambient temperatures, the longer time of setting for the concrete will be.

#he following figure is used to estimate initial setting time according to

the dosage of retarder and concrete ambient temperature.

Increasing Initial 3etting #ime with 7etarder %ontent


37/65

Remember When Experts Predicted Climate Change Was "Global"? The U.S. Warming Pause

(click on to enlarge)


38/65

Per NOAA, the U.S. warming pause (aka the 'Hiatus') hasnow achieved a !"#ear sta$$ (see ad%acent chart). &nact, a s$ight coo$ing has een the trend over this period.

ememer the predicted g$oa$ warming # e*perts+ hesame -e*perts- who predicted that hurricanes wou$d

ecome stronger and more reuent as a resu$t o theg$oa$ warming " which a$so did not happen.

As the empirica$ c$imate datasets revea$, the predictedg$oa$ warming has amounted to aout ni$ or c$ose totwo decades. And ecause o this, the g$oa$ warmingscientists recent$# resorted to e*ceptiona$ arications o

temperature datasets to produce -warming- thatdisappears the 'Pause'.

/inning up c$imate change ears in anticipation othe Paris 012 3OP0 c$imate travest# show seems to e

the driving orce ehind the most recent who$esa$e ake"warming production.

4ack to the inc$uded chart. As depicted, the !"#ear

pause inc$udes not on$# the continenta$ U.S. (at "1.567per centur# coo$ing) ut a$so the states o 8irginia and9ar#$and, oth at "1.267 per centur# coo$ing.

:h# depict those two state's temperature trends+

4ecause those states surround the metropo$itan ;istricto 3o$umia where edera$ ureaucrats, U.S. e$ectedrepresentatives and administration oicia$s pontiicate

aout the rapid and dangerous -g$oa$ warming-. hesee$ites $ive and work in the ;.3. micro"c$imate warming

u$e that is a direct resu$t o edera$ ta*pa#er aspha$t,stee$, concrete and airports with ver# hot %et e*hausts,which in comination have produced a rapid$#warminguran heat is$and (UH&).

http://www.nature.com/news/climate-change-the-case-of-the-missing-heat-1.14525https://stevengoddard.wordpress.com/2015/09/15/30-years-of-hurricane-incompetence-from-hansen-and-emanuel/http://www.climatedepot.com/2015/09/12/no-category-3-hurricanes-making-us-landfall-in-nearly-10-years/http://www.c3headlines.com/modern-temperatures-chartsgraphs.htmlhttp://wattsupwiththat.com/2015/10/01/is-there-evidence-of-frantic-researchers-adjusting-unsuitable-data-now-includes-july-data/http://joannenova.com.au/2015/09/headlines-contradictory-pressure-intense-meetings-in-bonn-ny-lima-its-paris-paris-paris/http://climate4you.com/UrbanHeatIsland.htmhttps://stevengoddard.wordpress.com/2015/09/15/30-years-of-hurricane-incompetence-from-hansen-and-emanuel/http://www.climatedepot.com/2015/09/12/no-category-3-hurricanes-making-us-landfall-in-nearly-10-years/http://www.c3headlines.com/modern-temperatures-chartsgraphs.htmlhttp://wattsupwiththat.com/2015/10/01/is-there-evidence-of-frantic-researchers-adjusting-unsuitable-data-now-includes-july-data/http://joannenova.com.au/2015/09/headlines-contradictory-pressure-intense-meetings-in-bonn-ny-lima-its-paris-paris-paris/http://climate4you.com/UrbanHeatIsland.htmhttp://www.nature.com/news/climate-change-the-case-of-the-missing-heat-1.14525


39/65

he NOAA scientiic empirica$ evidence is rather c$ear andundenia$e. 7or most Americans, g$oa$ warming is notan issue and is deinite$# not impacting their dai$# $ives.

4ut or a minorit# o governing e$ites, who ovious$#created a hosti$e warming micro"c$imate or their work

environment, it has made them incapa$e odistinguishing the c$imate orest rom the micro"c$imate

trees, so"to"speak. Or, put another wa#, the# can'tdiscern the dierence etween c$imate rea$it# and c$imateantas#.

Hmmm....ma#e the est so$ution or saving the e$ites

rom their own, se$"created hosti$e and c$imate changetriggering environment is to disperse the edera$

government oices and personne$ across rura$ $ocationsthroughout the U.S.

EFFECT OF E)TREME COL! ON MATERIAL

An understanding of the effect of extreme cold on the elasticity,

durability, strength, and other physical characteristics of materials, and

the treatment that these materials should receive when exposed to such

temperatures is important. Where applicable and when re8uired,

information

on this subject can be obtained from manufacturers furnishing material

or


40/65

e8uipment, and from 8ualified research laboratories.

Water

Fresh Water . )nder usual conditions, fresh water freeBes at a

temperaCture of ;-DF., forming solid ice and expanding about >E in

volume. It takes


41/65

due to pressure decreases to the vanishing point.

3ea +salt water freeBes at approximately -


42/65

volving the transfer of heat from the engine to K LM a li8uid, usually

water, and

Fig. / then cooling the li8uid by air through the use of a radiator +see

Fig. /.

Water was naturally selected as a cooling medium because of its

availability

and relatively high heat transfer properties. owever, water has certain

shortC

comings, the most important of which are its high freeBing point and its

corrosive action on metal parts of the cooling system, which may result

in

rust clogging and metal perforation. #hese two major disadvantages arelargely

overcome by adding materials to the water to prevent freeBing in winter,

and

special chemical ingredients to inhibit corrosion. 4ils, sug e a rs, and

inorganic

salt solutions are generally regarded as unsatisfactory antifreeBe

materials.

In the )nited 3tates and %anada, approximately one!third of the cars


43/65

re8uiring

antifreeBe are protected with ethylene glycol +glycol base products and

most of the remaining two0thirds employ methylalcohol &methanol' or ethyl alcohol &ethanol' type

solutions. /n the #rctic, ethylene glycol base

products are used almost entirely.

he antifreee e*ectiveness of methyl and

ethyl alcohols and ethyleneglycol types is shown in

4igure 2. hese curves bring out several facts.

4irst, the methyl alcohol type give the greatest

freeing protection per unit volume, followed by

ethylene glycol, and then the ethyl alcohol.

%econd, all three li3uids are capable of depressing

the freeing point of water to thelowest

atmospheric temperatures likely to beencountered. he :rst reason is based only on

freeing protection per gallon, and does not take

into con\ sideration the e+tra 3uantities of the low0

boiling0point alcohol antifreee solutions re3uired

after the initial :lling because of boil0away losses,

or the superiority of the comparatively high boilingpoint of ethylene glycol solution in preventing such

losses. 4or antifreee solutions protecting down to

^2"I4., the boiling point of the ethylene glycol

solution is 22 = ) I4.while the boiling point of the


44/65

alcohol0base solution is !="I4.Anlike water,

antifreee solutions do not solidify when e+posed

to

temperatures slightly below their freeing points

but instead tend to form slush. he minimum

temperatures to which solutions of the three types

of antifreee having a freeing point of "I4. may be

e+posed without giving rise to overheating or other

diUculties immediately after the engine is startedare$ methyl alcohol, ^2.6I to ^6.6I4.T ethyl alcohol,

^6.6I to ^=."I4.T ethylene glycol, ^=."I to

^!!.6I4.

he lower the freeing point of the antifreee

solutions used, the further below this freeing

temperature is it possible to e+pose the solutionwithout fear of overheating, resulting from

circulation restricted by ice crystals @elation 1etween Concentrations and 4reeing

;rotections of Earious #ntifreee %olutions or slush ice,

after the engine started. 4rom 4igure 2 it is noted that

antifreee protection can be determined in volume per

cent concentration in water and easily reduced to pintsper gallon of solution &see able /'.

able /. ;ints of #ntifreee per Fallon %oulutions for

;rotection _


45/65

down to Earious emperatures.

Protection

to, °F.

Methyl

alcohol

Ethyl

alcohol

Ethylene

glycol

^ Q !" ! ` 2 !N 2

" 2 ) 2 )N

^!" 2 ) )N ) !N

2"

^2"

) ) !N2 _

^)" ) !N2

^" ) ` 6 !N !N

^6" 6 )N !N2

In the case of ethylene glycol, the greatest freeBing protection that

can be obtained is G1-DF. which is given by a solution containing 1E

antiC freeBe and @E water. 3olutions containing more than 1E

ethyleglycol give less protection.


46/65

*lycerim +glycerol is one of the acceptable nonvolatile antifreeBe

materials, but because of its relatively high cost compared to ethylene

glycol, and its many other important commercial uses, it is not used to

any great extent.Nerosene, freeBing point G1DF., had been used instandard automotive cooling systems in localities with extreme cold

climates. Its heat capacity is approximately one!half that of water, but

automobiles operating with kerosene as a coolant are subject to

overheating in warm weather. Additional disadvantages are its

unpleasant odor, flammability, and severe action on rubber hose.%are

should be taken to select an antifreeBe containing heavy!duty inhibitors.

#wo general types are in general use9 soluble oils and salts.

#he oil types are considered generally to be the most satisfactory.

:ehicle radiators filled with antifreeBe should be tagged showing type of

antifreeBe.

Fuels and ubricants

'uring World War II, special fuels and lubricants were developed

to overcome the difficulties in star gasoline and diesel engines

previously encountered in the Arctic. +3ee 2"etroleum "roducts for

Arctic Winter )se in Automotive $8uipment6 and 2#ractor!#ype

#ransportation )nits for Arctic

4perations6 for details on the improvements made on the various

properties of fuels and lubricants for low!temperature use.

In shipping fuels in drums it is important that only extra heavy

exportCtype drums be used. #his is necessary as this type drum can be

handled easier

in the cold and facilitates roping for dropping by parachute from planes.


47/65

#he smooth drum is slippery when wet or covered with ice or snow and

it is difficult to rope and attach to a parachute.

#he recommendations of the manufacturer of any e8uipment should

be consulted regarding lubrication under cold conditions. &any

excellent lubricants

have been developed and used successfully in northern operations.

owever, it must be realiBed that at extreme temperatures oils and

greases become stiff.

If an engine has been shut down for any period of time the lubricant mayhave become so stiff that a fully charged battery will not turn the engine

over.

#his situation may be further aggravated because at such temperature

batteries lose much of their energy.

7ubber!like &aterial

#he general effect of reduced temperatures is the same for all

rubber!like materials. As the temperature is decreased the rubber passes

from a soft +easily deformed and elastic state to a more rigid state and

finally to a brittle glasslike condition. #he various commercial rubbers

differ appreciably as to the temperature ranges in which they pass

through these various states.

one of the available commercial rubbers are truly elastic at extremely

low temperatures +below G@DF.. ew rubber products stand up better

under cold conditions than old rubber. #he effect of temperature on


48/65

rubber materials is predominantly physical and any chemical changes

which may take place can, on a practical basis, be ignored.

3ome new natural rubber materials are usable at low temperatures

approachingG0DF. but in the course of their use it is imperative that they

be not subjected to any force at an excessive velocity.

#hat is, rapid bending orflexing at or near such low temperatures will

result in breaking or even shattering of the rubber part. For example,

rubber tires will develop flat spots at low temperatures. #he tread of old

rubber tires will chip due to cold embittlement when subjected to force

or flexing. ew tires show less tendency to crack than do tires of oldrubber.

ower!temperature rubber!like materials are made by specifically

compounding the integral parts for low!temperature service. #wo

general classes of these have been developed9 normal natural rubber

material to operate +with care down to G@DF., and special rubber!like

material +natural rubber and butyl rubber for extreme low temperatures

to G?DF. &any of the large rubber and chemical companies that

specialiBe in rubber and synthetic rubberproducts are working on the

problem of providing rubber!like materials for use under extreme cold

conditions.

"lastics

&ost plastics contain a base material, the properties of which have

been modified by the incorporation of plasticiBers or fillers. $ach base

material is the foundation for a group of compositions related in general

behavior but differing from one another in individual physical

properties. 3uch basic

groups of plastics are9 acrylics, celluloses, nylons, ethylene , polymers,


49/65

vinyl ester polymers, polyvinyl acetals, phenolics, urea resins, caseins

alkyds, neoprene, etc. groups which contain several different

compositions are subdivided into types. $ach type represents one or

more compositions, each of which is designed to give superior value ofsome specific property even at the expense of some other property.

#here is, for example, #ype neralJ #ype II, temperature resistantJ #ype

III, impact resistantJ #ype I:, moisture resistantJ etc. Where further

subdivision is re8uired, the typesare subdivided into grades. $ach grade

represents, at broadest, a very restricted number of common commercial

materials which are 8uite similar both chemically and physically. #hese

groups, types, and grades usually correspond to those given in the

specifications of the American 3ociety for #esting &aterials.

#he service success of an article of any plastic often depends as

much upon the design and fabrication processes as on the material itself.

#he

importance of selecting items of good workmanship in both design and

fabricaCtion for cold!weather operations cannot be overemphasiBed. #he

plasticsindustry has developed a background of practical experience in design,

fabrication, and testing of plastics, and should be consulted regarding

specific cold!weather problems.

#he importance of selecting the proper material and consulting with

plastic manufacturers concerning cold!weather problems cannot be

overstressed. It is important not only to select the proper material but to

use it properly in the field. #oo fre8uently, good plastics improperly

handled in the field failed, when the same material properly utiliBed

would have been entirely satisfactory.


50/65

As an aid in understanding this field of material, a list of the more

important plastics by resin group and subgroup, trade names, available

forms, and commercial uses is given in #able I. +#he code for the

available forms is9 F, filamentsJ &, moldedJ 7, rodsJ 3, sheetingJ #,tubing. where applicable, comments on the effects of extreme

temperatures and care in use in the field are given in the text.

#he acrylics are perfectly clear and transparent. #hey have the best

resistance of all transparent plastics to sunlight and outdoor weathering,

and will tolerate years of exposure without significant loss of properties.

#hey possess a good combination of flexibility with shatter resistance

and rigidity.

#heir impact strength is lower than the celluloses, but the effect of

extreme low temperatures upon this property is much less pronouncedJ

hence, articles designed for use at ordinary temperatures will not show

excessive embrittlement

at G0DF.

%ellulose nitrate is the toughest of all thermoplastics. It has low

water absorption and is resistant to mild acids. At G0DF., its impact

strength

is about ;0E of its impact strength at normal temperatures +??DF..

%ellulose nitrate is very flammableJ it is not suitable for prolonged

service in outdoor sunlight for it turns yellow and becomes brittle.

%ellulose acetate is comparatively tough. Its low temperatureimpact strength and embrittlement characteristics are inferior to those of

cellulose


51/65

able /. %ome /mportant Commercial ;lastics. _

Resin

group and

subgroup

Trade

names

Forms

availa

ble

Uses

#crylics$

8ethyl

methacrylate

resin

Gucite

;le+igla

s

8, @,

%,

8, @, %

Windshields,

goggles,

dentures,

arti:cial eyes,

drafting in\

struments,

automotive

parts,

aircraft

enclosures

Celluloses$

Cellulose

nitrate

Celluloid

7itron

7i+on

CN7

@, %, ,

4

@, %,

@, %,

4ountain pens

and pencils,

drawinginstruments,

spectacle

frames, bottle


52/65

;yralin @, %, caps, toilet

seats,

tool handles,shoelace tips,

:lm

Cellulose

acetate

4ibestos

Gumarit

h

7i+on

CN#

;lastoce

le

@, %,

@, %, ,

8

@, %, ,

8

@, %,

Containers,

luggage, food

cases,

truck curtains

Chemac

o

Hercules

Joppers

enite /

8

8

8

8

Jnobs, goggle

frames,

combs,

brushes, tool

handles,

safety

goggles, eye

shields,

automotive


53/65

parts and

housings

Cellulose

acetate

butyrate

enite // 8 elephones,

steering

wheels,

:lm spools,

radio

housings,knobs

and pulls, light

supports, coil

spools, brush

backs

Dthyl

Cellulose

Celcon

Chemac

o

Dthocel

Hercules

Joppers

8

8

8, %

8

8

@adio

housings,

toothbrushes,

pen

and pencilbarrels, tool

handles,

knobs and


54/65

7i+on

DNC

8, % pulls,

Rashlight

cases

7ylon$

e+tile

:lament

types

4 e+tile :ber,

ropes, lines,

hose,

tents,

stockings,

clothing,

bristles,

surgical

sutures

/njection,

e+trusion

and

alcohol0

soluble

types

8, % /njection and

compressedmolding,

covering for

wire and

sheets,

solutioncastings, small

bearings,

specialty


55/65

containers,

electrical

coil forms andinsulators,

small

gears, cams,

coatings

able /. %ome /mportant Commercial ;lastics &contd'.

Resin group

and

subgroup

Trade

names

Forms

availa

ble

Uses

Dthylene

plymers$

;olyethylene

;olythene

4, 8, %,

4, 8, %,

4ilms, liners,

closures,

wrappings

for froen

food,

primarycable, _

insulating

material,


56/65

coating for

weatherpro

of wire

;olytetraRuor

o\

ethylene

eRon 8, @, %,

4ilms,

tubes, tapes

and special

applications

made byrolling,

drawing, or

machining

;olyvinyl

acetals$

;olyvinyl

formal

4ormvar 8 /nsulating

enamel,base for

electric

wires,

phonograph

records

;olyvinyl

butyral

1utacite

%aRe+

8, %

%

;lastic

interlayer,

laminated


57/65

Einylite 8, % for safety

glass,

sheeting,

and

coatings for

dustproof

and

waterproo:

ng fabrics

Einyl ester

polymers$

;olyvinyl

chloride

Feon

8arvinol

;liovic

Altron

Einylite

8, %

8

8, %

8, %

8, %

acketing

material on

electric

wires and

cables,water0

repellent

garments,

shower

curtains,

garment

bags,

upholstery,

belts, Roor


58/65

coverings,

overlays for

maps,

phonograph

records

;olyvinyliden

e resins$

4inylidene

chloride

%aran 4, 8, Hoses,

Re+ible

tubing, rigidpipe,

lined steel

pipe,

moisture0

resistant

:lms and

fabrics for

upholstery

and

transportati

on seating

;olystyrene 1akelite

Cere+

8

8

%tando*

insulators,

antenna in\


59/65

Chemac

o

Joppers

Goale+

Goalin

Gustre+

%tyron

8

8

8

8

8

8

sulators,

radio coil

forms,

telephone

e3uipment,

Ruorescent

light

:+tures,wall til s e ,

combs, _

knobs and

pulls,

shaver

housings,

camera

cases,

refrigerator

parts,

bottle caps

;olystrene

e+panded

%tyrofoa

m

% /nsulating

material in

refrigera\


60/65

tion

construction

, buoyancyagent

for life rafts

and small

metal

boats

able /. %ome /mportant Commercial ;lastics &contd'.

Resin group

and

subgroup

Trade

names

Forms

available

Uses

;henolics$

;henol0

formaldehyde

resin

1akelite

(ure

(urite

@esino+

8

8

8

8

Camera

cases,

photographic

:lm

spools,

handles,

instruments,


61/65

bo+es, radio

cabinets,

ignition

parts,

instrument

panels,

pulleys,

housings,

terminal

blocks,

telephone

parts, goggle

frames,

wheels

8elamine

resin$

8elamine0

formalde\

hyde

8elmac

;laskon

@esime

ne

8

8

8

Compression

moldings,

electrical

:ttings,

sockets, foodcontainers

Area resins$ 1eetle 8 1uttons,

tableware,


62/65

Area0

formaldehyde

;laskon 8 bo+es,

electrical

parts andlighting

reRectors

%ynthetic

rubber$

Chlorobutadie

ne

7eopre

ne

8, %, Hose,

molded

parts,weather

strip\

ping, wire

and cable

jacketing

adhesive,

coated

fabric,

electrical

cable

construction,inRatable

gear, sealing

strips


63/65

nitrate. Cellulose acetate is superior to cellulose nitrate in

resistance to

outdoor e+posure and to burning. %unlight has little e*ecton tmaterial. %ince there are many commercial

compositions of this material, it is advisable for a given

application to indicate the application and desired

properties, for e+ample, for general use, resistance to

heat, cold, impact, or moisture.

%ellulose acetate butyrate material is tough and has dimensional

stability.Fluctuation in dimension must be considered when articles aremade of a comCbination of this material and glass or metal.

$thyl cellulose material possesses toughness, high impact strength

at low temperatures, and excellent dimensional stability. When the

article is in combination with glass or steel, assurance must be made that

the wall thickness of the plastic is sufficient to withstand the strain

caused bytemperature changes. #ype II of this plastic is specifically

designed for low!temperature resistance. At G0DF., its impact strength is

about @E of its impact strength at normal temperatures.

ylon is a generic term for any long!chain synthetic polymeric

amide which has recurring amide groups as an intergral part of the main

polymer chain, and which is capable of being formed into a filament

whose structural elements are

oriented in the direction of the axis. ylon textile filament materials are

noted for their toughness. #he effect of extreme cold on the mechanical

properties of cords and ropes is small9 tensile strength increases and

elongation


64/65

decreases. Woven fabrics will not be stiffened or embrittled by extreme

cold and remains soft and pliable at G@DF. #he effect of prolonged

exposure to sunlight and outdoor weather is not enough to impair practical utility.

3everal different types of nylon g plastic s are involved here atheir

properties are not identical. Impact strength is measurably decreased by

exCtreme cold but toughness and impact strength at low temperatures are

still so good that nylon plastics have been successfully used at low

temperatures. AtG@DF., the impact strength of nylon is about 00E of its

impact strength at normal temperatures. #he electrical properties ofnylon plastics are better at low temperatures than at normal

temperatures. "rolonged exposure of nylon plastics to sunshine and

weathering is not recommended.

"olyethylene and polythene materials are tough and durable. #heir

toughness is not seriously effected by low temperatures. #hese materials

remain fairly flexible at moderately low temperatures, stiffen slightly at

temperatures of G;DF. and lower, and become brittle at G>@DF. #hey

have excellent electrical properties, extremely low moisture vapor

transfer 8ualities, resist solvents and strong acids, and have other

desirable 8ualities such as nontoxicity.

"olytetrafluoroethylene has potential utility owing to its excellent

thermal stability, resistance to corrosive reagents, and low dielectric

loss.It is not embrittled by extremely low temperatures.

Films can be flexed at temperatures as low as G/@


65/65

"olyvinyl acetal material provides a tough impact!resistant

adhesive layer for safety glass over a wide range of temperatures down

to about G@DF., is stable to light and heat, relatively insensitive to

moisture, and has goodadhesive 8ualities. It is an excellent thermoplastic adhesive for leather,

rubber, paper, wood, canvas, laminated cellophane, and glass.

It is also excellent for coating fabrics for raincoats, water!repellent

garments, tentage, food and clothing bags, etc.

"olyvinyl chloride compositions are noteworthy for their heat

resistance,exceptional toughness, and ability to withstand continuedexposure to maximum temperature differences. 3ome of these

compounds have a low!temperature brittleness approaching G@D and

G0DF. when subjected to bending. oweve such material if subjected to

sudden shock would fail at higher temperatures,possibly approaching

G;DF.

:inylidene chloride material is tough, resistant to chemicals and

prolonged

immersion in water, nonflammable, and useful over a wide range of

temperatures.

concrete construction report

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