concepts of prevention and control of diseases
TRANSCRIPT
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CONCEPTS OF PREVENTION AND CONTROL
OF DISEASES
R. VenkitachalamSeminar No: 5
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CONTENTS
Concepts of prevention of disease Definition Timeline of approaches to prevention Levels of prevention Levels of prevention for dental diseases
Concepts of control of disease Disease control Disease elimination and eradication Monitoring Surveillance
Conclusion References
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CONCEPTSOF
PREVENTION
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Disease prevention: Definition
Activities designed to protect patients and other members of the public from actual or potential health threats and their harmful consequences
-Mosby’s Medical Dictionary, 8th edition.2009
Disease prevention covers measures not only to prevent the occurrence of disease, such as risk factor reduction, but also to arrest its progress and reduce its consequences once established.
Reference: adapted from Glossary of Terms used in Health for All series. WHO, Geneva, 1984
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Successful prevention depends upon:
Knowledge of causation Dynamics of transmission Identification of risk factors and risk groups Availability of prophylactic or early detection and
treatment measures Facilities for these treatment procedures Evaluation and development of these procedures
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Levels of prevention
The concepts of prevention can be best defined in the context of “levels of prevention”.
But how many levels of prevention??
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Timeline
1953 – Leavell and Clark
1957 – Commission of chronic illness
1958 – Leavell and Clark1965 – Leavell and Clark
1983 – Gordon1985 – Tannahill
2001 – Froom and Benbassat
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1953 – Leavell and Clark
Book: Textbook of preventive medicine
5 levels of application1. Health promotion2. Specific protection3. Early recognition and prompt treatment4. Disability limitation5. Rehabilitation
Based on his paper on the disease syphilis
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1957 – Commisssion on chronic illness
Prevention of chronic illness : Volume 1
First use of the words primary and secondary prevention
Primary prevention: averting the occurrence of disease
Secondary prevention: halting the progression of disease from its early unrecognized stage to a more severe one and preventing complications
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1958 – Leavell and Clark
Second edition retitled: Preventive Medicine for the Doctor and the Community
Defined five levels into three categories Primary prevention
Health promotion (serving to further general health and well-being)
Specific protection (measures applicable to a particular disease or group of diseases in order to intercept the causes before they involve man )
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Secondary prevention early recognition and prompt treatment (preventing spread to others if
the disease is communicable, complications or sequelae, and prolonged disability).
Tertiary prevention disability limitation (prevention or delaying of the consequences of
clinically advanced disease)
rehabilitation (aiming at prevention of complete disability after anatomic and physiologic changes are stabilized).
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1965 – Leavell and Clark
Third edition: Preventive Medicine for the Doctor and the Community
Referred levels of prevention as “phases of prevention” and
Disability limitation was transferred to secondary phase of prevention
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1983 - Gordon
Public Health Reports
Limited the use of word prevention to persons who have not yet suffered and discomfort or disability due to the disease
Classification – target population Universal measures : for everyone Selective measures : for above-risk demographies Indicated measures : for individuals at risk
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1985 - Tannahill
Reviewed the usages of primary, secondary and tertiary by different authors, and proposed a new classification
Foci of prevention1. Prevention of the first occurrence of an illness or unwanted
phenomenon2. Prevention of avoidable consequences of illness or other unwanted
state through early detection when this favorably affects the outcome
3. Prevention of avoidable complications of established disease or other unwanted state
4. Prevention of recurrence.
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2001 – Froom and Benbassat
Expanded categories of prevention from three to seven Level 1: reducing exposure to an etiologic agent Level 2: increasing resistance to the disease Level 3: defining it as screening for risk factors for disease (in
asymptomatic individuals) in order to reduce them. Level 4: prevention of recurrence (in asymptomatic individuals after a
disease-related event) Level 5: treatment aimed at prevention of complications (in
asymptomatic individuals after a disease-related event) Level 6: treatment of symptomatic patients for cure, palliation, or
reduction of mortality Level 7: rehabilitation for “adjustment to irremediable conditions.
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2008 – 2009: Ronald Hattis (draft stage as on 2012)
Classification according to stages of disease
Stages of Disease Development Corresponding Stages of Prevention
1 Exposure Avoidance of Exposure
2 Acquisition Reduction of Acquisition
3 Advancement/Progression Interruption of Progression
4 Complications Avoidance of Complications
5 Death or Disability
a) Delay of Mortalityb) Rehabilitation of Disability
c) Palliative Care for Inevitable Death
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Stages Disease I Disease II Disease III
Type 2 Diabetes HIV Dental caries
1Exposure
Avoidance:
Healthy eating, limit
simple carbohydrates,
maintain healthy weght,
exercise
Abstinence from
sex (or screening and
monogamy of
seronegative
partners), no injection
drug use
Avoidance of sticky fermentable carbohydrate diet
2
Disease
Acquisition
Reduction:
Weight loss, consider
metformin if insulin
resistance/pre-diabetes
Condom promotion
and programs to
discourage drug
abuse, needle
sharing
Sealing of pit and fissure, use of fluorides and plaque control
3
Interruption or
Delay of Disease
Advancement:
Anti-diabetic drugs,
monitor hgb A-1C, FBS,
proteinuria, lipids; bariatric
surgery if indicated
Antibody
screening,
monitoring CD4,
viral load; treatment
with antiretrovirals
Preventive resin restorations, conservative restorations,ART
4
Avoidance or
Delay of Disease
Complications:
ACE Inhibitor/ARB to
prevent renal sequelae,
strict glucose control
(insulin if necessary), lipid
control, foot and eye care
Prophylactic
treatment for
opportunistic
infections
Indirect pulp capping, deep caries restorations
5
Delay of
Mortality from
Disease
complications
Renal Dialysis,
coronary stent or
bypass
Intensive treatment
for severe
opportunistic
infections
Root canal treatment and prosthetic rehabilitation
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Beyond disease prevention . . .
Breslow proposed in 1999 moving “beyond disease prevention and aiming for “the energy and reserves of health that permit a buoyant life, full of zest the eager ability to meet life’s challenges.”
Thus a supplementary paradigm consisting of four stages of health promotion/wellness was developed . .
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Stages of wellness
Stage 1: Exposure to positive health influences.
Stage 2: Adoption of positive health practices (such as healthy diet, exercise, recreation, adequate sleep, etc.).
Stage 3: Increase in indicators of health and wellness due to the healthy practices (such as increased strength and flexibility, immunity, optimal BMI, etc.).
Stage 4: Achievement of specific defined health and wellness goals, both subjective (e.g., sense of wellbeing and energy, fulfilling social
relationships) objective measures (e.g., high cognitive function, productivity,
capacity for role fulfillment or achievement)
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LEVELSOF
PREVENTION
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LEVELS OF PREVENTION
The concept of prevention is best defined in terms of levels of prevention. Traditionally,
1. Primordial prevention2. Primary prevention3. Secondary prevention4. Tertiary prevention5. Quaternary prevention
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PRIMORDIAL PREVENTION
Prevention of emergence or development of risk factors in countries or population groups in which they have not yet appeared.
it consists of actions and measures that inhibit the emergence and establishment of environmental, economic, social and behavioral conditions, cultural patterns of living known to increase the risk of disease.
- John Last’s dictionary
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Primordial prevention . . .
Mainly associated with chronic diseases
Intervention – Individual and mass education
Has to start in childhood when health risk behaviour begins
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Primordial prevention . . .
Examples of primordial prevention National programmes and policies on: Food and nutrition Against smoking and drugs To promote regular physical activity
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Primordial prevention . . .
Responsibility of primordial prevention: parents, teachers and peer groups: imparting health
education Government: legislating and enacting laws Professional and nonprofessional organisations Industry Hospitals, health practitioners, health care workers
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PRIMARY PREVENTION
Action taken prior to the onset of disease, which removes the possibility that a disease will ever occur
Intervention – prepathogenesis stage of disease
Concept of positive health: an acceptable level of health that will enable every individual to lead a socially and economically productive life
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primary prevention . . .
Approaches for primary prevention for chronic diseases (WHO):
A. Population (mass) strategy: Directed at whole population irrespective of individual risk levels Directed towards socio-economic, behavioral and lifestyle changes
B. High risk strategy: To individuals at special risk
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Population approach
Recognises influence of society
Risk reduction can be achieved at population level
Effective in dose-response relationship of diseases
Less effective in situations where there is no dose-response relationship
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
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High risk approach
Cost effective Motivation level is higher Easier for health
professionals to promote change
Individuals would have been aware and exposed to the risk
Fails to address public health problems which arise from small risks
Tends to medicaliseprevention
Does not focus on what influences behaviour
Little overall impact on control of disease
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
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POPULATION AND
HIGH RISK STRATEGIES
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Achievements of primary prevention: Controlling diseases like cholera, typhoid, dysentry, plague,
tuberculosis, by raising standard of living
Holistic approach
Modes of intervention: Health promotion Specific protection
primary prevention . . .
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Health promotion
Process of enabling people to increase control over and to improve health
Not directed against any particular disease
Interventions in this area: Health education Environmental modifications Nutritional interventions Lifestyle and behavioural changes
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Values in health promotion
Equity and social justice A holistic definition of health Covers a full range of health determinants Recognizes influence of environment on health Seeks to enhance people’s social participation Involves intersectoral collaboration (ottawa reference)
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Specific protection
Efforts directed toward protection against specific diseases
Interventions Immunization Use of specific nutrients Chemoprophylaxis Protection against occupational hazards Protection against accidents Protection from carcinogens Avoidance of allergens etc.
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SECONDARY PREVENTION
Action which halts the progress of the disease at its incipient stage and prevents complications
Intervention – early pathogenesis stage
It is the domain of clinical medicine
Drawback Patient already subjected to mental anguish & physical pain More expensive than primary prevention
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Modes of intervention: Early diagnosis (screening tests, case finding programs) Adequate/prompt treatment
Effects: Seeks out unrecognized disease Provides treatment before irreversible changes occur Reverses communicability of infectious diseases Protects community
secondary prevention . . .
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Early diagnosis and prompt treatment
Earlier diagnosed – better prognosis
Reduces morbidity and mortality
Effective in acute conditions
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TERTIARY PREVENTION
All measures available to reduce or limit impairments and disabilities, minimize suffering caused by existing departures from good health and to promote the patients adjustment to irremediable conditions
Intervention – late pathogenesis stage
Modes of intervention: Disability limitation Rehabilitation
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Disability limitation
To prevent or halt the transition of disease process from impairment to handicap
Disease impairment disability handicap
Impairment: any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological or anatomic structure or function
Disability: any restriction or lack of ability to perform an activity in the manner considered normal for a human being
Handicap: disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from impairment or disability, that limits or prevents the fulfillment of a role that is normal for that individual
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ACCIDENT Impairment: Loss of an anatomical structure
Disability: Lack of ability to perform an activity
Handicap: Prevents fulfillment of normal role
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Disease - dental caries Impairment – loss of tooth
Disability – cant talk Handicap – cant socialize
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Rehabilitation
The combined and coordinated use of medical, educational, social and vocational measures for training and retraining the individual to the highest possible level of functional ability
Types of rehabilitation Medical: restoration of function Vocational: restoration of capacity to earn a livelihood Social: restoration of family and social relationships Psychological: restoration of personal dignity and confidence
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Examples of rehabilitation Establishing schools for blind Provision of aids for crippled Exercises in neurological disorders Prosthetic restoration of lost tooth
Requires cooperation from different sections of society
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Principles of tertiary prevention
TERTIARY PREVENTION
Enable timely
recovery
Re-stabilize
Re-train
Re-motivate
Re-socialize
Re-integrate
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QUATERNARY PREVENTION
The action taken to identify patient at risk of over-medicalisation, toprotect him from new medical invasion, and to suggest to himinterventions, which are ethically acceptable.
Quaternary prevention is the set of health activities to mitigate or avoidthe consequences of unnecessary or excessive intervention of the healthsystem.
Quaternary prevention should take precedence over any alternativepreventive, diagnostic and therapeutic, as is the practice version‘primum non nocere’
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Intervention types:
Healthcare professionals must be aware of the consequences oftheir decisions, and include quaternary prevention interventions intheir daily clinical practice with each patient
Do not mistake risk factor with disease. To avoid check ups or unnecessary exams. To avoid technical interventionism in healthcare. To avoid the indiscriminate use of antibiotics (very often
unnecessary, with the subsequent unjustified increase of bacterial resistances)
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LEVE
LS O
F PRE
VENT
ION
Primordial Individual and mass education
Primary
Health promotion
Health education
Environmental modification
Nutritional interventions
Lifestyle changes
Specific protection
Immunization
Chemoprophylaxis
Avoidance of risk factorsSecondary Early diagnosis and prompt treatment
TertiaryDisability limitation
Rehabilitation
Medical
Vocational
Social
PsychologicalQuaternary
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EXAMPLES OF LEVELS OF PREVENTION
OFCOMMON ORAL DISEASES
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EXAMPLES OF PREVENTIVE STRATEGIES FOR DENTAL CARIESLevels of
preventionPRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY
Modes ofintervention
Health promotion
Specific protection
Early diagnosis and prompt treatment
Disabilitylimitation
Rehabilitation
Services provided by individual
Diet planning, demand for dental care
Use of fluoride/fluoridated water, fluoride dentifrice, oral hygiene practices
Self-examinationand referral; use of dental services
Use of dental services
Use of dental services
Services provided by community
Dental health education, promotion of research
Community or school water fluoridation, school fluoride mouthrinse/tablet/sealant program,
Periodicscreening and referral; provision of dental services
Provision of dental services
Provision of dental services
Services provided by the dental professional
Patient education, plaque controlprogram, diet counselling, recall reinforcement, caries activity tests
Topical application of fluoride, fluoride supplements; pit and fissure sealants
Completeexamination, prompt treatment of incipient lesions, PRR, simple restorations, pulp capping
Complex restorations, pulpotomy, RCT, extractions
Removable and fixed prosthodontics, minor tooth movements,implants
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EXAMPLES OF PREVENTIVE STRATEGIES FOR PERIODONTAL DISEASELevels of
preventionPRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY
Modes ofintervention
Health promotion
Specific protection
Early diagnosis and prompt treatment
Disabilitylimitation
Rehabilitation
Services provided by individual
Periodic visits to dental office; demand for preventive services
Oral hygiene practices
Self-examinationand referral; use of dental services
Use of dental services
Use of dental services
Services provided by community
Dental health education, promotion of research; provision of oral hygiene aids
Supervised school tooth-brushingprograms
Periodicscreening and referral; provision of dental services
Provision of dental services
Provision of dental services
Services provided by the dental professional
Patient education, plaque controlprogram, recall reinforcement
Correction of tooth malalignment, prophylaxis
Completeexamination, scaling and curettage, corrective restorative and occlusal services
Deep curettage, root planing, splinting, periodontal surgery, selectiveextractions
Removable and fixed prosthodontics, minor tooth movements
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EXAMPLES OF PREVENTIVE STRATEGIES FOR ORAL CANCERLevels of
preventionPRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY
Modes ofintervention
Health promotion
Specific protection
Early diagnosis and prompt treatment
Disabilitylimitation
Rehabilitation
Services provided by individual
Periodic visits to dental office; demand for preventive services
Avoidance of known irritants
Self-examinationand referral; use of dental services
Use of dental services
Use of dental services
Services provided by community
Dental health education, promotion of research
Periodicscreening and referral; provision of dental services
Provision of dental services
Provision of dental services
Services provided by the dental professional
Patient education Removal of known irritants in oral cavity
Completeexamination, biopsy, oral cytology, complete excision
Chemotherapy,radiation therapy, surgery
Maxillofacialand removable prosthodontics, plastic surgery, speech therapy and counselling
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Understanding prevention through disease pathogenesis
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Eg: understanding dental caries
Tooth + Bacteria = Acid Demineralization
Sensitivity and white spots
Pits and cavitation
Deep cavities, pulp invl.
Sensitivity, food lodgement
pain
Loss of teeth, difficulty in chewing, esthetics,
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Eg: understanding dental caries
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CONCEPTS OF
DISEASE CONTROL
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DISEASE CONTROL
Describes (ongoing) operations aimed at reducing: The incidence of disease Duration of disease (risk of transmission) Effects of infection (both physical and psychosocial) Financial burden to the community
Mainly focused on primary and secondary prevention
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Public health approach to disease control
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Disease control includes . . .
Control
Elimination
Eradication
Extinction
public policy intervention that restricts the circulation of an infectious agent beyond the level that would result from spontaneous, individual behaviors to protect against infection
Reduction to zero of the incidence of a specified disease in a defined geographical area as a result of deliberate efforts
Termination of all transmission of infections by extermination of infectious agents
The specific infectious agent no longer exists in nature or in the laboratory
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Disease eradication
All or none law
Only one disease has been eradicated so far: Small pox
Eradication underway for: Poliomyelitis Dracunculiasis Yaws Malaria Measels
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Framework for eradication
Scientific considerations
Operational considerations
Economic considerations
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Framework for eradication
Scientific considerations
Geographic and environmental controls
Potential reservoirs
Transmissibility
Natural resistance to reinfection
Laboratory containment
Operational considerations
Economic considerations
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Framework for eradication
Scientific considerations
Operational considerations
Disease surveillance
Intervention
CertificationEconomic considerations
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Framework for eradication
Scientific considerations
Operational considerations
Economic considerations
Private vs Social net benefit
Short term vs long term benefits
Local vs international benefits
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Framework for eradication
Scientific considerations
Geographic and environmental controls
Potential reservoirs
Transmissibility
Natural resistance to reinfection
Laboratory containment
Operational considerations
Disease surveillance
Intervention
Certification
Economic considerations
Private vs Social net benefit
Short term vs long term benefits
Local vs international benefits
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Monitoring
Monitoring: it is the performance and analysis of routine measurements aimed at detecting changes in the environment or health status of a population
Eg: monitoring of air pollution, water quality, growth and nutritional status
Also refers to performance of health service or health professional or the extent of patient’s compliance
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Surveillance
Surveillance: continuous scrutiny of the factors that determine the occurrence and distribution of disease and other conditions of ill-health
Objectives of surveillance: To provide information about new and changing trends in
health status of a population To provide feed back which may be expected to modify
policy and system Provide timely warning of public health disasters so that
interventions can be mobilized
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Surveillance is a continuous process which involves three primary activities:
i. Collection of relevant data for a specified population, time period and/or geographic area;
ii. Meaningful analysis of data;
iii. Routine dissemination of data with accompanying interpretation.
surveillance . . .
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Duties of health care professionals in surveillance
Identify and describe each individual having an infection as quickly as possible after exposure.
Determine the source of infection. Identify exposed individuals to whom the infection may have
been transmitted. Specify the frequency of occurrence of infection in
population groups at risk by person, place and time. Identify populations that are experiencing, or might
experience, an increased frequency of infection. Prepare and distribute surveillance reports to health care
professionals participating in disease prevention and control activities.
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Types of surveillance
Passive surveillance: receipt of reports of infections/disease from physicians, laboratories and other health care professionals required to submit such reports as defined by public health legislation
Active surveillance: Active disease surveillance is also based on public health legislation and refers to daily, weekly or monthly contacting of physicians, hospitals, laboratories, schools or others to “actively” search for cases Usually seasonal or done during disease outbreaks
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CONCLUSION
Understanding disease pathology is the first step towards formulating preventive measures
Prevention can be achieved in any stage of disease
Primordial or primary prevention is most effective and economical
Disease control is also a part of prevention which is achieved by means of continuous monitoring and surveillance of disease
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REFERENCES
Miller M, Barrett S, Henderson DA. Control and Eradication. In: Jamison DT,Breman JG, Measham AR, Alleyne G, Claeson M, Evans DB, et al., editors. DiseaseControl Priorities in Developing Countries [Internet]. 2nd ed. Washington (DC):World Bank; 2006 [cited 2015 Feb 5]. Available from:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11763/
DCP_1163-1176.qxd - ch62.pdf [Internet]. [cited 2015 Feb 9]. Available from:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11763/pdf/ch62.pdf
Molyneux DH, Hopkins DR, Zagaria N. Disease eradication, elimination andcontrol: the need for accurate and consistent usage. Trends Parasitol. 2004Aug;20(8):347–51.
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REFERENCES
First draft about 2000 words; another 2000 may be added: - Stages of Prevention 1-12.pdf [Internet]. [cited 2015 Feb 5]. Available from: http://www.capreventivemed.org/wp-content/themes/eventbrite-child/documents/Stages%20of%20Prevention%201-12.pdf
Clark EG. Natural History of Syphilis and Levels of Prevention*. Br J Vener Dis. 1954 Dec;30(4):191–7.
admin. Epidemiological basis for preventive strategies [Internet]. Health Knowledge. 2010 [cited 2015 Feb 9]. Available from: http://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/research-methods/1c-health-care-evaluation-health-care-assessment/epidemiological-basis-pstrategies
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REFERENCES
Dowdle WR. The principles of disease elimination and eradication. Bull World Health Organ. 1998;76(Suppl 2):22–5.
Have You Heard of “Primordial Prevention”? - Improving Population Health [Internet]. [cited 2015 Feb 9]. Available from: http://www.improvingpopulationhealth.org/blog/2011/05/primordial_prevention.html
The Five Stages of Prevention: A New Paradigm for Classifying the Prevention of Disease (Updated 2014) [Internet]. [cited 2015 Feb 5]. Available from: http://www.academia.edu/5673406/The_Five_Stages_of_Prevention_A_New_Paradigm_for_Classifying_the_Prevention_of_Disease_Updated_2014_
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REFERENCES
Soben Peter. Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya Publising House; 2013.
PARK K. PARK’S TEXTBOOK OF PREVENTIVE AND SOCIAL MEDICINE. 21st ed. Jabalpur: Banarsidas Bhanot; 2011.
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