computer science - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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/20/12 Computer science - Wikipedia, the f ree ency clopedia

1.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science

Computer science deals with the

theoretical foundations ofinformation and computation,

together with practical techniques

for the implementation and

application of these foundations

Computer scienceFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Computer science orcomputing science (abbreviated CS orCompSci) is the scientific and practical approach

to computation and its applications. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design o

computational systems.[1]

Its subfields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computationcomplexity theory (which explores the fundamental properties of computational problems), are highly abstract,

whilst fields such as computer graphics emphasise real-world applications. Still other fields focus on the challenges

in implementing computation. For example, programming language theory considers various approaches to the

description of computation, whilst the study of computer programming itself investigates various aspects of the use

of programming language and complex systems. Human-computer interaction considers the challenges in making

computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans.

Contents1 History

1.1 Major achievements

2 Philosophy

2.1 Name of the field

3 Areas of computer science

3.1 Theoretical computer science

3.1.1 Theory of computation

3.1.2 Information and coding theory

3.1.3 Algorithms and data structures

3.1.4 Programming language theory

3.1.5 Formal methods

3.1.6 Concurrent, parallel and distributed systems

3.1.7 Databases and information retrieval

3.2 Applied computer science

3.2.1 Artificial intelligence

3.2.2 Computer architecture and engineering

3.2.3 Computer graphics and visualization

3.2.4 Computer security and cryptography3.2.5 Computational science

3.2.6 Health Informatics

3.2.7 Information science

3.2.8 Software engineering

4 Academia

4.1 Conferences

4.2 Journals

5 Education

6 See also
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Charles Babbage is credited

with inventing the first

mechanical computer.

Ada Lovelace is creditedwith writing the first

algorithm intended for

processing on a computer.

7 Notes

8 References

9 Further reading

10 External links

History

Main article: History of computer science

The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the

invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical

tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity. Wilhelm Schickard

designed the first mechanical calculator in 1623, but did not complete its

construction.[2] Blaise Pascal designed and constructed the first working

mechanical calculator, the Pascaline, in 1642. In 1694 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

completed the Step Reckoner, the first calculator that could perform all four

arithmetic operations. Charles Babbage designed a difference engine and then a

general-purpose Analytical Engine in Victorian times,[3] for which Ada Lovelace

wrote a manual. Because of this work she is regarded today as the world's first

programmer.[4] Around 1900, punched card machines were introduced.

During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were

developed, the term computercame to refer to the machines rather than their

human predecessors.[5] As it became clear that computers could be used for

more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened

to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as a

distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s.[6][7] The world's first

computer science degree program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer

Science, began at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory in 1953.

The first computer science degree program in the United States was formed at

Purdue University in 1962.[8] Since practical computers became available, many

applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own right.

Although many initially believed it was impossible that computers themselves

could actually be a scientific field of study, in the late fifties it gradually became

accepted among the greater academic population.

[9]

It is the now well-knownIBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time.

IBM (short for International Business Machines) released the IBM 704 and later

the IBM 709 computers, which were widely used during the exploration period

of such devices. "Still, working with the IBM [computer] was frustrating...if you

had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash,

and you would have to start the whole process over again".[9] During the late 1950s, the computer science

discipline was very much in its developmental stages, and such issues were commonplace.

Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology. Modern society
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The German military used the Enigma

machine (shown here) during World

War II for communication they

thought to be secret. The large-scale

decryption of Enigma traffic atBletchley Park was an important

factor that contributed to Allied

victory in WWII.[10]

has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a

near-ubiquitous user base. Initially, computers were quite costly, and some degree of human aid was needed for

efficient use - in part from professional computer operators. As computer adoption became more widespread and

affordable, less human assistance was needed for common usage.

Major achievements

Despite its short history as a formal academic discipline, computer

science has made a number of fundamental contributions to science and

society - in fact, along with electronics, it is a founding science of the

current epoch of human history called the Information Age and a driver

of the Information Revolution, seen as the third major leap in human

technological progress after the Industrial Revolution (1750-1850 CE)

and the Agricultural Revolution (8000-5000 BCE).

These contributions include:

The start of the "digital revolution," which includes the current

Information Age and the Internet.[11]

A formal definition of computation and computability, and proof

that there are computationally unsolvable and intractable

problems.[12]

The concept of a programming language, a tool for the precise

expression of methodological information at various levels of

abstraction.[13]

In cryptography, breaking the Enigma code was an important

factor contributing to the Allied victory in World War II.[10]

Scientific computing enabled practical evaluation of processes andsituations of great complexity, as well as experimentation entirely

by software. It also enabled advanced study of the mind, and

mapping of the human genome became possible with the Human

Genome Project.[11] Distributed computing projects such as

Folding@home explore protein folding.

Algorithmic trading has increased the efficiency and liquidity of financial markets by using artificial intelligenc

machine learning, and other statistical and numerical techniques on a large scale.[14] High frequency

algorithmic trading can also exacerbate volatility.[15]

Image synthesis, including video by computing individual video frames.[citation needed]Simulation of various processes, including computational fluid dynamics, physical, electrical, and electronic

systems and circuits, as well as societies and social situations (notably war games) along with their habitats,

among many others. Modern computers enable optimization of such designs as complete aircraft. Notable i

electrical and electronic circuit design are SPICE, as well as software for physical realization of new (or

modified) designs. The latter includes essential design software for integrated circuits.[citation needed]

Philosophy
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Main article: Philosophy of computer science

A number of computer scientists have argued for the distinction of three separate paradigms in computer science.

Peter Wegner argued that those paradigms are science, technology, and mathematics.[16] Peter Denning's working

group argued that they are theory, abstraction (modeling), and design.[17] Amnon H. Eden described them as the

"rationalist paradigm" (which treats computer science as a branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical

computer science, and mainly employs deductive reasoning), the "technocratic paradigm" (which might be found in

engineering approaches, most prominently in software engineering), and the "scientific paradigm" (which approach

computer-related artifacts from the empirical perspective of natural sciences, identifiable in some branches of

artificial intelligence).[18]

Name of the field

The term "computer science" was first coined by the numerical analyst George Forsythe in 1961.[19] Despite its

name, a significant amount of computer science does not involve the study of computers themselves. Because of

this, several alternative names have been proposed.[20] Certain departments of major universities prefer the term

computing science, to emphasize precisely that difference. Danish scientist Peter Naur suggested the term datalogy

to reflect the fact that the scientific discipline revolves around data and data treatment, while not necessarilyinvolving computers. The first scientific institution to use the term was the Department of Datalogy at the University

of Copenhagen, founded in 1969, with Peter Naur being the first professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly in

the Scandinavian countries. Also, in the early days of computing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the field

of computing were suggested in the Communications of the ACM turingineer, turologist, flow-charts-man, applie

meta-mathematician, and applied epistemologist.[21] Three months later in the same journal, comptologist was

suggested, followed next year by hypologist.[22] The term computics has also been suggested.[23] In Europe, term

derived from contracted translations of the expression "automatic information" (e.g. "informazione automatica" in

Italian) or "information and mathematics" are often used, e.g. informatique (French), Informatik(German),

informatica (Italy), informtica (Spain, Portugal) orinformatika (Slavic languages) are also used and have also bee

adopted in the UK (as in the School of Informatics of the University of Edinburgh).[24]

A folkloric quotation, often attributed tobut almost certainly not first formulated byEdsger Dijkstra, states tha

"computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes."[note 1] The design and

deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than

computer science. For example, the study of computer hardware is usually considered part of computer

engineering, while the study of commercial computer systems and their deployment is often called information

technology or information systems. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various

computer-related disciplines. Computer science research also often intersects other disciplines, such as philosophy

cognitive science, linguistics, mathematics, physics, statistics, and logic.

Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with mathematics than many scientific

disciplines, with some observers saying that computing is a mathematical science.[6] Early computer science was

strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as Kurt Gdel and Alan Turing, and there continues to be

useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as mathematical logic, category theory, domain

theory, and algebra.

The relationship between computer science and software engineering is a contentious issue, which is further

muddied by disputes over what the term "software engineering" means, and how computer science is defined.[25]

David Parnas, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, has claimed tha
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the principal focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principal

focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making the two

separate but complementary disciplines.[26]

The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on whether a department formed

with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics

emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider alignment with computational science. Both types of

departments tend to make efforts to bridge the field educationally if not across all research.

Areas of computer science

As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of

computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software.[27][28] CSAB,

formerly called Computing Sciences Accreditation Board which is made up of representatives of the Association

for Computing Machinery (ACM), and the IEEE Computer Society (IEEE-CS)[29] identifies four areas that it

considers crucial to the discipline of computer science: theory of computation, algorithms and data structures,

programming methodology and languages, and computer elements and architecture. In addition to these four areas

CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking andcommunication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, computer-human interaction,

computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and symbolic computation as being important areas of

computer science.[27]

Theoretical computer science

Main article: Theoretical computer science

The broader field of theoretical computer science encompasses both the classical theory of computation and a wid

range of other topics that focus on the more abstract, logical, and mathematical aspects of computing.

Theory of computation

Main article: Theory of computation

According to Peter J. Denning, the fundamental question underlying computer science is, "What can be (efficiently

automated?"[6] The study of the theory of computation is focused on answering fundamental questions about what

can be computed and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In an effort to answe

the first question, computability theory examines which computational problems are solvable on various theoretical

models of computation. The second question is addressed by computational complexity theory, which studies the

time and space costs associated with different approaches to solving a multitude of computational problems.

The famous "P=NP?" problem, one of the Millennium Prize Problems,[30] is an open problem in the theory of

computation.
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P = NP ? GNITIRW-

TERCES

Automata

theory

Computability

theory

Computational complexity

theoryCryptography

Quantum computing

theory

Information and coding theory

Main articles: Information theory and Coding theory

Information theory is related to the quantification of information. This was developed by Claude E. Shannon to find

fundamental limits on signal processing operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and

communicating data. Coding theory is the study of the properties of codes (systems for converting information from

one form to another) and their fitness for a specific application. Codes are used for data compression,

cryptography, error detection and correction, and more recently also for network coding. Codes are studied for th

purpose of designing efficient and reliable data transmission methods.

Algorithms and data structures

Analysis of algorithms Algorithms Data structures Computational geometry

Programming language theory

Main article: Programming language theory

Programming language theory (PLT) is a branch of computer science that deals with the design, implementation,analysis, characterization, and classification of programming languages and their individual features. It falls within th

discipline of computer science, both depending on and affecting mathematics, software engineering and linguistics.

is an active research area, with numerous dedicated academic journals.
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Type theory Compiler design Programming languages

Formal methods

Main article: Formal methods

Formal methods are a particular kind of mathematically based technique for the specification, development and

verification of software and hardware systems. The use of formal methods for software and hardware design is

motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analysiscan contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design. However, the high cost of using formal methods means

that they are usually only used in the development of high-integrity and life-critical systems, where safety or securit

is of utmost importance. Formal methods are best described as the application of a fairly broad variety of

theoretical computer science fundamentals, in particular logic calculi, formal languages, automata theory, and

program semantics, but also type systems and algebraic data types to problems in software and hardware

specification and verification.

Concurrent, parallel and distributed systems

Main articles: Concurrency (computer science) and Distributed computing

Concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially

interacting with each other. A number of mathematical models have been developed for general concurrent

computation including Petri nets, process calculi and the Parallel Random Access Machine model. A distributed

system extends the idea of concurrency onto multiple computers connected through a network. Computers within

the same distributed system have their own private memory, and information is often exchanged amongst

themselves to achieve a common goal.

Databases and information retrieval

Main articles: Database and Database management systems

A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve large amounts of data easily. Digital databases are managed

using database management systems to store, create, maintain, and search data, through database models and

query languages.

Applied computer science

Artificial intelligence
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Query_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_modelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_management_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_Random_Access_Machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_calculihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petri_netshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrency_(computer_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_data_typeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program_semanticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automata_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_in_computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-critical_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_verificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_specificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicallyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_methodshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Python_add5_syntax.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ideal_compiler.png


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Main article: Artificial intelligence

This branch of computer science aims to or is required to synthesise goal-orientated processes such as problem-

solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, learning and communication which are found in humans and

animals. From its origins in cybernetics and in the Dartmouth Conference (1956), artificial intelligence (AI) researc

has been necessarily cross-disciplinary, drawing on areas of expertise such as applied mathematics, symbolic logic

semiotics, electrical engineering, philosophy of mind, neurophysiology, and social intelligence. AI is associated in th

popular mind with robotic development, but the main field of practical application has been as an embedded

component in areas of software development which require computational understanding and modeling such as

finance and economics, data mining and the physical sciences. The starting-point in the late 1940s was Alan

Turing's question "Can computers think?", and the question remains effectively unanswered although the "Turing

Test" is still used to assess computer output on the scale of human intelligence. But the automation of evaluative an

predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a substitute for human monitoring and intervention in domains o

computer application involving complex real-world data.

Machine learning Computer vision Image processing Pattern recognition

Cognitive science Data miningEvolutionary

computationInformation retrieval

Knowledge

representation

Natural language

processingRobotics

Medical Image

Computing

Computer architecture and engineering

Main articles: Computer architecture and Computer engineering

Computer architecture, or digital computer organization, is the conceptual design and fundamental operational
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structure of a computer system. It focuses largely on the way by which the central processing unit performs

internally and accesses addresses in memory. The field often involves disciplines of computer engineering and

electrical engineering, selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet functiona

performance, and cost goals.

Digital logic Microarchitecture Multiprocessing

Operating systems Computer networks Databases Computer security

Ubiquitous computing Systems architecture Compiler design Programming languages

Computer graphics and visualization

Main article: Computer graphics (computer science)

Computer graphics is the study of digital visual contents, and involves syntheses and manipulations of image data.

The study is connected to many other fields in computer science, including computer vision, image processing, and

computational geometry, and is heavily applied in the fields of special effects and video games.

Computer security and cryptography

Main articles: Computer security and Cryptography
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_gameshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_effectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_geometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_visionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_graphics_(computer_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubiquitous_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Python_add5_syntax.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ideal_compiler.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flowchart.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roomba_original.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Databaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_networkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Padlock.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emp_Tables_(Database).PNGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NETWORK-Library-LAN.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Operating_system_placement.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiprocessinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microarchitecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SIMD.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fivestagespipeline.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NOR_ANSI.svg


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10/1.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science

Computer security is a branch of computer technology, whose objective includes protection of information from

unauthorized access, disruption, or modification while maintaining the accessibility and usability of the system for it

intended users. Cryptography is the practice and study of hiding (encryption) and therefore deciphering

(decryption) information. Modern cryptography is largely related to computer science, for many encryption and

decryption algorithms are based on their computational complexity.

Computational science

Computational science (or scientific computing) is the field of study concerned with constructing mathematical

models and quantitative analysis techniques and using computers to analyze and solve scientific problems. In

practical use, it is typically the application of computer simulation and other forms of computation to problems in

various scientific disciplines.

Numerical analysis Computational physics Computational chemistry Bioinformatics

Health Informatics

Main article: Health Informatics

Health Informatics in computer science deals with computational techniques for solving problems in health care.

Information science

Main article: Information science

Information

retrieval

Knowledge

representation

Natural language

processing

Humancomputer

interaction

Software engineering

Main article: Software engineering
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_retrievalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wacom_graphics_tablet_and_pen.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:English.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neuron.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Earth.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Informaticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformaticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1u04-argonaute.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Naphthalene-3D-balls.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quark_wiki.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lorenz_attractor_yb.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_simulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientifichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_modellinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_science


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11/.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science

Software engineering is the study of designing, implementing, and modifying software in order to ensure it is of high

quality, affordable, maintainable, and fast to build. It is a systematic approach to software design, involving the

application of engineering practices to software. Software engineering deals with the organizing and analyzing of

software it doesn't just deal with the creation or manufacture of new software, but its internal maintenance and

arrangement.

Academia

Conferences

Further information: List of computer science conferences

Journals

Further information: Category:Computer science journals

EducationSome universities teach computer science as a theoretical study of computation and algorithmic reasoning. These

programs often feature the theory of computation, analysis of algorithms, formal methods, concurrency theory,

databases, computer graphics, and systems analysis, among others. They typically also teach computer

programming, but treat it as a vessel for the support of other fields of computer science rather than a central focus

of high-level study. The ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Curriculum Task Force "Computing Curriculum 2005" (and 2008

update) [31] gives a guideline for university curriculum.

Other colleges and universities, as well as secondary schools and vocational programs that teach computer science

emphasize the practice of advanced programming rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in theircomputer science curricula. Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the

software industry. The process aspects of computer programming are often referred to as software engineering.

While computer science professions increasingly drive the U.S. economy, computer science education is absent in

most American K-12 curricula. A report entitled "Running on Empty: The Failure to Teach K-12 Computer

Science in the Digital Age" (http://www.acm.org/runningonempty/) was released in October 2010 by Association

for Computing Machinery (ACM) (http://www.acm.org/) and Computer Science Teachers Association (CSTA)

(http://csta.acm.org/) , and revealed that only 14 states have adopted significant education standards for high scho

computer science. The report also found that only nine states count high school computer science courses as a cor

academic subject in their graduation requirements. In tandem with "Running on Empty", a new non-partisanadvocacy coalition - Computing in the Core (CinC) (http://www.computinginthecore.org/) - was founded to

influence federal and state policy, such as the Computer Science Education Act

(http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h111-5929&tab=summary) , which calls for grants to states to

develop plans for improving computer science education and supporting computer science teachers.

Within the United States a gender gap in computer science education has been observed as well. Research

conducted by the WGBH Educational Foundation and the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) reveale

that more than twice as many high school boys considered computer science to be a very good or good colleg

major than high school girls.[32] In addition, the high school Advanced Placement (AP) exam for computer science

has displayed a disparity in gender. Compared to other AP subjects it has the lowest number of female participant
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with a composition of about 15 percent women.[33] This gender gap in computer science is further witnessed at th

college level, where 31 percent of undergraduate computer science degrees are earned by women and only 8

percent of computer science faculty consists of women.[34] According to an article (http://edgaps.org/gaps/number

of-women-in-computer-science-fields-shrinking-can-epistemic-games-help-solve-the-problem/) published by the

Epistemic Games Group (http://edgaps.org/gaps/) in August of 2012, the number of women graduates in the

computer science field has declined to 13 percent.

See also

Main article: Outline of computer science

Academic genealogy of computer scientists

Informatics (academic field)

List of academic computer science departments

List of computer science conferences

List of computer scientists

List of publications in computer scienceList of pioneers in computer science

List of software engineering topics

List of unsolved problems in computer science

Women in computing

Notes

1. ^ See the entry "Computer science" on Wikiquote for the history of this quotation.

References

1. ^ "WordNet Search - 3.1" (http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=computer%20scientist) .

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2. ^ Nigel Tout (2006). "Calculator Timeline" (http://www.vintagecalculators.com/html/calculator_time-line.html) .

Vintage Calculator Web Museum. http://www.vintagecalculators.com/html/calculator_time-line.html. Retrieved

2006-09-18.3. ^ "Science Museum - Introduction to Babbage"

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Archived from the original (http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/babbage/index.asp) on 2006-09-08.

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6. ^ abc Denning, P.J. (2000). "Computer Science: The Discipline"
http://web.archive.org/web/20060525195404/http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_J._Denninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-Denning_cs_discipline_6-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-Denning_cs_discipline_6-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-Denning_cs_discipline_6-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machineryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-5http://www.scottlan.edu/Lriddle/women/ada-love.htmhttp://www.scottlan.edu/Lriddle/women/ada-love.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-4http://web.archive.org/web/20060908054017/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/babbage/index.asphttp://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/babbage/index.asphttp://web.archive.org/web/20060908054017/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/babbage/index.asphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-3http://www.vintagecalculators.com/html/calculator_time-line.htmlhttp://www.vintagecalculators.com/html/calculator_time-line.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-2http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=computer%20scientisthttp://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=computer%20scientisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-1http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_software_engineering_topicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_science_conferenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_academic_computer_science_departmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatics_(academic_field)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_genealogy_of_computer_scientistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_computer_sciencehttp://edgaps.org/gaps/http://edgaps.org/gaps/number-of-women-in-computer-science-fields-shrinking-can-epistemic-games-help-solve-the-problem/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_note-34


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(http://web.archive.org/web/20060525195404/http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf) (PDF).

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7. ^ "Some EDSAC statistics" (http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/conference/EDSAC99/statistics.html) . Cl.cam.ac.uk.

http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/conference/EDSAC99/statistics.html. Retrieved 2011-11-19.

8. ^ Computer science pioneer Samuel D. Conte dies at 85 (http://www.cs.purdue.edu/feature/conte.html) July 1,

2002

9. ^

a

b

Levy, Steven (1984). Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-19195-2.10. ^ ab David Kahn, The Codebreakers, 1967, ISBN 0-684-83130-9.

11. ^ ab http://www.cis.cornell.edu/Dean/Presentations/Slides/bgu.pdf

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(http://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/bgu.pdf) . http://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/bgu.pdf.

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way we express what we think. The essence of this change is the emergence of what might best be called

procedural epistemology the study of the structure of knowledge from an imperative point of view, as opposed

to the more declarative point of view taken by classical mathematical subjects."

14. ^ Black box traders are on the march (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/money/main.jhtml?

xml=/money/2006/08/27/ccsoft27.xml) The Telegraph, August 26, 200615. ^ "The Impact of High Frequency Trading on an Electronic Market" (http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?

abstract_id=1686004) . Papers.ssrn.com. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1686004 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.1686004

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study.org/articles/2007/three_paradigms_of_computer_science.pdf) . Minds and Machines17 (2): 135167.doi:10.1007/s11023-007-9060-8 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11023-007-9060-8) . http://www.eden-

study.org/articles/2007/three_paradigms_of_computer_science.pdf.

19. ^ Donald Knuth (1972). "George Forsythe and the Development of Computer Science"

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21. ^ Communications of the ACM 1(4):p.6

22. ^ Communications of the ACM 2(1):p.4

23. ^ IEEE Computer 28(12):p.136

24. ^ P. Mounier-Kuhn, LInformatique en France, de la seconde guerre mondiale au Plan Calcul. Lmergence dune

science, Paris, PUPS, 2010, ch. 3 & 4.25. ^ M. Tedre (2011) Computing as a Science: A Survey of Competing Viewpoints

(http://www.springerlink.com/content/v66j682n57602453/) , Minds and Machines 21(3), 361-387

26. ^ Parnas, D. L. (1998). Annals of Software Engineering6: 1937. doi:10.1023/A:1018949113292

(http://dx.doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1018949113292) . , p. 19: "Rather than treat software engineering as a

subfield of computer science, I treat it as an element of the set, Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering,

Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, [...]"

27. ^ ab Computing Sciences Accreditation Board (28 May 1997). "Computer Science as a Profession"

(http://web.archive.org/web/20080617030847/http://www.csab.org/comp_sci_profession.html) . Archived from

the original (http://www.csab.org/comp_sci_profession.html) on 2008-06-17.

http://web.archive.org/web/20080617030847/http://www.csab.org/comp_sci_profession.html. Retrieved 2010-05
http://web.archive.org/web/20080617030847/http://www.csab.org/comp_sci_profession.htmlhttp://www.csab.org/comp_sci_profession.htmlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20080617030847/http://www.csab.org/comp_sci_profession.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-CSAB1997_28-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-CSAB1997_28-0http://dx.doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1018949113292http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-27http://www.springerlink.com/content/v66j682n57602453/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-21http://epublications.uef.fi/pub/urn_isbn_952-458-867-6/urn_isbn_952-458-867-6.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-20http://www.stanford.edu/dept/ICME/docs/history/forsythe_knuth.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Knuthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-19http://www.eden-study.org/articles/2007/three_paradigms_of_computer_science.pdfhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11023-007-9060-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minds_and_Machineshttp://www.eden-study.org/articles/2007/three_paradigms_of_computer_science.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-18http://dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F63238.63239http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-16http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1686004http://dx.doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.1686004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1686004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-15http://www.telegraph.co.uk/money/main.jhtml?xml=/money/2006/08/27/ccsoft27.xmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-01153-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal_Abelsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-13http://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/bgu.pdfhttp://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/bgu.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-12http://www.cis.cornell.edu/Dean/Presentations/Slides/bgu.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-bgu_11-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-bgu_11-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0684831309http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Codebreakershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Kahn_(writer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-kahnbook_10-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-kahnbook_10-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-19195-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackers:_Heroes_of_the_Computer_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Levyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-Levy1984_9-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-Levy1984_9-0http://www.cs.purdue.edu/feature/conte.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-8http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/conference/EDSAC99/statistics.htmlhttp://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/conference/EDSAC99/statistics.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-7http://web.archive.org/web/20060525195404/http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdfhttp://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdfhttp://web.archive.org/web/20060525195404/http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf


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23.

28. ^ Committee on the Fundamentals of Computer Science: Challenges and Opportunities, National Research Counci

(2004). Computer Science: Reflections on the Field, Reflections from the Field (http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?

record_id=11106#toc) . National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-09301-9. http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?

record_id=11106#toc.

29. ^ "Csab, Inc" (http://www.csab.org/) . Csab.org. 2011-08-03. http://www.csab.org/. Retrieved 2011-11-19.

30. ^ Clay Mathematics Institute (http://www.claymath.org/millennium/P_vs_NP/) P=NP

31. ^ "ACM Curricula Recommendations" (http://www.acm.org/education/curricula-recommendations) .

http://www.acm.org/education/curricula-recommendations. Retrieved 2012/11/18.32. ^ http://www.acm.org/membership/NIC.pdf

33. ^ Gilbert, Alorie. "Newsmaker: Computer science's gender gap" (http://news.cnet.com/2008-1082-833090.html)

CNET News. http://news.cnet.com/2008-1082-833090.html.

34. ^ Dovzan, Nicole. "Examining the Gender Gap in Technology"

(http://sitemaker.umich.edu/356.dovzan/evidence_and_explanations_of_the_gender_gap) . University of Michigan

http://sitemaker.umich.edu/356.dovzan/evidence_and_explanations_of_the_gender_gap.

Further reading

Overview

Tucker, Allen B. (2004). Computer Science Handbook(2nd ed.). Chapman and Hall/CRC. ISBN 1-58488-360-X.

"Within more than 70 chapters, every one new or significantly revised, one can find any kind of informatio

and references about computer science one can imagine. [...] all in all, there is absolute nothing about

Computer Science that can not be found in the 2.5 kilogram-encyclopaedia with its 110 survey articles

[...]." (Christoph Meinel, Zentralblatt MATH)

van Leeuwen, Jan (1994). Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-72020-5.

"[...] this set is the most unique and possibly the most useful to the [theoretical computer science]

community, in support both of teaching and research [...]. The books can be used by anyone wanting

simply to gain an understanding of one of these areas, or by someone desiring to be in research in a topic,

or by instructors wishing to find timely information on a subject they are teaching outside their major areas

of expertise." (Rocky Ross, SIGACT News)

Ralston, Anthony; Reilly, Edwin D.; Hemmendinger, David (2000). Encyclopedia of Computer Science

(http://portal.acm.org/ralston.cfm) (4th ed.). Grove's Dictionaries. ISBN 1-56159-248-X.

http://portal.acm.org/ralston.cfm.

"Since 1976, this has been the definitive reference work on computer, computing, and computer science.

[.. .] Alphabetically arranged and classified into broad subject areas, the entries cover hardware, computer

systems, information and data, software, the mathematics of computing, theory of computation,

methodologies, applications, and computing milieu. The editors have done a commendable job of blending

historical perspective and practical reference information. The encyclopedia remains essential for most

public and academic library reference collections." (Joe Accardin, Northeastern Illinois Univ., Chicago)

Edwin D. Reilly (2003). Milestones in Computer Science and Information Technology(http://books.google.com/books?id=JTYPKxug49IC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false) . Greenwood

Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-57356-521-9. http://books.google.com/books?

id=JTYPKxug49IC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false.

Selected papers

Knuth, Donald E. (1996). Selected Papers on Computer Science. CSLI Publications, Cambridge University Press.

"Covering a period from 1966 to 1993, its interest lies not only in the content of each of these papers st

timely today but also in their being put together so that ideas expressed at different times complement

each other nicely." (N. Bernard, Zentralblatt MATH)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Presshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Knuthhttp://books.google.com/books?id=JTYPKxug49IC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57356-521-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=JTYPKxug49IC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://portal.acm.org/ralston.cfmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56159-248-Xhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://portal.acm.org/ralston.cfmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Hemmendinger&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edwin_D._Reilly&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anthony_Ralston&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIGACT_Newshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-72020-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_van_Leeuwenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zentralblatt_MATHhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58488-360-Xhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Allen_B._Tucker&action=edit&redlink=1http://sitemaker.umich.edu/356.dovzan/evidence_and_explanations_of_the_gender_gaphttp://sitemaker.umich.edu/356.dovzan/evidence_and_explanations_of_the_gender_gaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-35http://news.cnet.com/2008-1082-833090.htmlhttp://news.cnet.com/2008-1082-833090.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-34http://www.acm.org/membership/NIC.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-33http://www.acm.org/education/curricula-recommendationshttp://www.acm.org/education/curricula-recommendationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-32http://www.claymath.org/millennium/P_vs_NP/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-31http://www.csab.org/http://www.csab.org/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-30http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11106#tochttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-09301-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11106#tochttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science#cite_ref-29


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Articles

Peter J. Denning. Is computer science science? (http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?

id=1053309&coll=&dl=ACM&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN=6184618) , Communications of the ACM, April

2005.

Peter J. Denning, Great principles in computing curricula (http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?

id=971303&dl=ACM&coll=&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN=6184618) , Technical Symposium on Computer

Science Education, 2004.

Research evaluation for computer science, Informatics Europe report (http://www.informatics-

europe.org/docs/research_evaluation.pdf) . Shorter journal version: Bertrand Meyer, Christine Choppy, Jan vanLeeuwen and Jorgen Staunstrup, Research evaluation for computer science, in Communications of the ACM, vol

52, no. 4, pp. 3134, April 2009.

Curriculum and classification

Association for Computing Machinery. 1998 ACM Computing Classification System

(http://www.acm.org/class/1998/overview.html) . 1998.

Joint Task Force of Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), Association for Information Systems (AIS) an

IEEE Computer Society (IEEE-CS). Computing Curricula 2005: The Overview Report

(http://www.acm.org/education/curric_vols/CC2005-March06Final.pdf) . September 30, 2005.

Norman Gibbs, Allen Tucker. "A model curriculum for a liberal arts degree in computer sc ience". Communicationof the ACM, Volume 29 Issue 3, March 1986.

External links

Computer science (http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Computer_Science//) at the Open Directory Project

Scholarly Societies in Computer Science (http://www.lib.uwaterloo.ca/society/compsci_soc.html)

Best Papers Awards in Computer Science since 1996 (http://jeffhuang.com/best_paper_awards.html)

Photographs of computer scientists (http://se.ethz.ch/~meyer/gallery/) by Bertrand Meyer

EECS.berkeley.edu (http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/department/history.shtml)

Bibliography and academic search engines

CiteSeerx (http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/) (article): search engine, digital library and repository for scientific an

academic papers with a focus on computer and information science.

DBLP Computer Science Bibliography (http://dblp.uni-trier.de/) (article): computer science bibliography

website hosted at Universitt Trier, in Germany.

The Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies (http://liinwww.ira.uka.de/bibliography/) (article)

Professional organizations

Association for Computing Machinery (http://www.acm.org/)

IEEE Computer Society (http://www.computer.org/)

Informatics Europe (http://www.informatics-europe.org/)

Misc

Computer Science - Stack Exchange (http://cs.stackexchange.com/) a community run Question and Answe

site for Computer Science
http://cs.stackexchange.com/http://www.informatics-europe.org/http://www.computer.org/http://www.acm.org/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collection_of_Computer_Science_Bibliographieshttp://liinwww.ira.uka.de/bibliography/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Bibliography_%26_Library_Projecthttp://dblp.uni-trier.de/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerXhttp://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/department/history.shtmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Meyerhttp://se.ethz.ch/~meyer/gallery/http://jeffhuang.com/best_paper_awards.htmlhttp://www.lib.uwaterloo.ca/society/compsci_soc.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Directory_Projecthttp://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Computer_Science//http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Tuckerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Gibbshttp://www.acm.org/education/curric_vols/CC2005-March06Final.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Information_Systemshttp://www.acm.org/class/1998/overview.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machineryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_of_the_ACMhttp://www.informatics-europe.org/docs/research_evaluation.pdfhttp://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=971303&dl=ACM&coll=&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN=6184618http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1053309&coll=&dl=ACM&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN=6184618


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