IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON HUMAN, FACTORS IN ELECTRONICS, VOL. HFE-8, NO. 2, JUNE 1967

displays and should contribute greatly to the reductionin cost of the present terminals.[211 Data rates requiredto operate the new display are low enough to allow datato be carried over telephone lines. It is expected thatincorporation of the new displays in inexpensive termi-nals will pave the way for the production of large-scale,highly flexible systems which can be placed in class-rooms, dormitories, and homes for education, informa-tion retrieval, and a variety of other computer-basedactivities.

REFERENCESF'] R. A. Avner, "Heart rate correlates of insight," Coordinated

Sci. Lab. (CSL), University of Illinois, Urbana, CSL Rept. R-198,1964.

[2] D. Bitzer and P. G. Braunfeld, "Description and use of acomputer-controlled teaching system," Proc. NEC, vol. 18, pp.787-792, 1962.

[3] D. Bitzer, D. Chan, R. Johnson, and M. Walker, "Lessonpreparation for the PLATO tutorial logic (compiler version)," Uni-versity of Illinois, CSL Rept. I-130, 1965.

[4] D. Bitzer, W. Lichtenberger, and P. G. Braunfeld, "PLATO:an automatic teaching device," IRE Trans. on Education, vol.E-4, pp. 157-161, December 1961.

[6] D. L. Bitzer, E. Lyman, and J. Easley, "The uses of PLATO:a computer-controlled teaching system," University of Illinois,CSL Rept. R-268, 1966.

[8] D. Bitzer, E. R. Lyman, and R. Suchman, "REPLAB: a les-son in scientific inquiry using the PLATO system," University ofIllinois, CSL Rept. R-260, 1965.

[7] M. Bitzer, "Self-directed inquiry in clinical nursing instruc-tion by means of the PLATO computer-controlled simulated labo-ratory," University of Illinois, CSL Rept. R-184, 1964.

[8] P. G. Braunfeld, "Problems and prospects of teaching witha computer," J. Educ. Psych., vol. 55, pp. 201-211, 1964.

[9] P. G. Braunfeld and L. D. Fosdick, "The use of an auto-matic computer system in teaching," University of Illinois, CSLRept. R-160, 1962.

[10] J. A. Easley, H. Gelder, and W. Golden, "A PLATO programfor instruction and data collection in mathematical problem solv-ing," University of Illinois, CSL Rept. R-185, 1964.

PI] L. A. Fillman, CSL PLATO System Manual. Urbana, Ill.:University of Illinois, July 1966.

["I H. Guetzkow, C. Alger, R. Brody, R. Noel, and R. Snyder,Simulations in International Relations: Developments for Re-search and Teaching. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall,1963.

[13] R. L. Johnson, "The use of programmed learning and com-puter-based instruction techniques to teach electrical engineeringnetwork analysis," University of Illinois, CSL Rept. R-297, 1966.

[14] W. Lichtenberger, D. Bitzer, and P. G. Braunfeld, "PLATOii: a multiple student computer-controlled teaching machine," inProgrammed Learning and Computer-Based Instruction, J. E.Coulson, Ed. New York: Wiley, 1962, pp. 205-216.

[15] E. R. Lyman, "A descriptive list of PLATO lesson programs,"University of Illinois, CSL Rept. R-296, 1966.

[16] W. E. Montague, "PAVLEW: a program for verbal learningexperiments on the PLATO system," University of Illinois, CSLRept. I-135, 1966.

[17] C. E. Osgood, Perpectives in Foreign Policy. Palo Alto,Calif.: Pacific Books, 1966.

[I'] F. M. Propst and T. C. Piper, "High resolution electronspectrometry of surfaces," presented at the Vacuum Symp. of theAm. Vacuum Soc., San Francisco, Calif., 1966.

[19] S. Schwartz, "A paradigm for the investigation of antecedentprocesses in concept attainment," University of Illinois, CSLRept. R-321, 1966.

[X] M. Uretsky, Automated Education Systems, E. Haga, Ed.New York: OA Business Publications, Inc. (to be published).

[21] R. H. Willson, "A capacitively coupled bistable gas dis-charge for computer-controlled displays," University of Illinois,CSL Rept. R-303, 1966.

Computer-Based Subsystems for Trainingthe Users of Computer Systems

SYLVIA R. MAYER

Abstract-This paper examines the training problems generatedby computer-based information systems, and it describes the roleof the computer in solving these training problems. The design anddevelopment of a model for a computer-based instructional sub-system for a military information system is outlined.

INTRODUCTION

T HE INTRODUCTION of computers as new toolsin the world of work has produced great benefits,but it has also produced many diverse problems.

This paper addresses one of those problems: how to trainworkers in the effective use of these new computer tools.

Manuscript received August 24, 1967.The author is with the AFSC at the Electronic Systems Divi-

sion, Hanscom Field, Bedford, Mass.

The solution is sought in use of the computer as its owntraining vehicle.The computer revolution has promised extension of

man's intellectual functions just as the industrial revo-lution extended man's sensory and motor functions. Also,as the industrial revolution created the requirement fora massive training effort to upgrade the tool-using skillsof world manpower, so today the computer revolution iscreating a massive training requirement for new types oftool-using skills. However, one difference between thesetwo revolutions is promising: the massive training re-quirement generated by the computer revolution canpotentially be met more efficiently than that of the in-dustrial revolution. The reason is simple: the computeritself promises to provide an effective vehicle to accom-plish its own training requirements.

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MAYER: COMPUTER-BASED SUBSYSTEMS

This computer-generated training requirement extendsacross many educational and vocational levels. Theselevels relate to computer engineering tasks, computerprogramming tasks, computer maintenance and operationtasks, and computer utilization tasks. This brief paper

describes some concepts, plans, and progress on trainingfor computer utilization tasks. In particular, it outlinesan ongoing project concerned with developing a tech-nique for use of the computer-based system itself intraining the computer users.

THE COMPUTER USER

The question, "Who is the computer user?" must beanswered first in an historical vein, then with a viewtowards the probable evolution of computer-based infor-mation systems.The computer user is a specialist who works within a

computer-based information system which has the po-

tential for aiding him solve a problem. With time, thevariety of specialists who use computer-based informa-tion systems is increasing and, accordingly, the scope ofproblems addressed by these man-computer partnershipsis increasing.

Most of the early and contemporary operational man-computer partnerships are based on a division of laborwherein the computer does the simple routine workwhich requires speed and accuracy, and man does theintellectual work. In these early and contemporary part-nerships the computer user does not necessarily work on-

line in dynamic interaction with the computer. A com-

puter operator often plays a mediating role by actuallymanipulating the equipment in response to the user's in-formation requests. If current research on man-computersystems is ever applied in the design of operational sys-

tems, future systems will have the potential to providefar more sophisticated support to the user's, intellectualfunctions. t4]Then the nature of the training required for computer

users will change. Future users will need more and differ-ent training to understand and fully utilize the availablepower of these intellectual computer partners. Moreover,these future man-computer systems will be based on an

explicit operational concept which will demand on-linedynamic interaction of user with equipment in order totake full advantage of the system potential. This type ofinteraction demands intensive on-line skill training,either using the operational system in a training modeor using simulators. If the potential of these futurecomputer systems is to be tapped by the user, new train-ing procedures are required which will compare favorablyin efficiency and effectiveness with today's sophisticatedskill training procedures for pilots and astronauts.The problem of training the computer user must also

be explored from the point of view of the user's specialtyand the nature of the problem which he addresses to thecomputer. As noted above, past and contemporary oper-ational computer systems mainly perform simple routine

71

portions of larger problem-solving jobs. The specialistswho heretofore have used these routine services includedaccountants, mathematicians, managers, engineers, sci-entists, military staffers, etc. This list will soon be ex-panded to include the instructors and students who willuse the new computer-assisted instructional systems.

THE TRAINING PROBLEM

It is generally believed that the simpler and moreroutine the computer role in the man-computer system,the simpler the requirement for training the computeruser. However, even in some of today's relatively un-sophisticated computer systems, the training needs ofthe user have already passed the point of simplicity, andit is doubtful that conventional instruction is eitherfeasible or effective.To exploit system potential, the user must have detailed

knowledge of the capabilities of the system hardware andsoftware, and of the structure of the data files, and hemust be skilled in the specified man-machine interactionprocedure. This is a large requirement. Yet, since thetypical user is not a full-time equipment operator, it isimpractical and very inefficient for him to gain his sys-tem knowledge and skills by traditional classroom lec-tures and over-the-shoulder performance training pluscontinuous practice. This problem is further compoundedby the fact that these systems continuously evolve, thusrequiring continuous retraining of the users. This retrain-ing creates a problem for instructional personnel as wellas for the trainee. New training materials must be pre-pared; old materials must be modified. In addition, theuser may use the system only on an intermittent basisto solve a broad range of dynamic problems which de-mand creative methods of attack. Such intermittent usewould result in loss of proficiency in system skills.

This operational concept and in the new style equip-ment user it implies impose a requirement for new ap-proaches to the design of equipment for man-machineinteraction and to the training of the user. Underlyingtraditional equipment design are the assumptions thatthe equipment will be unchanging and that it will beused only by the completely proficient. Accordingly, thebare minimum of cues for operation are usually pro-vided at the man-machine interface. But informationsystems are different: the type of user and the com-plexity of required systems skills and knowledge foroperation lead to another set of assumptions and require-ments. Information systems are used by a broad con-tinuum of personnel from the system novice who under-stands little about the system (but much about hisspecial problem) to the man who has learned to exploitthe full potential of the system.

Part of the novice user's difficulty in exploiting thesystem potential can be attributed to limitations in thestate-of-the-art of designing approachable computers.Too often the complex of console displays, communica-tion procedures, and program repertoire creates the im-

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON HUMAN FACTORS IN ELECTRONICS, JUNE 1967

pression of a mysterious automaton which can be mas-tered and made to serve only by its engineer designers.Another part of the novice user's difficulty stems from

lack of efficient and effective training techniques forhelping the user first, to learn how to use the systems,then to exercise and update his skill, and finally to pro-vide an occasional assist when his memory needs anudge. New training techniques are needed which caneconomically provide intensive, individualized, nonsched-uled instruction, with guided and monitored practice andremedial training. Conventional training cannot providethese conditions except by means of expensive and ad-ministratively-impractical tutoring.

THE METHOD

The Concept of an Automated Training SubsystemThis research approach to a solution of the above

problem attacks both the issue of equipment design forman-machine interaction and the need for innovations intraining techniques. It proposes the addition to the in-formation system of new external features on the con-sole and new programmed tutorial features generatedby the system computer. These features are to be per-manently available to the user for training. This complexof new features is an automated training subsystem. Itis provided to serve the novice user, first, as an auto-mated instructional aid, later, as he becomes more ex-perienced, as a proficiency tester and refresher or changetrainer, and finally, as an occasional memory or perform-ance aid for the experienced user who needs help on somespecific point. Thus an automated training subsystemprovides the information system with an automatedmeans for training, testing, and maintaining quality con-trol over individual proficiency in system skills. Theunderlying assumption contrasts with the tradition whichviews training as primarily a one-time uniform process.With this new approach, it is assumed that the majordifference in user behavior during training versus duringjob performance will be in the extent of his use of the sup-porting automated training subsystem.'51' [6], [7], [9]

This built-in training subsystem allows the informa-tion system to serve in a secondary role as a teachingmachine which trains system users. The console displayscopes present information for training or performancesupport as well as for operation; the data-processingcapability of the system handles instructional data aswell as operational data; the console input devices re-ceive trainee responses to instructional data as well asoperational data. This concept could have a major im-pact on present system design procedures. Training con-siderations would be brought into the mainstream ofsystem design. Training needs would influence systemdesign and the concept of system operation.Some of the general principles which are included

now in this evolving concept of the automated training

subsystem can be outlined. The new technology of pro-grammed instruction is adapted to the types of perfor-mance training called for in information systems. In-struction is presented in small incremental steps requiringfrequent response by the trainee and allowing him toprogress at his own rate. Thus the training materialsare designed for a self-instructional method. Presentationof training materials and trainee-response correction arecomputer-directed. Systematized, programmed practice inthe application of system knowledge, proficiency testingand trainee-response evaluation, and record keeping areall computer-directed. Computerization is provided bytime-sharing the system computer. Wherever possible,system hardware and software already provided for op-erational functions are to be used in a secondary functionfor training. Where none is suitable for adaptation, newsoftware and hardware are to be added to serve in train-ing. Thus the automated training subsystem is to beassembled primarily from elements intended for opera-tional activities plus a few elements added for trainingalone. The entire subsystem functions as a system-sup-porting capability under the control of the operationalsystem's executive program. The user has direct controlover activation and deactivation of this computer-di-rected training capability.

Some Related ApproachesDigital computers have been used experimentally for

about a decade to aid various aspects of the complex sys-tem of functions called training. These studies[31 haveleft little doubt that computers can indeed aid instructionof both skills and knowledge. The questions which re-main to be researched concern cost effectiveness, im-proved software and hardware techniques, and refinementof equipment design principles which optimize criticaltraining properties in specific applications.

First Implementation of an Automated Training Sub-systemA first attempt to apply and evaluate this model for an

automated training subsystem is currently underway inone Air Force information system. This informationsystem is planned to permit personnel to solve emer-gency resource-management problems. In this typicalinformation system, the user console has two devices forman-machine interaction: an alphanumeric typewriterkeyboard with which a computer query language mustbe used, and a process step key mode with which codedoverlays are used. The alphanumeric keyboard plusquery language mode provide extremely efficient andflexible man-computer interaction, but are difficult tolearn and to remember. The process step key mode withoverlays is far less efficient and flexible for man-com-puter interaction, but is easy to learn.For this study, the automated training subsystem is

first being applied to teach the query mode of interac-

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MAYER: COMPUTER-BASED SUBSYSTEMS

tion. However, the subsystem design is sufficiently gen-eral that it can also be readily applied to the many othertraining tasks in this system. This first application mustso simplify the learning of the query mode capabilitythat it will be feasible for most system users to learnthat interaction process.

RESULTS

The Subsystem DesignThe design for the automated training subsystem has

been completed. The system equipment is to be adaptedfor part-time use as a teaching machine. T'he operationalhardware and software are ideally suited for this second-ary use. The alphanumeric typewriter keyboard on theconsole, which is the focus of the training performance,is the means by which the trainee enters his responses tothe training material. T'he cathode-ray tube output on

the console will accommodate training displays. The con-

sole overlay keyboard mechanism is to be used by thetrainee for access to and control over the computer-di-rected training capability. The only new hardware itemto be added is an overlay for the training mode. Thissimple plastic overlay provides controls for both thetrainee and instructor. The instructor uses this overlaywhen he changes training material in the program or

when he wishes to appraise the computer records on thetrainees.The system random access disk and tape storage is to

be used for training data as well as operational data. Thesystem time-sharing capability and executive controlprogram is to be used to allow compatible simultaneousoperation of some consoles in an operational mode andsome in a training mode as required.The only major addition to the information system is

the computer program which provides the computer-di-rected training capability. It is composed of two ele-ments: pretraining and training. The pretraining elementpresents material relating to the use of the system database and to overlay, console, and computer operation.The training element provides training, practice, andevaluation on the structure and content of the querylanguage.The computer-directed training capability performs

the following functions: it presents training material on

the scope display; it continuously evaluates and scores

trainee responses; it determines areas in which a traineehas made excessive errors, and determines the type ofremedial work required; it determines topics on whichthe trainee can exercise the option of taking remedialwork.The computer program is designed to allow the trainee

control of certain aspects of his training. At certainpoints, he can choose to take remedial work or choose a

particular area of work. In proficiency maintenancetraining, he can request tests in certain areas or remedialwork.

73

Completed Portions of Study1) Operational Specification: The design documenta-

tion for this automated training subsystem has beencompleted with the development of an operational speci-fication.'11 T'his document specifies the details of the com-puter-directed training capability which is based on acycling teach-practice-review-test sequence.'

2) Programming Analysis: This operational specifica-tion has been subjected to a detailed programming an-alysis to determine the feasibility of the specificationand to define techniques for implementing this capa-bility within the system's standards.[81 This analysiswas undertaken to achieve the following: to ensure thatthe training logic flow is compatible with the total systemcharacteristics; to ensure that this supporting computer-directed training capability can be integrated into thesystem and utilized in the same manner as the system'soperational capabilities; and to identify the impact of thecomputer-directed training on system operational re-sponse, data storage, and capability maintenance re-quirements.2As a result of this programming analysis, it has been

determined that the computer-directed training capa-bility a) can be implemented readily so as to be com-patible with the system equipment and operational pro-gramming subsystems, b) can be integrated into the sys-tem and utilized in much the same manner as existingoperational capabilities by using the single new overlay,and c) will have little impact on requirements for stor-age of system data and operational capability programs.The program and student data will reside on disk, whilethe training material itself will reside on tape and becalled into temporary storage only when the capabilityis being used; it will have no impact on simultaneousutilization of system operational capabilities, and it canreadily be maintained and updated by the use of cardscontrolled by the single new overlay.

3) Training Strategy: The training strategy, which isbased on a continuous teach-practice-review-test se-quence, has been tested and refined in the operationalsetting with Air Force personnel. A linear textbook pres-entation of all the training material in the planned train-ing sequence was used to simulate the eventual computerpresentation. These simulations showed that this train-ing strategy will produce high levels of proficiency inthe query language mode of man-machine interaction.J21The next steps in development of this subsystem will

be: to produce and test the computer program, then tointegrate the training materials into that computer pro-gram, and finally, to test the total automated trainingsubsystem by using it to train users of the system.

' Developed under Contract AF 19(628)-2935 with American In-stitutes for Research.2Programming analysis developed under Contract AF 19(628)-

5541 with IBM Corporation.

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON HUMAN FACTORS IN ELECTRONICS, JUNE 1967DISCUSSION

The foregoing sections have presented a new trainingproblem, a model for a training innovation to solve thatproblem, and a description of the design and in-progressimplementation to test that innovation. In this section,some of the anticipated long-term benefits to be accruedfrom such a subsystem are sketched, and cautions aresuggested relative to some of the anticipated pitfalls as-sociated with development of such subsystems.

Anticipated BenefitsFrom the point of view of the user, the computer-di-

rected training capability offers many advantages. Helearns to use the system by actually using the system.It can be deduced from learning theory and much oper-ational and experimental evidence that this is optimalperformance training. The situation is game-like andchallenging: successful use of computerized equipmenthas a strong motivational effect. The sequence and quan-tity of instructional material is highly individualized.The training is available whenever he wants it, and aconsole is available. It provides a high degree of accuracyin measuring his proficiency and providing remedialwork.From the point of view of the instructional personnel,

the computer-directed training capability offers otheradvantages. It provides an efficient method for the re-quired continuous updating and changing of trainingmaterials. It is easy to obtain training and testing rec-ords of individual trainees to appraise progress. The, in-structors do not have to present the training, althoughsome occasional monitoring of trainees is recommendedfor motivational purposes. Classes do not need to bescheduled, so new trainees can start and progress throughtheir training individually.From the point of view of the training manager, the

computer-directed training capability provides other ad-vantages. Since the comput;er program is a general-pur-pose vehicle, it can be readily applied to teaching manyother system tasks. It is apparent that this capabilityprovides a method of performance training which willmaximize the training output from a given investment oftrainee and computer time. The cost involved in develop-ing and using this capability will represent considerablesavings over available conventional methods. Further-more, it eliminates the problem of maintenance of thehardware portion of the training equipment; this is pro-vided for the system as a whole.

Problems and PitfallsA major problem in developing and maintaining such

a subsystem in phase with the development of the totalsystem arises from the inevitable changes which occurboth in basic design and data of the system. These, ofcourse, must be reflected in training materials. Thus itis essential that the developers of the training capabilitydevise a general-purpose program plus some highly sys-

tematized method for keeping track of the location ofvarious data elements scattered throughout the totaltraining sequence. Without such a general-purpose pro-gram and search method, the content of the trainingsubsystem would rapidly become obsolete. Despite theobvious problems involved, this type of subsystem withits automated updating capabilities offers a major ad-vance over conventional manual methods of keepingprinted training materials up to date.Another obvious difficulty associated with this innova-

tion is that it brings with it all the familiar implementa-tion problems associated with the development of anyautomated data-processing capability. Computer pro-gramming takes time; debugging and integrating taketime. Moreover, these procedures use up scarce tech-nical personnel resources and computer test time. How-ever, balanced against -this problem are the ultimatebenefits which the finished training capability can pro-vide in terms of users who can effectively exploit thesystem, and lower training costs over the long term.

Avoidance of the ProblemThere are those who argue that such elaborate train-

ing procedures as are proposed here will be unnecessaryas soon as more natural man-computer interaction tech-niques are developed. If the history of system designcontinues to repeat itself, this is indeed a vain hope. Assystem sophistication and complexity evolve, improvedman-computer interaction techniques probobly will bedeveloped. However, the nature of man's role in thesystem will also evolve, and inevitably even more strin-gent training demands will result.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONSThis paper has described an automated training sub-

system which incorporates a computer-directed trainingcapability. This built-in capability is to be used for per-formance training of the system skills required in an in-formation system. It describes an application of thismodel to on-console performance training of man-ma-chine interaction processes in an Air Force system.

It is anticipated that this model could serve for similaron-the-job performance training in other computerizedsystems or similar skill training wherever a computer isavailable. Furthermore, the conceptual and experimentalapproaches appear to be applicable to other attempts atusing an operating system as a teaching machine on atime-sharing basis.

In addition to its primary use in training, the test andevaluation functions of the computer-directed trainingcapability may be useful sources of information on re-quired system-design improvements. The error analysisand recording program would indicate where training forman-machine interaction is unusually difficult, and wheresystem design may be at fault. Minor changes in hard-ware and operational program often can simplify thetask and its training. Errors will serve primarily as indi-cators of the possible need for improvements in the train-

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON HUMAN FACTORS IN ELECTRONICS, VOL. HFE-8, NO. 2, JUNE 1967

ing subsystem. However, they can also serve as possiblesignals for the need of system redesign.The design of the computer training progra.m is suffi-

ciently general to be applicable to other man-machinetasks and to other computer systems with a typical con-figuration. In terms of benefits and costs, it is conceiv-able that this type of capability should be built intomany computer-based systems where user training iscritical for effective system exploitation. If the systemdoes not routinely require input-output equipment whichis optimal for this training capability, the design mightbe upgraded to provide for this as a satellite capability.E93

In view of the paucity of techniques available forachieving the type of critical man-machine interactiontraining attempted here, this model appears to holdsome promise-even if only as a stimulant to further re-search. If final tests of the total application of this modelprove successful, a, similar capability might be consideredduring early system development for inclusion in otherautomated systems. Then the next logical step in refine-ment of this model might be a capability to bring thecomputer-directed training capability into operationautomatically whenever the user's performance indicatesits need.

REFERENCES

[1] D. Clapp, H. Shettel, and S. R. Mayer, "Operational specifi-cation for computer-directed training in intermediate query lan-guage, model II, for system 473L, USAF Hq.," Decision SciencesLaboratory, Electronic Systems Division (ESD), Hanscom Field,Bedford, Mass., ESD-TR-66-252, February 1966.

[2] D. Clapp, D. Yens, H. Shettel, and S. R. Mayer, "Develop-ment and evaluation of a self-instructional coursel in thei opera-tional training capability query language for system 473L, USAFHq.," Decision Sciences Laboratory, Bedford, Mass., ESD-TDR-64-662, December 1964.

[3] J. E. Coulson, Ed., Programmed Learning and Computer-Based Instruction. New York: Wiley, 1962.

[4] J. C. R. Licklider, "Man-computer partnership," Internat'lSci. and Technology, vol. 4, pp. 18-26, May 1965.

[5] S. R. Mayer, "Human engineering in the design of instruc-tional systems," Decision Sciences Laboratory, Bedford, Mass.,ESD-TR-64-454 September 1964.

[6] S. R. Mayer, "A technology for programmed instructionalsubsystems in military information systems," Proc. AFSC SystemEffectiveness Symp., ESD-TR-65-413, October 1965.

[F] S. R. Mayer, and R. Morgan, "Computer-aided programmedtechniques in support of military information systems," Proc.Assoc. Computing Mach., 20th Ann. Nat'l Conf., pp. 336-343,August 1965.

[8] J. D. Schiff, M. L. Chenevert, and W. F. Bennett, "Com-puter-directed training: system 473L query language," DecisionSciences Laboratory, Bedford, Mass., ESD-TR-66-261, April 1966.

[9] T. B. Sheridan and S. R. Mayer, "Design and use of infor-mation systems for automated on-the-job training: I. Conceptualand experimental approaches, Decision Sciences Laboratory,. Bed-ford, Mass., ESD-TDR-64-234, vol. I, December 1963.

Advantages of Using a Computer in

Some Kinds of Educational Games

JIMMER M. LEONARD AND RICHARD L. WING

Abstract-Three computer-based economic games for sixth-grade pupils are described. From the game models, six kinds ofroutines, or strategies, are analyzed to demonstrate the advantagesof using electronic computers in complex instructional games.

VER SINCE the computer began to be used forinstructional purposes some ten years ago, it hasseemed likely that the great speed and logical

power of electronic data processing equipment could be

Manuscript received September 8, 1966; revised December 5,1966. These games were produced at the Board of CooperativeEducational Services in Northern Westchester County, N. Y.(BOCES), under the support of two grants from the U. S. Officeof Education: Cooperative Research Grant 1948, "Use of technicalmedia for simulating environments to provide individualized in-struction" and Grant 2841, "The production and evaluation ofthree computer-based economics games for the sixth grade." Gameauthors: Sumarian Game, Mabel Addis; Sierra Leone, WalterGoodman; Free Enterprise, Jimmer Leonard. Project Director:Richard L. Wing.

J. M. Leonard is with the Dept. of Social Relations, The JohnsHopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

R. L. Wing is with the Board of Cooperative EducationalServices # 1, Westchester County, N. Y.

used to provide learning situations which would beuniquely effective. Towards this end, teaching logics havebeen invented in a variety of modes-linear, branching,inquiry, tutorial, game-form-each drawing upon thecomputer in different ways and intended to exploit itspower.

Until more thorough exploration of teaching modeswill have disclosed the range of possible applicationsin education, it will be difficult to describe in any com-plete way what the special advantages of computer con-trol are. Meanwhile, on some fronts there is doubt thatthe computer can play anything other than a trivial in-strumenta.l role in the design and production of moreeffective learning situations. The question is raised:"What can the computer do better than conventionaltexts, programmed books, manual teaching machines, orboard games?"

In this paper we will argue that for one kind of in-structional logic, the economics game, the computer of-fers advantages which cannot, theoretically, be equalled

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