Comprehensive Study on Green House Gases (GHGs) in

Delhi (Final Report: Green House Gases component)

Submitted to

Department of Environment Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi

and

Delhi Pollution Control Committee, Delhi

October 2016

Dr. Mukesh Sharma; PhD and Dr. Onkar Dikshit; PHD

Professors, Department of Civil Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur- 208016

i

Executive Summary

The total carbon equivalent (tCO2e) Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission load in the city of Delhi

was estimated as 37.91 million tonne in the year 2014. The top four contributors to tCO2e

emission are: power plants (electricity generation and consumption) (43%), vehicles (32%),

burning of municipal solid waste (MSW; 8%) and domestic fuel (7%).

The annual per capita tCO2e emission in the city of Delhi was estimated as 2.26 tonne, which

is lower than many large cities; Beijing 10.8; London: 6.2 Tokyo: 4.9 (http://www.unep.org/).

However, annual per capita tCO2e emission from Delhi is about 1.5 times of national

average. This high per capita emission in Delhi could be attributed to the fact that it is a

capital city with high gross domestic product (GDP) and it represents a large urban

agglomeration.

The green areas of the Delhi consist of forests, plantations, avenue trees, gardens and parks.

The total estimated green area is 327.62 sq km; of which, 176.62 sq km is forest and 151 sq.

km is mixed species in gardens, parks and major avenues. The data related to annual CO2

capture by trees and plants in the city of Delhi are estimated as: (i) total biomass: 1.7 million

tonne; (ii) total carbon: 0.85 million tonne and (iii) total CO2 captured 3.1 million tonne.

The GHG mitigation measures for various sources were analyzed. These sources include:

power plants, livestock, coal usage, domestic fuel, street lights, burning of MSW, and

vehicles. The major reduction in emission can be achieved by (i) successive use of low

carbon fuels (switching from coal to natural gas in power plants) followed by shifting about

20% generation to solar energy (estimated reduction of 11 million tones tCO2e i.e. 27% of

total tCO2e emission) and (ii) stop burning of MSW and converting the MSW into energy

(estimated reduction of 3.12 million tonne tCO2e i.e. 8% of total tCO2e emission).

ii

Acknowledgments

This project on “Comprehensive Study on Green House Gases (GHG) in Delhi” was

sponsored by Department of Environment and Delhi Pollution Control Committee (DPCC),

Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCTD) to Indian Institute of Technology

Kanpur. The project was quite vast in terms of activities including field sampling, data

collection, laboratory analyses, computational work and interpretation of results. Support of

different institutions and individuals at all levels is gratefully acknowledged. Although it will

be an endeavor to remember and acknowledge all those who assisted in the project, we seek

pardon in anticipation, if we err.

We gratefully acknowledge the support received from Mr. Chandraker Bharti, Mr. Ashwani

Kumar and Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (present and past Secretaries, Environment), Mr. Sayed

Musawwir Ali, Mr. Kulanand Joshi, and Mr. Sandip Misra (present and past Special

Secretaries Environment), Govt. of NCTD. Dr. Anil Kumar, Director, Department of

Environment was always available for heeding to all problems and providing workable

solutions; thank you Dr. Anil Kumar. We are thankful to Dr. M. P George, Scientist, DPCC

and Mrs. Nigam Agarwal Sr. Scientific Officer, Department of Environment for acting

promptly to all requests and concerns.

We are grateful to Dr. S. Velmurugan, Principal Scientist, Central Road Research Institute,

New Delhi for sharing traffic data for over 50 locations in Delhi.

Special thanks are due to Mr. Dhirendra Singh, Senior Project Engineer and Mr. Shubham

Gupta, B.Tech.-M.Tech Dual Degree Student, for providing much needed support in

preparation of the report.

iii

Table of Contents

Section Page Executive Summary i Acknowledgments ii List of Tables v List of Figures vi Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.0 Background 1 1.1 Objectives and Scope of Work 2 1.2 Identification and Grouping of Sources for GHG Emission Inventory 3 Chapter 2: Method, Data Sources and Quantification 4 2.0 General 4 2.1 Methodology 4 2.1.1 Data Collection 5 2.1.2 Digital Data Generation 5 2.2 Area Sources 8 2.2.1 Hotels/Restaurants 8 2.2.2 Domestic Sector 9 2.2.3 Municipal Solid Waste Burning 11 2.2.4 Commercial and Industrial Diesel Generator Sets (DG sets) 12 2.2.5 Agriculture, Green covers and Livestock 13 2.2.6 Cremation 14 2.2.7 Aircraft 15 2.2.8 Landfills 15 2.2.9 Incinerator and Boilers 16 2.2.10 Industries as Area Sources 16 2.2.11 Drains 18 2.2.12 Croplands and Wetlands 18 2.2.13 Hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HFCs) from refrigerants 18 2.3 Contribution of GHG Emissions from Area Sources excluding

Vehicles, Power Plants and Large industry (point source) 19

2.4 Point Sources 21 2.4.1 Industries having stack height greater than 20m 21 2.5 Vehicular - Line Sources 23 2.6 City Level GHG Emission Inventory 25 2.7 Comparison with Other Countries 27 2.7.1 GHG emission in Delhi and comparison with other cities 28 Chapter 3: Carbon Stock 30 3.0 General 30 3.1 Carbon Pools 30 3.1.1 Estimation of biomass in Forest Areas 31 3.1.2 Estimation of biomass in avenues 32 3.1.3 Estimation of biomass in Gardens and Parks 35 Chapter 4: Control options and GHG Mitigation Strategies 37 4.0 General 37

iv

4.1 Control options 39 4.1.1 Hotel/Restaurant 39 4.1.2 Domestic Sector 39 4.1.3 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Burning 39 4.1.4 Diesel Generator (DG) Sets 40 4.1.5 Agriculture and Livestock 40 4.1.6 Landfills 40 4.1.7 Power Plants 41 4.1.8 LED lights 41 4.1.9 Vehicles 42 References 43

v

List of Tables Table no Title of Table Page Table 2.1 GHG emissions from Hotel/Restaurants in Delhi 8 Table 2.2 GHG emissions from Domestic Sector in Delhi 10 Table 2.3 GHG emissions from MSW burning in Delhi 11 Table 2.4 GHG emissions from DG Sets in Delhi 12 Table 2.5 GHG emissions from Agriculture, Livestock and Green Cover in

Delhi 14

Table 2.6 GHG emissions from Cremation in Delhi 15 Table 2.7 GHG emissions from Aircraft in Delhi 15 Table 2.8 GHG emissions from Landfills in Delhi 15 Table 2.9 GHG emissions from Incinerator and Boilers in Delhi 16 Table 2.10 GHG emissions from Industries as area source in Delhi 16 Table 2.11 GHG emissions from Croplands and Wetlands in Delhi 18 Table 2.12 Summary of GHG Emission Load from Area Sources 20 Table 2.13 GHG emissions from Point Sources in Delhi 21 Table 2.14 GHG emissions from Vehicles in Delhi 24 Table 2.15 Overall Baseline GHG Emission in the Delhi City (tonne/yr and

percentage) for the year 2014 26

Table 2.16 GHG CO2 equivalents and per capita emissions of top 15 emitter countries 27

Table 3.1 Estimated Percentage of species, AGB, BGB and total estimated biomass in the forests of Delhi 33

Table 3.2 Estimated Percentage share of species, AGB, BGB and total estimated biomass in Avenues of Delhi 34

Table 3.3 Tree density of major parks in Delhi city 35 Table 3.4 Total biomass present in gardens and parks in Delhi 35 Table 3.5 Total biomass, carbon stock and tCO2e of different carbon pools 36 Table 4.1 Control Options, Emission Load and Reductions in tCO2e

(tonne/yr) 38

vi

List of Figures

Figure no Title of Figure Page Fig. 2.1 Stepwise methodology adopted for the study 4 Fig. 2.2 Landuse Map of the Study Area 5 Fig. 2.3 Grid Map of the City Showing Grid Identity Numbers 6 Fig. 2.4 Spatial Distribution of tCO2e emissions from Hotel/Restaurants 9 Fig. 2.5 Administrative Boundaries of Wards and Village 10 Fig. 2.6 Spatial Distribution of tCO2e emissions from Domestic sources 11 Fig. 2.7 Spatial Distribution of tCO2e emissions from MSW burning 12 Fig. 2.8 Spatial Distribution of tCO2e emissions from DG sets 13 Fig. 2.9 Cremation Sites in City of Delhi 14 Fig. 2.10 Location of Industrial Areas in Delhi 17 Fig. 2.11 Spatial Distribution of tCO2e emissionsfrom industrial areas 17 Fig. 2.12 Locations of Points Sources in the City 22 Fig. 2.13 Spatial Distribution of tCO2e emissions from industrial point

source 22

Fig. 2.14 Traffic location considered for vehicle emission in the city of Delhi 23

Fig. 2.15 Spatial Distribution of tCO2e emissions from Vehicles 24 Fig. 2.16 Spatial Distribution of tCO2e emissions (tonne/yr) in Delhi City 25 Fig. 2.17 Annual percapita tCO2e emission of different cities 28 Fig. 2.18 tCO2e Emission and Population of major cities 29 Fig. 3.1 Pie chart showing breakup of carbon stock in green areas of Delhi

(tonne) 36

1

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.0 Background

Initiatives have been taken to develop an extensive inventory of greenhouse gases (GHG)

emission sources in Delhi (Sharma et. al, 2006; DoE, 2008). However, there is a need to

integrate the emission of air pollutants and GHG, which may have significant overlap and may

require a common strategy to mitigate these emissions. This study has developed an integrated

inventory of emissions in the city of Delhi and provides a preliminary analysis of strategies for

reducing these emissions.

According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC;www.ipcc.ch),“Greenhouse

gases are those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that

absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of infrared radiation

emitted by the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere and clouds”. The GHGs include water vapor

(H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), ozone (O3), sulphur

hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs).

The combustion of fossil fuels accounts for most of Delhi’s GHG and air pollution emissions.

Many human activities generate GHG; these include energy production and use, manufacturing

and agricultural processes, land use changes, and waste disposal. On the other hand, some of the

activities act as sinks, where GHGs are deposited/or consumed. In this study, a thorough survey

was done for identifying the sources and sinks responsible for GHGs in Delhi. The

categorization of the sources and sinks has been done on the basis of the IPCC guidelines (IPCC,

2006). The sources of GHG emission may include (IPCC, 2006): (1) Energy (fossil fuel

production and combustion), (2) Cement industries, (3) Land use (deforestation, afforestation,

soil disturbances, other biomass burning), (4) Agriculture (enteric fermentation, animal wastes,

rice cultivation, and fertilizer consumption), (5) Transportation, (6) Other industries and power

plants, (7) Landfills, and (8) Disposal of chlorofluorocarbons. The sinks for the GHGs may be:

(1) large water bodies, (2) forested area and (3) dense vegetative area.

2

The “end-of-pipe” control technologies for GHG are not fully developed. The mitigation

strategies for reducing GHG emission focus on using renewable energy and/or using a low

carbon fuel in place of carbon rich fuel. The demand side management, adaptability and efficient

processes are other important ways to abate GHG emission.

To fully analyze and address the GHG emission and related issues in the city of Delhi by

identifying major emission sources, and developing a GHG emission mitigation plan, the

Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCTD) and Delhi Pollution Control

Committee (DPCC), Delhi have sponsored this study “Comprehensive Study on Air Pollution

and Green House Gases in Delhi” to IIT Kanpur. This document constitutes the final report that

has covered the GHG component of the project. A detailed report on air pollution component

was submitted to the Department of Environment, Delhi in January 2016. It may be noted that

this report is seen in conjunction with the report on air pollution component.

1.1 Objectives and Scope of Work

Objectively the project GHG aims to achieve the following:

• Identification of source/sinks of greenhouse gases (GHG) (CO2, CH4, N2O, and

anthropogenic fluorinated gases);

• Development of GIS-based gridded emission inventory of GHG (2 km × 2 km resolution)

from identified sources;

• Estimation of losses of GHG through various sinks;

• Generation of GIS-based carbon emission maps from various sources, such as

transportation, industrial, residential, commercial, and power plants;

• Develop reduction strategies for GHG;

• Develop a control plan for GHG mitigation.

3

1.2 Identification and Grouping of Sources for GHG Emission Inventory

An on-the-field exercise was taken up to physically identify all GHG sources throughout the city

of Delhi. This exercise included emission sources ranging from refuse burning, coal/coke burnt

by street vendors/small restaurants to large units like power plants and various vehicle types.

Finally the collected data was used to develop the GHG emission inventory for the following

pollutants: CO2, CH4, N2O and anthropogenic fluorinated gases. The overall emission inventory

and analyses were carried out in total carbon-dioxide equivalent (tCO2e).

4

Chapter 2: Method, Data Sources and Quantification

2.0 General

Emission inventory (EI) is a basic necessity for planning GHG control activities. EI provides a

reliable estimate of total emissions of different GHGs, their spatial and temporal distribution, and

identification and characterization of main sources. This information on EI is an essential input

to climate models and for developing strategies and policies. In this chapter, GHG EI of city of

Delhi for the year 2014 is presented.

2.1 Methodology

The stepwise methodology adopted for the study is presented in Figure 2.1.

VKT= vehicle kilometer travel

Figure 2.1: Stepwise methodology adopted for the study

Identification of GHGs sources (power generation, industry, etc.)

Collection of activity data (Fuel usage, VKT, etc

Categorization sources (Area, Point

& Line sources

Map digitization on GIS, 2 ×2 grid generation, shape file for water bodies, roads, settlements, etc

Digital Data Generation

Selection of emission factors (IPCC, USEPA, India)

GHGs Emission Estimation in 2 × 2

grid

Generation of spatially resolved emission maps

5

2.1.1 Data Collection

The primary and secondary data were collected by IITK team. The main sources of secondary

data are DPCC, Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC), Census of India, Airport Authority of

India (AAI), Indian Railways, and Central Electricity Authority (CEA). Information has also

been collected through Internet by visiting various websites. Although all possible efforts have

been made to collect the data, some information/data could still be missing.

2.1.2 Digital Data Generation

The land-use map of the study area is prepared in terms of settlements, forests, agriculture, road

network, water bodies, etc. (Figure 2.2). The entire city was divided into 441 grid cells of 2 km x

2 km (Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.2: Landuse Map of the Study Area

6

Figure 2.3: Grid Map of the City Showing Grid Identity Numbers

At the time of development of the GHG emission inventory for the city, a suitable coding system

has been adopted to avoid the confusion and misrepresentation of results.

Emission Factor and Estimation of GHG Emission

An emissions factor is a representative value that attempts to relate the quantity of GHG released

to the atmosphere from an activity that releases GHG. These factors are usually expressed as the

mass of GHG per unit mass of raw material, volume, distance travelled, or duration of the

activity (e.g., grams of CO2 emitted per kilogram of coal burnt). Such factors facilitate estimation

of emissions from various sources. In most cases, these factors are simply averages of all

available factors of acceptable quality, and are generally assumed to be representative of long-

term averages for most source categories.

7

The general equation for emissions estimation is:

E = A × EF (2.1)

Where:

E = Emissions rate;

A = Activity rate;

EF = Emission factor;

The emission factors used in this report are a mix of default emission factors available in IPCC

publications (1997, 2000, 2003 and 2006), USEPA and India specific emission factors. Default

emission factors have been used for source categories where country specific factors are not

available. The Global Warming Potential (GWP: An index, describing the radiative

characteristics of well mixed greenhouse gases, that represents the combined effect of the

differing times these gases remain in the atmosphere and their relative effectiveness in absorbing

outgoing infrared radiation) is variable for different GHG. This index approximates the time-

integrated warming effect of a unit mass of a given greenhouse gas in today’s atmosphere,

relative to that of carbon dioxide (www.ipcc.ch).The IPCC has given a 3-tier system for

estimating GHG emissions. Each tier represents a level of methodological complexity. Tier 1 is

the basic method, Tier 2 intermediate and Tier 3 most demanding in terms of complexity and

data requirements. Tiers 2 and 3 approaches are more commonly used. The GHG emission is

finally converted to total carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e); it is the amount of CO2 emission

that would cause the same radiative forcing as an emitted amount of a well-mixed greenhouse

gases. The tCO2e is obtained by multiplying the emissions of different gases by their GWPs and

then adding them up. The GWP for 100 years is considered in this study.

The GHG emission sources are grouped into three source categories (i) Area (ii) Point and (iii)

Line sources.

8

2.2 Area Sources

2.2.1 Hotels/Restaurants

The details of the hotels and restaurants were obtained from DPCC and related websites. During

the field survey it was observed that hotels, restaurants, etc use coal as fuel in tandoors. The

average consumption of coal in tandoor, based on a survey was 30 kg/day. The total number of

hotels and restaurant enterprises was 36,099 (Delhi Statistical Hand Book, 2014). In absence of

updated data, we have assumed that 25% of these enterprises use tandoor for food preparation.

The common fuel in tandoor is coal. The fuel consumption for each fuel type was estimated for

each grid. In most of the cases, it was found that there was no control devices installed at these

activities.

The emissions of GHG were estimated from the activity data from each fuel type and then were

summed up in each grid cell. The emission factors given by USEPA (2014) were used for

estimating GHG emission (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1: GHG emissions from Hotel/Restaurants in Delhi

For spatial distribution of GHG emission per capita, in each ward and village was calculated.

Then the emission density in terms of kg/day/m2 in each ward was calculated based on

population and area of the ward; see below.

Emission Density (kg/day/m2) = Emission in a Ward (kg /day ) Ward Area (square meters )

… … …(2.2)

For calculating emission in a grid which may contain more than one ward, the area of each ward

falling inside that grid was calculated and with the help of emission density of the ward, the

emissions were calculated, see below.

Grid Emission = � (Part of area of ith ward in grid X emission density of ith ward) 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖=1 (2.3)

CH4 CO2 N2O tCO2e tonne/yr

19 171595 3 172942

9

Where, n = no. of wards in the grid

The spatial distribution of tCO2e emissions from Hotels/Restaurants are presented in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Spatial Distribution of tCO2e emissions (tonne/yr) from Hotel/Restaurants

2.2.2 Domestic Sector

The administrative division map of Delhi was obtained from Census of India (2011) and it was

digitized using GIS (Figure2.5). The data on number of household, fuel usage (coal, LPG, crop

residue, cow dung and wood) and population were collected from Census of India (2012). The

emission factors given by IPCC (2013) and USEPA (2014) were used for each fuel type.

10

Figure 2.5: Administrative Boundaries of Wards and Village

The interior boundaries in the map (Figure 2.5) show the administrative boundaries of wards and

villages. After obtaining the area of wards and villages, the emission density for each ward is

calculated for different GHG (CH4, CO2, N2O and tCO2e). Finally the emission in each grid was

calculated by methodology explained in section 2.2.1. Emissions of GHG were calculated and

are presented in Table 2.2:

Table 2.2: GHG emissions from Domestic Sector in Delhi

CH4 CO2 N2O tCO2e tonne/yr

148 2436054 36 2450591

The spatial distribution of tCO2e emissions from domestic sources is presented in Figure 2.6

11

Figure 2.6: Spatial Distribution of tCO2e emissions (tonne/yr) from Domestic sources

2.2.3 Municipal Solid Waste Burning

Open burning activities are broadly classified into refuse and biomass burning. The refuse or

municipal solid waste (MSW) burning depends on solid waste generation, extent of disposal and

infrastructure for collection. The recent study by Nagpure et al. (2015), in Delhi has estimated

190 to 246 tonne/day of MSW burning (∼2−3% of MSW generated). The emission factors given

by USEPA (2014) were used for estimating the GHG emission from MSW burning using the

same procedure of emission density in a ward or village (Table 2.3).

Table 2.3: GHG emissions from MSW burning in Delhi

The spatial distribution of tCO2e emission from MSW burning is presented in Figure 2.7.

CH4 CO2 N2O tCO2e tonne/yr

1077 3053812 142 3123102

12

Figure 2.7: Spatial Distribution of tCO2e emissions (tonne/yr) from MSW burning

2.2.4 Commercial and Industrial Diesel Generator Sets (DG sets)

DG sets are used as the source of power in shopping complexes and industries during power-cut

hours. From the results of the survey, it can be concluded that there is minimum of 2 hours/day

power cut in the city, especially in summers. The DG set details were obtained from DPCC; the

DG sets were located on the map.

The USEPA (2014) emission factors were used for emission estimation of GHG and are

presented in Table 2.4:

Table 2.4: GHG emissions from DG Sets in Delhi

CH4 CO2 N2O tCO2e tonne/yr

3 49120 1 49570

13

The spatial distribution of tCO2e emissions from DG sets are presented in Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8: Spatial Distribution of tCO2e emissions (tonne/yr) from DG sets

2.2.5 Agriculture, Green covers and Livestock

The major emissions of paddy cultivation and livestock are in the form of CH4. The total

agricultural area was taken from Statistical Handbook of Delhi (2014). The emission factor was

taken from IPCC (2006) assessment report on agriculture.

Livestock plays an important role in CH4 emission, accounting for about 60% of methane

emissions in Delhi city. The information of livestock was taken from Delhi Statistical Handbook

(2014). Trees capture carbon dioxide by taking it into their cells through photosynthesis. They

then store the carbon in their bodies; a tree is comprised of about 50 percent carbon of its

biomass. Some CO2 gets released back into the atmosphere through respiration, but the net effect

is large carbon storage. Emissions of GHG were calculated and are presented in Table 2.5:

14

Table 2.5: GHG emissions from Agriculture, Livestock and Green Cover in Delhi

Sector CH4 CO2 N2O tCO2e tonne/yr

Agriculture 873 57195 2 79749 Livestock 22693 - - 567316 Green Cover 147 159212 72 184377

2.2.6 Cremation

There are 53 cremation sites in the city of Delhi, which operates in various zones of Municipal

Corporation of Delhi. These cremation sites were located in the grids with the help of GIS

(Figure 2.9). The information pertaining to total number of deaths in Delhi was obtained from

Directorate of Economics and Statistics Handbook for the year 2014.

Figure 2.9: Cremation Sites in City of Delhi

15

The woods required per body for the cremation is taken as 216 kg (Sharma, 2010). The US EPA

(2014) emission factors were used for emission estimation of GHG and are presented in Table

2.6:

Table 2.6: GHG emissions from Cremation in Delhi

CH4 CO2 N2O tCO2e tonne/yr

3 41252 2 41804

2.2.7 Aircraft

The Indira Gandhi International (IGI) Airport is the primary airport of the National Capital

Region, situated in south-west Delhi, 16 km from New Delhi's city center. Total number of flight

(landing and taking off) is approximately 800 per day at the IGI Airport. The aircraft arriving

and departing is categorized according to their companies and engine capacity. The US EPA

(2014) emission factors were used for GHG emission estimations and are presented in Table 2.7:

Table 2.7: GHG emissions from Aircraft in Delhi

2.2.8 Landfills

There are three major landfills sites (Okhla, Bhalswa and Gazipur) in Delhi. The emission flux

values were obtained (Ranjan, et al 2014). Emissions of GHG were calculated and are presented

in Table 2.8:

Table 2.8: GHG emissions from Landfills in Delhi

CH4 CO2 N2O tCO2e tonne/yr

3263 3263 30 93664

CH4 CO2 N2O tCO2e tonne/yr

11 12925 0 13199

16

2.2.9 Incinerator and Boilers

There are 32 health care establishments relevant to air pollutant emissions in the city. These

health care establishments are having 14 incinerators (12 (private) and 2 (CBWTF: Common

Bio-medical Waste Treatment Facility) and rest have boilers. For each health care establishment

activity data were taken from DPCC and emissions calculated using USEPA (2014) emission

factors. It was assumed that incinerators operate for two hours every day. Emissions of GHG

were calculated and are presented in Table 2.9:

Table 2.9: GHG emissions from Incinerator and Boilers in Delhi

CH4 CO2 N2O tCO2e tonne/yr

88 261541 12 267288

2.2.10 Industries as Area Sources

There are 25 industrial areas in the city (Figure 2.10). All industries having stack height below

20 m have been considered as an industrial area source. Majority of the industries have small

boilers and some also have cupola furnaces. Most of the information on the industrial areas

concerning fuel consumption, stack height, production capacity etc. have been collected from

DPCC. We had to make certain assumptions and improvements in the database to make

compatibility in fuel consumptions and size of the industry (production capacity). If type of fuel

uses were not indicated then it was assumed that industry used HSD. USEPA (2014) emission

factors were used to calculate the GHG emissions and are presented in Table 2.10.

Table 2.10: GHG emissions from Industries as area source in Delhi

CH4 CO2 N2O tCO2e tonne/yr

38 520616 17 526535

Spatial distribution of GHG Emissions from Industries as Area Source is presented in Figure

2.11.

17

Figure 2.10: Location of Industrial Areas in Delhi

Figure 2.11: Spatial Distribution of tCO2e emissions (tonne/yr) from industrial areas

18

2.2.11 Drains

Methane is the major GHG that is emitted by wastewater flowing through the drains. There is

constant flux of CH4 from wastewater discharged from the households, which travels through

drains to river or to the treatment plants. The area of drains in Delhi was obtained from Irrigation

and Flood control department, Govt. of Delhi. Emission factor was taken from IPCC (2013).

Total emission of CH4 and tCO2e is 493 and 12320 tonne/year respectively from the drains. The

estimated CO2 emission from waste water treatment (excluding energy) was negligible.

2.2.12 Croplands and Wetlands

The cropland and wetlands GHG emission, excluding the paddy cultivation, is considered under

this subhead. The GHG emission from other crops such as wheat, sugarcane etc. is estimated

using IPCC (2013) emission factor. Total cropland area was obtained from Delhi Statistical

Handbook (2014). The total area of wetlands was calculated from GIS digitized map of Delhi.

GHG emissions were estimated and are presented in Table 2.11:

Table 2.11: GHG emissions from Croplands and Wetlands in Delhi

Sector CH4 CO2 N2O tCO2e tonne/yr

Cropland 176 351764 126 393599 Wetlands 18 5925 11 9555

2.2.13 Hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HFCs) from refrigerants

Air conditioners and refrigerator are the most important emission source of HFCs. Emissions

from the refrigerants sector results from the manufacturing process, leakage and service over the

operational life of the equipment, and disposal at the end of the useful life of the equipment.

These gases have 100-year global warming potentials (GWPs), which are typically greater than

1,000 times that of CO2, so their potential impact on climate change can be significant.

19

The number of air conditioners in Delhi was estimated based on Delhi Government’s report on

Level and Pattern of Household Consumer Expenditure (2012). The emission factors used to

calculate the HFC emissions were taken from USEPA (2014a). Total HFCs emissions from

refrigerants are 875 tonne/year and tCO2e emission is 1,252,053 tonne tCO2e per year.

2.3 Contribution of GHG Emissions from Area Sources excluding Vehicles,

Power Plants and Large industry (point source)

Summary of GHG emission from various area sources is presented in Table 2.12. It can be seen

from Table 2.12, the major contributor in tCO2e in this category are MSW (34%), Domestic

(26.5%), Refrigerants (13.5%) and Livestock (6%). For CH4, the major contribution is from

livestock (78%), followed by Landfills (11%) and MSW burning (3.7%). In case of N2O, the

major contributors are MSW burning (31.4%), croplands (27.7%), Green cover (16%) and

Domestic sources (8%).

20

Table 2.12: Summary of GHG Emission Load from Area Sources in the Year 2014

Sources

Emissions in tonne/yr

CH4 CH4 (%) CO2 CO2 (%) N2O N2O (%) HCF tCO2e tCO2e (%)

MSW Burning 1077 3.7 3053812 42.9 142 31.4 - 3123102 33.81 Domestic 148 0.5 2436054 34.2 36 8.0 - 2450591 26.53

Refrigerant 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 875 (100%) 1252053 13.55 Livestock 22693 78.1 - - - - - 567316 6.14

Industry Area source 38 0.1 520616 7.3 17 3.7 - 526535 5.70 Cropland 176 0.6 351764 4.9 126 27.7 - 393599 4.26

Incinerator 88 0.3 261541 3.7 12 2.6 - 267288 2.89 Green Cover 147 0.5 159212 2.2 72 15.9 - 184377 2.00 Restaurant 19 0.1 171595 2.4 3 0.6 - 172942 1.87

Landfill 3263 11.2 3263 0.0 30 6.5 - 93664 1.01 Agriculture 873 3.0 57195 0.8 2 0.5 - 79749 0.86

DG Sets 3 0.0 49120 0.7 1 0.3 - 49570 0.54 Cremation 3 0.0 41252 0.6 2 0.3 - 41804 0.45

Aircraft 11 0.0 12925 0.2 0 0.0 - 13199 0.14 Drain 493 1.7 - - - - - 12320 0.13

Wetland 18 0.1 5925 0.1 11 2.4 - 9555 0.10 Total 29049 100.0 7124275 100.0 453 100.1 875 9237663 100.00

21

2.4 Point Sources

2.4.1 Industries having stack height greater than 20m

The industries having stack height of more than 20 m have been taken as point source. The

information on stacks, fuel and its consumption was obtained from DPCC. The power plants

information was taken from the annual report of Central Electricity Authority (CEA, 2012). The

industries have been located on the map (Figure 2.12).

Power plants: The total consumption of electricity was used to calculate the emissions due to

power plants. Currently, the power plants in Delhi could not satisfy the electricity requirements

in the capital city. Hence, electricity has to be imported from other states and thus indirect

emissions should be accounted for. The additional energy capacity required by the city is

assumed to follow the power capacity breakup of India, with fuels such as Coal, Renewable

sources (RES), Hydroelectricity etc. The USEPA (2014) emission factors were used to calculate

the GHG emissions are presented in Table 2.13:

Table 2.13: GHG emissions from Point Sources in Delhi

Sector CH4 CO2 N2O tCO2e tonne/yr

Power Plants 1420 16278706 207 16375918 Industries 2 26423 1 26635

Total 1422 16305129 208 16402553

Spatial distribution of GHG emissions from industrial point sources and power plants are

presented in Figures 2.13

22

Figure 2.12: Locations of Points Sources in the City

Figure 2.13: Spatial Distribution of tCO2e emissions (tonne/yr) from industrial point source

23

2.5 Vehicular - Line Sources

The average daily flow of vehicles in each hour for 2Ws, 3Ws, 4Ws, LCVs, Buses and Trucks at

64 locations were obtained from Central Road Research Institute (CRRI, 2015) (Figure 2.14).

Traffic data were modeled to estimate the vehicle plying on road for the year 2014. From these

64 traffic locations, the data were extrapolated for remaining grid cells. Road lengths in each cell

for major and minor roads were calculated from the digitized maps using the ArcGIS tool,

ArcMap and extracted into the grids. The information on traffic flow from traffic counts was

translated into the vehicles on the roads in each grid. The GHG emissions from each vehicle

category for each grid is estimated and summed up.

Figure 2.14: Traffic location considered for vehicle emission in the city of Delhi

The USEPA (2014) emission factors were used to calculate the GHG emission and are presented

in Table 2.14:

24

Table 2.14: GHG emissions from Vehicles in Delhi

CH4 CO2 N2O tCO2e

tonne/yr

6606 9980152 7132 12270785

Spatial distribution of GHG emissions from vehicles is presented in Figure2.15.

Figure 2.15: Spatial Distribution of tCO2e emissions (tonne/yr) from Vehicles

25

2.6 City Level GHG Emission Inventory

The overall GHG emission inventory for the entire city is presented in Table 2.15. The tCO2e

emission load in the city is estimated to be 37.91 million tonne for the year 2014. The top four

contributors to tCO2e emission are Power plants (43%), Vehicles (32%), MSW burning (8%) and

Domestic cooking (7%); these are based on annual emissions. Seasonal and daily emissions

could be variable. For example, MSW burning is more frequent in winter than in summer. The

estimated emission suggests that there are many important sources and a composite emission

abatement including most of the sources will be required to reduce the GHG emission.

CH4 emission in the city is estimated to be 37078 tonne/yr. The top three contributors to CH4

emissions are livestock (61%), vehicles (18 %), and landfills (9%); these are based on annual

emissions. Seasonal and daily emissions could be variable. N2O emissions are lower than CH4

emission ~ 7794 t/d. Nearly 92% of emissions are attributed to vehicular emissions. Power plants

contribute 3% to N2O emission and are followed by domestic emission (0.5%). The Spatial

distribution of tCO2e emissions (tonne/yr) in the Delhi city is presented in Figure 2.16.

Figure 2.16: Spatial Distribution of tCO2e emissions (tonne/yr) in Delhi City

26

Table 2.15: Overall Baseline GHG Emission in the Delhi City (in tonnes): year 2014

S.No Sources CH4 CH4 (%) CO2 X 106 CO2 (%) N2O N2O (%) HCF tCO2e X 106 tCO2e

(%)

1

Power Sector (1a) Power Plants (Within Delhi) (1b) Power Consumption (From Outside Delhi

Sources)

1105 315

3.0 0.8

13.40 2.88

40.1 8.6

160 47

2.1 0.6

-

13.48 2.90

35.6 7.6

Total 1420 3.8 16.28 48.7 207 2.7 16.38 43.2

2 Vehicles 6606 17.8 9.98 29.9 7132 91.5 - 12.27 32.4

3 MSW Burning 1077 2.9 3.05 9.1 142 1.8 - 3.12 8.2

4 Domestic 148 0.4 2.44 7.3 36 0.5 - 2.45 6.5

5 Refrigerant 0 0.0 0.00 0.0 0 0.0 875 1.25 3.3

6 Livestock 22693 61.2 - - - 0.57 1.5

7 Industry (Area source) 38 0.1 0.52 1.6 17 0.2 - 0.53 1.4

8 Cropland 176 0.5 0.35 1.1 126 1.6 - 0.39 1.0

9 Incinerator 88 0.2 0.26 0.8 12 0.2 - 0.27 0.7

10 Green Cover 147 0.4 0.16 0.5 72 0.9 - 0.18 0.5

11 Restaurant 19 0.1 0.17 0.5 3 0.0 - 0.17 0.5

12 Landfill 3263 8.8 0.00 0.0 30 0.4 - 0.09 0.2

13 Agriculture 873 2.4 0.06 0.2 2 0.0 - 0.08 0.2

14 DG Set 3 0.0 0.05 0.1 1 0.0 - 0.05 0.1

15 Cremation 3 0.0 0.04 0.1 2 0.0 - 0.04 0.1

16 Industrial (point source)* 2 0.0 0.03 0.1 1 0.0 - 0.03 0.1

17 Aircraft 11 0.0 0.01 0.0 0 0.0 - 0.01 0.0

18 Drain 493 1.3 - - - 0.01 0.0

19 Wetland 18 0.0 0.01 0.0 11 0.1 - 0.01 0.0

20 Total 37078 100 33.41 100 7794 100 875 37.91 100

*Industries excluding power plants.

27

2.7 Comparison with Other Countries

The Table 2.16 shows data of top 15 GHG emitting countries and their per capita emission

compiled by the Energy Information Agency (Department of Energy), which estimates carbon

dioxide emissions from all sources of fossil fuel burning and consumption.

Table 2.16: CO2 and percapita emissions of top 15 emitter countries

2011 Total Emissions

Country Rank Country

2011 Total Carbon Dioxide Emissions from

the Consumption of Energy (Million Metric

Tons)

2011 Per Capita Carbon Dioxide Emissions from

the Consumption of Energy (Metric Tons of

Carbon Dioxide per Person)

1 China 8715.31 6.52 2 United States 5490.63 17.62 3 Russia 1788.14 12.55 4 India 1725.76 1.45 5 Japan 1180.62 9.26 6 Germany 748.49 9.19 7 Iran 624.86 8.02 8 South Korea 610.95 12.53 9 Canada 552.56 16.24 10 Saudi Arabia 513.53 19.65 11 United Kingdom 496.80 7.92 12 Brazil 475.41 2.41 13 Mexico 462.29 4.07 14 South Africa 461.57 9.42 15 Indonesia 426.79 1.73

Source: http://www.ucsusa.org/

While India stands at the 4th level, the per capita emission is the smallest (1.45 Metric Tons

CO2/capita) among 15 countries. However, the Indian economy should grow further and keeping

the GHG emissions low as far as possible.

28

2.7.1 GHG emission in Delhi and comparison with other cities

In Delhi, the total annual GHG emission was estimated to be 37.91 million tonne of tCO2e. The

fossil fuel consumption of coal and natural gas for electricity generation and fuels used in

vehicles accounted for the major emissions in the city (82%). The per capita emission of Delhi

city is 2.26 tonne per year tCO2e, which is lower than many of the top GHG emitting cities:

London: 6.2 Tokyo: 4.9 (Figure 2.17; http://www.unep.org/). It can be seen from Figure 2.18 that

Delhi with population of 16.75 million is emitting 37.91 million tonne of tCO2e, which is about 4

times less compared to emissions from Beijing, a city of similar population.

Figure 2.17: Annual percapita tCO2e emission of different cities (http://www.unep.org/)

13.7

10.89.5

7.9 7.66.2

4.9 4.2 4.12.2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Frankfurt Beijing Toranto New York City

Cape Town

London Tokyo Barcelona Seoul Delhi

Annual Per capita tCO2e emission

29

Figure 2.18: tCO2e Emission and Population of major cities

It may be noted that per capita emission of India is one of the lowest (among top 15 emitters).

Similarly per capita emission in Delhi is also one of the smallest as compared to per capita

emission of other cities. However, tCO2e per capita emission from Delhi is about 1.5 times the

national average per capita emission (1.56; http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/indbur1.pdf).

This large per capita emission in Delhi could be attributed to the fact that it is a capital city with

high GDP and solely represent urban area.

173

6248 41.1 37.9 40.8

24.614.9 8.8 6.7 4.5

19.6 13.5 8.4 10 16.8 8.5 3.7 2.6 0.6 1.6 0.40

20406080

100120140160180200

Beijing Tokyo New York city

Seoul Delhi London Cape Town

Toronto Frankfurt Barcelona Canberra

tCO2e (MT) Population (million)

30

Chapter 3 Carbon Stock

3.0 General

According to IPCC, the anthropogenic GHG emission have increased concentration of

greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane etc. in the atmosphere, and

thus gradually warming of our planet. The control and addition of terrestrial carbon sinks are

necessary as they lead to CO2 sequestration that may lead to decrease in global warming.

The carbon sinks/stock in the territory of the Delhi consists of forests, plantations, avenue trees,

garden and parks. The calculations are based on the Delhi’s total green area of 327.62 sq. km,

out of which 176.62 sq. km is occupied by forest (species: Prosopisjuliflora, Acacia nilotica,

Eucalyptus, etc.) and 151 sq. km of mixed species in gardens parks and avenues (FSI(1995),

https://www.ndmc.gov.in, http://www.mcdonline.gov.in/). There are approximately 26,000 trees

(Azadirachtaindica, Syzygiumcumini, FicusVirens etc.) on the major avenues in Delhi

(https://www.ndmc.gov.in).

Thus, estimation of carbon stock allows the following analysis:

• Assessment of carbon dioxide sequestrated over last few decades by the green areas of

Delhi.

• Mitigation plans as to how much carbon stock should be increased in the city to reduce

the GHGs in the atmosphere.

3.1 Carbon Pools

According to the IPCC, there are five carbon pools of terrestrial ecosystem involving biomass,

namely the above-ground biomass, below-ground biomass, the dead mass of litter, woody debris

and soil organic matter. In the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is fixed and then

eventually transferred across different carbon pools/sinks. Above the ground biomass is the most

important component of carbon pool and can be found in forest ecosystem. Any changes in the

system of land use such as deforestation and forest degradation have a direct impact to this

31

component of carbon pool. The significance of below ground biomass lies in the fact that it

transfers carbon to soil.

3.1.1 Estimation of biomass in Forest Areas

The forest area in Delhi is 176.62 sq. km. (ISFR, 2015). Number density of tress was estimated

from FSI Inventory report (FSI, 1995).

Above Ground Biomass (AGB)

The girth of a tree (GBH) is the circumference of tree trunk which is measured at breast height

i.e. 1.32m from the ground. Data of the girth and height is procured from the publication of

Gujarat Forest Department “Heritage trees of Gujarat” (Singh et al., 2010). The averages of the

species’ values were used in place of the species for which the data were not available. Tree

diameter (D) was calculated by dividing the circumference by value of pie, i.e. D = GBH/3.14.

Biomass is estimated using allometric equations that estimate the amount of carbon present. Tree

bio-volume (TBV) value was established by taking the product of biomass volume and a factor

of 0.4. Above ground Biomass (AGB) was estimated by taking the product of wood density and

above ground biomass volume.

Bio − volume(T) = 0.4 × (D)2 × H

AGB = Wood Density × T

Where H= Height (meters). Wood density is used from Global wood density database, (Zanne et

al., 2009). The standard average density of 0.6 gram/ cm3 is applied where there is no specific

information about the density of that specie. The below ground biomass has been empirically

estimated by using the 0.26 factor as the root: shoot ratio (Hangarge et al., 2012).

BGB = AGB × 0.26

32

Total biomass is the sum of the above and below ground biomass. Total Biomass (T) = AGB +

BGB. Table 3.1 shows the values of AGB, BGB and total biomass for different species present

in the forest.

3.1.2 Estimation of biomass in avenues

Total of 26,000 trees from 70 major avenues in the city (https://www.ndmc.gov.in) were used for

calculation. The number distribution of the species was estimated from the same source. The rest

of the methodology adopted is exactly same as discussed in the forest section. Table 3.2 shows

AGB, BGB and total carbon stocks of different trees at the avenues.

33

Table 3.1: Estimated Percentage of species, AGB, BGB and total estimated biomass in the forests of Delhi

Tree Species Percentage in Delhi forests

Number of Trees GBH in m H in

m D in m

Bio-volume in m3 AGB in kg BGB in kg Biomass

in ton Total biomass,

ton

Prosopisjuliflora 23.48 944268 0.62 8.95 0.20 0.14 84.29 21.91 0.11 100281.69 Acacia nilotica 22.17 891585 0.60 15.30 0.19 0.22 134.07 34.86 0.17 150618.86 Eucalyptus 18.17 730722 0.90 12.72 0.29 0.42 251.77 65.46 0.32 231811.02 Azadirachtaindica 8.06 324140 1.20 16.00 0.38 0.93 560.83 145.82 0.71 229053.67 Dalberoiasissoo 6.03 242502 1.75 17.00 0.56 2.11 1267.29 329.50 1.60 387223.83 Prosopis cineraria 4.9 197058 0.42 13.00 0.13 0.09 55.82 14.51 0.07 13859.83 meliaazadarach 3.98 160059 0.90 9.50 0.29 0.31 188.04 48.89 0.24 37922.65 Zizyphusspp 2.03 81638 0.90 12.72 0.29 0.42 251.77 65.46 0.32 25898.53 Ficusspp 1.74 69976 1.40 8.20 0.45 0.65 391.22 101.72 0.49 34493.63 morusspp 1.66 66758 0.90 15.00 0.29 0.49 296.90 77.19 0.37 24974.19 acacia tortilis 1.47 59117 0.60 15.30 0.19 0.22 134.07 34.86 0.17 9986.91 acacia spp 1.46 58715 0.62 8.95 0.20 0.14 84.29 21.91 0.11 6235.57 rest 4.85 195047 0.90 12.72 0.29 0.42 251.77 65.46 0.32 61875.81

Total 100 4021585 Average=0.42 1314236.20

*Total biomass in Delhi forests is 1,31,4236 tonne.

34

Table 3.2: Estimated Percentage share of species, AGB, BGB and total estimated biomass in Avenues of Delhi

Tree type No. of

Avenues with tree type

Fraction of tree type

No. of Trees

GHB (m)

H (m)

D (m)

Bio-volume (m3)

AGB per tree (kg)

BGB per tree (kg)

biomass (tonne/

tree)

Total biomass (tonne)

Arjun 4 0.06 1486 1.3 17.58 0.418 1.23 738.18 191.93 0.93 1381.88

Neem 16 0.23 5943 1.6 11.49 0.517 1.23 736.73 191.55 0.93 5516.64

Imli 3 0.04 1114 1.0 10.4 0.349 0.51 304.09 79.06 0.38 426.95

Jamun 13 0.19 4829 0.6 7.1 0.196 0.11 65.26 16.97 0.08 397.05

Kigelia 3 0.04 1114 1.1 10.4 0.349 0.51 304.09 79.06 0.38 426.95

Pilkhan 7 0.1 2600 1.4 8.2 0.446 0.65 391.22 101.72 0.49 1281.64

Pipal 5 0.07 1857 3.0 20.4 0.955 7.45 4469.15 1161.98 5.63 10457.80

Baheda 1 0.01 371 0.5 5.66 0.151 0.05 30.86 8.02 0.04 14.44

Khirni 1 0.01 371 1.1 10.4 0.349 0.51 304.09 79.06 0.38 142.32

Semal 1 0.01 371 0.2 10.2 0.064 0.02 9.93 2.58 0.01 4.65

Ailanthasexcelsa 1 0.01 371 1.1 10.4 0.349 0.51 304.09 79.06 0.38 142.32

Mahua 1 0.01 371 1.1 10.4 0.349 0.51 304.09 79.06 0.38 142.32

Pterygotaalata 1 0.01 371 1.1 10.4 0.349 0.51 304.09 79.06 0.38 142.32

Gmelinaarborea 2 0.03 743 1.1 10.4 0.349 0.51 304.09 79.06 0.38 284.63

Alstoniascholaris 6 0.09 2229 1.1 10.4 0.349 0.51 304.09 79.06 0.38 853.89

Ficus Sheila 2 0.03 743 1.4 8.2 0.446 0.65 391.22 101.72 0.49 366.18

Amaltas 3 0.04 1114 0.4 5.9 0.117 0.03 19.3 5.02 0.02 27.10

Total 70 1 26000 1.1 10.5 11.70 22009.07

Total number of trees in avenues is 26000 trees. Total estimated biomass from table is 22,009 tonne.

35

3.1.3 Estimation of biomass in Gardens and Parks

There are more than 18000 parks and gardens in NCT spread in about 15100 ha (8000

(NDMC and 7100 MCD) in various locations throughout Delhi (https://www.ndmc.gov.in;

http://www.mcdonline.gov.in/). Hence these parks, gardens, central verges etc. have a good

chance at increasing the area under green cover to fulfill the target of ecological sustenance.

The tree density for gardens was estimated from the data from various gardens and parks and

is shown in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3: Tree density of major parks in Delhi city

Name of Park in Delhi Number of trees Area of park (ha)

Tree density (trees/ha)

Lodi Garden 5400 80 68 Nehru Park 3700 75 49 Talkatora Garden 2000 48 42 Sanjay Jheel Park Laxmi Bai Nagar 1400 16 88

Central Park 649 8 81 Children Park at India Gate 834 15 56 Total 13983 242 58

*Tree density was calculated to be 58 trees/ha on average.

Assuming similar species of trees as in the study region, average value of total biomass/tree

(AGB and BGB) was used from Table 3.1. Table 3.4 shows the total value of biomass in

Delhi’s garden and parks.

Table 3.4: Total biomass present in gardens and parks in Delhi

Estimated Total number of trees (in 15100ha of gardens)

Average Total biomass/tree (tonne/tree)

Total biomass (tonne)

875800 0.42 367836

The total estimated terrestrial biomass for Delhi city amounts to 17, 04,081 tonne (Table 3.5).

This comprises organic elements, accumulated in the above-ground and underground biomass

of the forest ecosystems in Delhi. Furthermore, it is equal to 31,24,149 tCO2e. Figure 3.1

shows the breakup of total biomass into different categories.

36

Table 3.5: Total biomass, carbon stock and tCO2e of different carbon pools

Sources Total biomass in tonne Total estimated carbon in tonne tCO2e Forest areas 1314236 657118 2409433

Major Avenues 22009 11005 40350 Gardens and parks 367836 183918 674366

Total 17,04,081 852041 3124149

Figure 3.1: Pie chart showing breakup of carbon stock in green areas of Delhi (tonne)

It has been assumed that average life of the trees is approximately 30 years (based on

discussion with horticulture department, IITK) and carbon content per tree is 50% of its

biomass (Thomas and Martin, 2012). It is estimated that 28,401 tonne of carbon stock is

added every year. This corresponds to 1,04,138 tonne tCO2e being sequestered in the

terrestrial land mass per year. This will reduce the net annual emissions by 0.27% (37.91 to

37.80 million tonne tCO2e).

657118

11005

183918

Forest areas Major Avenues Gardens and parks

37

Chapter 4: Control options and GHG Mitigation

Strategies 4.0 General

It may be noted that GHG emission sources are plenty in number and efforts for control of

GHG emissions are required in every sector/source. A list of potential control options that

includes technological and management interventions are presented in Table 4.1. The

assessment of efficacies of controls is based on emission inventory analyses.

38

Table 4.1: Control Options, Emission Load and Reductions in tCO2e (tonne/yr)

Source

Options available for

reducing emissions

Description option Existing tCO2e emissions

Controlled tCO2e emissions

Percent reduction in

respective source

Percent change of total

reductions

Hotel/ Restaurant 1 Stop use of coal and shift to LPG 172312 164959 4 0.06

Domestic Cooking 2 LPG to all 2450591 2208754 10 1.84

MSW Burning 3 Stop MSW burning 3123102 26925 99 23.50

DG Set 4 Uninterrupted power supply and banning of 2-KVA or smaller DG sets 49570 0 100 0.38

Agriculture and Livestock 5 Manure management of livestock - - -

Landfill 6 Capture methane to produce fuel 93664 81575 13 0.09

Power plant

7.1 Use only natural gas as a fuel in power plants in Delhi 16375918 9548560 42 51.81

7.2

Obtain 21% energy from renewable sources like solar energy (alternative to natural gas) after option 7.1 is implemented by the year

2030

9548560 8114984 15 10.88

LED street light 8 Convert street lights to LED 1161661 213912 82 7.19

Vehicle 9 Electric/Hybrid Vehicles: 2% of 2-Ws, 10% of 3-Ws and 2% 4Ws every year 12270785 11708609 5 4.27

Total 34535942 21358057 38 100

This study is not proposing any time-bound action plan.

39

4.1 Control options

4.1.1 Hotel/Restaurant

There are approximately 36000 Hotels/Restaurants in the city of Delhi, which may use coal

(mostly in tandoors). It is proposed that all restaurants of sitting capacity more than 10 should

not use coal and shift to electric or gas-based appliances (e.g. LPG, etc).A careful examination

shows that about 4% reduction of tCO2e (172312 to 164959 tonne/yr) emission from this source

can be achieved by stopping usage of coal.

4.1.2 Domestic Sector

Although Delhi is kerosene free and 90% of the households use LPG for cooking, the remaining

10% use wood, crop residue, cow dung, and coal for cooking (Census-India, 2011). LPG may be

made available to remaining 10% households to make the city 100% LPG-fueled. This action is

expected to reduce about 10% of tCO2e (241837 tonne/yr) emissions from domestic sector.

4.1.3 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Burning

The MSW burning is wide spread in Delhi and NCR, more frequently in winter. A recent study

by Nagpure et al. (2015) in Delhi has estimated 190 to 246 tons/day of MSW burning (∼2−3% of

MSW generated). Any form of garbage burning should be strictly stopped and monitored for its

compliance. It will require development of infrastructure (including access to remote and

congested areas) for effective collection of MSW and disposal at landfill site. A complete ban on

MSW burning can almost reduce GHG emission by 99% from this source.

40

4.1.4 Diesel Generator (DG) Sets

For Delhi and NCR, all efforts should be made to minimize uses of DG sets and strengthen the

uninterrupted power supply. Small DG sets are used at the ground level which creates nuisance

and high pollution. It is recommended that all DG sets of size 2 KVA or less should not be

allowed to operate; instead, solar powered generation, storage and inverter should be promoted.

Calculations showed that this mitigation option can lead to reduction of 49570 tonne/yr in GHG

emissions.

4.1.5 Agriculture and Livestock

Emissions in livestock occur due to two major processes: Enteric fermentation and manure

management. Hence, to control the emissions, primarily CH4, one can focus on the manure

management.

Two possible measures could be taken to reduce GHG from livestock

• Controlling the way in which manure decomposes so to reduce N2O and CH4 emissions.

Example of it can be storing the manure on some solid areas rather than liquids as the

emissions resulting from latter will be a lot more compared to the former.

• Capturing CH4 from manure decomposition to produce renewable energy. Example of it

can be storing manure in anaerobic containment areas to maximize CH4 production and

then capturing the CH4 to use as an energy substitute for fossil fuels.

4.1.6 Landfills

CH4 is a major GHG that is emitted from landfill sites. Delhi has three major landfill sites with

total estimated emission of 0.09 million tonne of tCO2e per year. Thus, by 2022, provisions

could be made to capture and convert this efflux to make energy. Landfill gas (LFG) is produced

from the decomposition of organic matter in MSW. This gas consists of CH4, CO2 (see table 4.1

for emission loads) and a small amount of non-methane organic compounds (NMOCs). LFG has

a heating value of approximately half of that of natural gas and can often be used in place of

41

conventional fossil fuels in certain applications. The important advantage of this gas is that it is a

reliable local source of renewable energy because it is generated 24 hours a day, 7 days a week

from household and commercial wastes that are continuously deposited in landfills.

4.1.7 Power Plants

In power plants, coal, diesel and natural gas are used to generate electricity. Natural gas is more

efficient fuel than both coal and diesel. In 2014, the share of natural gas in total calorific value

was about 36% in power plants. Hence, to reduce the overall emissions from power plants, it is

recommended to switch from coal to natural gas. This would reduce total emissions of power

plants from 19.24 to 11.13 million tCO2e. This would be one of the major reductions in total

GHG emissions of Delhi city. Government of India has set the target of 1,75,000 MW renewable

energy including 1,00,000 MW solar energy by 2022. Global Data has estimated the growth rate

in India’s energy capacity to be 7.3% compounded yearly. In 2014, the energy capacity was

272.8 GW. Thus, the 2022 total energy capacity was calculated to be 480 GW. The share of solar

energy in electricity generation in India works out to be about 21%. Being the capital city of

India, Delhi could also generate this percentage of electricity using solar power. This

additionally reduces emissions from electricity sector by 27%. The final reduction in GHG

emissions could be from 16.37 to 8.12 million tCO2e (i.e. 21% which is equal to the share of

solar energy of total generation in power plants).

4.1.8 LED lights

Efforts should be made to convert the existing street lights to LED lights as it will not only

decrease the emissions, but decrease the overall cost of public lighting. It has been estimated that

about 320 million units of electricity annually will be saved by using LED lights in Delhi

(Existing sodium vapor lights [Average wattage=325W] to be replaced with 60W LED

streetlights). Thus, this additional saving of electricity will not only decrease the emissions in the

city, but it is also cost efficient. This reduction in electricity consumption reduces the GHG

emissions from 0.13 to 0.02 million tCO2e (about 82%).

42

4.1.9 Vehicles

It has been seen that vehicles is the second largest source of GHG emission in Delhi. Thus, there

is a need to introduce efficient fuels or vehicles to reduce the emissions by transport sector.

Introduction of Electric/Hybrid Vehicles: if electrical and hybrid vehicles are introduced, it is

assumed that by every year, 2% of 2-Ws, 10% of 3-Ws and 2% 4Ws of conventional vehicles

will be replaced by electric/hybrid vehicles. Reduction in emissions was calculated to be about

5%. The additional electricity needed by the vehicles is not accounted for in the GHG emissions

due to unavailability of data.

This study is not proposing any time bound action plan for control of GHG emissions.

43

References

1. Department Of Environment, Government of Delhi - Executive Summary of

Inventorization of Green House Gases – Sources and Sinks in Delhi.

2. IPCC (2006). “Volume 1 General Guidance and Reporting” IPCC Guidelines for

National Greenhouse Gas Inventories.

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