complete assignment of organization and behaviour

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Contents

No. Particular Page

1 Scenario 4

2 Introduction 4

3 Different organizational structures and cultures 5

3.1 Pre-bureaucratic structures 5

3.2 Bureaucratic structures 5

3.3 Post-bureaucratic 5

3.4 Functional structure 6

3.5 Divisional structure 6

3.6 Matrix structure 6

3.7 Flat structure 7

3.8 Team structure 7

3.9 Network structure 7

3.10 Virtual structure 8

4 Organizational culture 8

4.1 Power culture 9

4.2 Role culture 9

4.3 Task culture 9

4.4 Person/Welfare culture 10

4.5 My opinion 10

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5 The relationship between an organization’s structure and 10

culture and the effect on business environment

5.1 My opinion 11

6 The factors which influence individual behaviour at work 11

6.1 Perception 13

6.2 Abilities and skills 13

6.3 demographic factors 13

6.4 attitude 14

6.5 My opinion 14

7 the effectiveness of different Leadership styles in different 14

organization

7.1 Autocratic 16

7.2 Bureaucratic 16

7.3 Democratic 17

7.4 Charismatic 17

7.5 Situational 18

7.6 Transactional 18

7.7 Transformational 18

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8 Organizational theory underpins principles and practices of organizing

and of management 19

8.1 Interpersonal Roles 21

8.2 Informational Roles 21

8.3 Decisional Roles 22

8.4 My opinion 23

9 the different approaches to management and theories of organization

use by different organization 23

9.1 Human Behavior Approach 23

9.2 Social System Approach 23

9.3 Socio-Technical Systems Approach 24

9.4 Decision Theory Approach 24

9.5 Management Science Approach 24

9.6 Systems Approach 25

9.7 Contingency or Situational Approach 25

9.8 Operational Approaches 25

9.9 My opinion 26

10.0 Conclusion 26

11 Reference 27

Scenario

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Paul Roger runs a card business in Wigan. He employs four stuff named Laura, John,

Karl and Ellen. Laura serves as a administrator by telephone enquiries in Wigan. The rest are

card designers and all work from in various parts of the country. All designers are linked by

computer to the main office in Wigan. Each designers do their specialization. John designs

birth cards, Karl designs postcards and Ellen works on specialist projects. Paul is occupied

with customers, ensuring that the briefs are satisfied by his designers and looking for new

business. In August, Paul secured a contract with an American card manufacturer. As a result

he had to recruit four more designers. He also decided to employ a full-time sales person to

sells design in US. He also extend business in Manchester to print and supply cards as well

as designing them.

Introduction

As Paul Roger wants to extend his business, he should use a special kind of

organizational structures to overcome the difficulties in new steps. He also have to

understand what type of organizational cultures that he is dealing with because there are

factors influencing the individual behavior at work.

He has four staffs and moreover he is trying to recruit four more designers for having

new contacts with American card manufacturer. To get the best result, a good leadership is

required adjusted with his organization. The right organization theory and the right approach

to management will make his card business grows rapidly in modern world.

Figure .1

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Different organizational structures and structures

Pre -bureaucratic structures

Pre-bureaucratic structures is a kind of structure which is lack of standardization

tasks. This structure is most found in smaller organizations. It is the best way in solving the

simple tasks. The structure is totally centralized. The strategic leader makes all key decisions

and most communication is done by one on one situation. It is particularly useful for new

entrepreneurial business as it enables the founder to control growth and development.

Bureaucratic structures

Bureaucratic structures have a certain degree of standardization. They are better suited

for more complex or larger scale organizations, usually adopting a tall structure. It is clearly

defined in roles and responsibilities. Most of them are in a hierarchical structure as the size of

organizations and each level has respect for merit in this bureaucratic structures.

Post-bureaucratic

Post bureaucratic is termed as in two senses in the organizational structures. One is

generic and one much more specific. In the generic sense the term post bureaucratic is often

used to describe a range of ideas that specifically contrast themselves with bureaucratic

structures. This may include total quality management, culture management and matrix

management and so on. None of these however has left behind the core tenets of

Bureaucracy.

The post-bureaucratic organization, in which decisions are based on dialogue and

consensus rather than authority and command, the organization is a network rather than a

hierarchy, open at the boundaries. There is an emphasis on meta-decision making rules rather

than decision making rules.

Functional structure

Employees within the functional divisions of an organization tend to perform a

specialized set of tasks, for instance the marketing department would be staffed only with

marketing specialist. This leads to operational efficiencies within that group. However it

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_management


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureaucratic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardization


could also lead to a lack of communication between the functional groups within an

organization, making the organization slow and inflexible.

As a whole, a functional organization is best suited as a producer of standardized

goods and services at large volume and low cost. Coordination and specialization of tasks are

centralized in a functional structure, which makes producing a limited amount of products or

services efficient and predictable. Moreover, efficiencies can further be realized as functional

organizations integrate their activities vertically so that products are sold and distributed

quickly and at low cost

Divisional structure

The divisional structure groups each organizational function into a division. Each

division within a divisional structure contains all the necessary resources and functions within

it. Divisions can be categorized from different points of view. One might make distinctions

on a geographical basis or on product/service basis. Thus why, it is also called as functional

structure.

Matrix structure

The matrix structure groups employees by both function and product. This structure

can combine the best of both separate structures. A matrix organization frequently uses teams

of employees to accomplish work, in order to take advantage of the strengths, as well as make

up for the weaknesses, of functional and decentralized forms.

For example, a cosmetic company produces a lotion and a powder. According to the

matrix structure, this company would organize functions within the company as follows:

lotion sales department, lotion customer service department, lotion accounting, powder sales

department, powder customer service department, powder accounting department. Matrix

structure is amongst the purest of organizational structures, a simple lattice emulating order

and regularity demonstrated in nature.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_organization


Flat structure

The flat structure is common in small companies especially the entrepreneurs. As

companies grow, they tend to become more complex and hierarchical, which leads to an

expanded structure, with more levels and departments.

However, in rare cases, although the company growth very rapidly but remains very flat as it

grows, eschewing middle managers.

Team structure

One of the newest organizational structures developed in the 20th century is team

structure. In small businesses, the team structure can define the entire organization. Teams

can be both horizontal and vertical. While an organization is constituted as a set of people

who synergize individual competencies to achieve newer dimensions, the quality of

organizational structure revolves around the competencies of teams in totality. Larger

bureaucratic organizations can benefit from the flexibility of teams as well. The most world

successful "APPLE" and "SAMSAUNG" are all among the companies that actively use

teams to perform tasks.

Network structure

Another modern structure is network. While business giants risk becoming too clumsy

to approach, act and react efficiently, the new network organizations contract out any

business function, that can be done better or more cheaply. In essence, managers in network

structures spend most of their time coordinating and controlling external relations, usually by

electronic means which aligns with its low-cost strategy. The potential management

opportunities offered by recent advances in complex networks theory have been

demonstrated including applications to product design and development, and innovation

problem in markets and industries.

Virtual structure

Virtual organization is defined as being closely coupled upstream with its suppliers

and downstream with its customers such that where one begins and the other ends. A special

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http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/network

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_manager

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flat_organization


form of boundary less organization is virtual. The virtual organization exists within a network

of alliances, using the Internet. This means while the core of the organization can be small

but still the company can operate globally be a market leader in its niche. According to

Anderson, because of the unlimited shelf space of the Web, the cost of reaching niche goods

is falling dramatically. Although none sell in huge numbers, there are so many niche products

that collectively they make a significant profit, and that is what made highly innovative

Amazon.com so successful.

Figure .2

Organizational culture

The organization culture is the one that develops and change over a period of time.

The culture will affect both on the individuals or organization which will act as a constraint

on their behaviour.

Gareth Morgan defined on that

"The set of beliefs, values, and norms, together with symbols like dramatized events

and personalities, that represents the unique character of an organization, and provides the

context for action in it and by it."

So it is essential to understand the culture which will contribute to the success or

failure of the organization.

There are four types of organizational culture:

1. Power

2. Role

3. Task

4. Person/ Welfare

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Power Culture

In power culture, the main feature is centralisation of power. It is mostly found in the

small entrepreneurial business organizations and it is controlled by a single individual or a

small group of individuals. That means there is a centralization power source and the

decision maker is alone there is no consultancy. Decision can be made very quickly. the

organization may react quickly to the danger. But the weakness is sometimes more

consultancy can lead to staff feeling undervalued and de-motivated, which can be the lack of

challenge and also can lead to high staff turnover.

Role Culture

Today, role culture become common in most of the organizations . In a role culture,

organizations are split into various functions and each individual within the function is

assigned a specific role according to the employee 's position. The role culture has the benefit

of specialization. Employees focus on their particular role as assigned to them by their job

description and this should increase productivity for the company. This culture is quite

logical to organize in a large organization. Position is the main source of power and rules and

procedures are the main source of influence.

But as there is only little scope for individual initiative, there will be slow in

individual growth and development.

Task Culture

It is basically a team work based approach to complete a specific task. The team

decides the way how will the work be organized, not by individuals or by the rule of

organization. This culture is more common the business where the organization will establish

a project team to complete the project in the particular time. The senses of employee

motivated because they have power to make decisions in their team, they will feel as well and

assess because they can have been chosen in this team and given responsibility to bring task.

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Person or Welfare Culture

Basically this kind of culture is a welfare non profitable, charities and for the social

activities. This kind of culture can be in the group or individual aim. It is mostly found in

communities such as kibbutz, co-operatives, architects' partnerships and so on.

In a person culture , hierarchies are impossible except by mutual consent. Many

people will have a variety of options according to the choice.

My opinion

From the above structures & cultures, Paul Rogers use the network structure because

he contacts his designers mostly by internet as they all are linked by computer to the main

office. It is for the purpose of low cost strategy as there will be no travelling cost to send

design, This has ensure a good communication. But it is a network communication so when

the business become giant, there will be risk becoming too clumsy to approach, act and react

efficiently.

The relationship between an organization’s structure and culture

and the effects on business performance

Culture and structure work as a important role in the organization. It creates new

concepts and strategies which can affect any level of planning. When it to apply a claim on

any organization of hierarchy. Therefore the involvements of culture of organization and

structure will be carried out in the governmental companies etc.

The structure of organization and culture can affect the progress of organization in the

positive and in a negative manner. In a positive manner it differentiates the organization in

other whom does not have culture and structure. He explains the restriction of the society. It

provides a sense of license among the employees to know for success and realization of

purposes. He can bring stability and social system in the organization. In any organization

having culture and strange structure there will be the working frame also provides appropriate

norms of working frame.

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Every organization has different rules of policies and the regulations that how to

communicate with the employee. The organization shows responsibilities as who will

announce to whom means which will be responsible to whom the majority in this kind of

tasks of organization a good enemy of decision the company

Culture and structure also have some disadvantages on the progress of business. If the

culture of organization is too much complex then in the decision of organization will be very

slow and also there will be the catch of centralized decision in which they will not amuse the

employee of lower level.

My opinion

In my thought, the present organizational structure is appropriate for now but no more

for further plan to extend his card business .When his card business is small, it is ok with the

network organizational structures. It saves time and cut down the cost of travelling because of

the network's benefits. But now with the extend of business in US and the contract with an

American card manufacturer, the network structure is not efficient enough to operate. With

the network structure, when business become giant, risk becoming too clumsy to approach,

act and react efficiently.

To solve that, I suggest the bureaucratic structures as it have a certain degree of

standardization. They are better suited for more complex or larger scale organizations like

Paul Rogers expecting card business. It is usually adopting a tall structure so the coming

levels of his organization's controlling and communication will be in good way. That's why I

believe the bureaucratic structures will be suitable for his card design business.

The factors which influence individual behaviour at work

All individuals are different and behave differently to people all over time.

Interpersonal behaviour is different from individual behaviour. If we know what types

of behaviour made people effective as workers, we can encourage or change our behaviour to

accomplish our organizational goals.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureaucratic


There are many terms and factors which influence the individuals behaviours at work.

Among them the most important are personality, perception, demographic factors, abilities

and skills and attitude.

Figure .3

Personality can be defined as the study of the characteristics and distinctive traits of

an individual, the inter-relations between them and the way in which a person responds and

adjusts to other people and situations. The several factors that influence the personality of an

individual are heredity, family, society, culture and situation. It implies to the fact that

individuals differ in their manner while responding to the organizational environment.

Personality can be regarded as the most complex aspect of human beings that influences their

behaviour in big way.

We can also show the personality by personality dimensions of map charts by

following facts:

Personality dimension

Neuroticism

Extraversion

Openness to experience

Agreeableness

Conscientiousness

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Neuroticism It tells about the effectiveness and emotional control in a body. If

neuroticism is high in a body then it shows nervousness , sensitivity and unstable where it is

low levels shows confidence emotional stability and activeness.

Extraversion, in high level its shows energetic or if it is in low level may be

described as quite , shyness and unsocial

Openness to experience High openness to experience have broad interest and having

a wide imagination. in other hand low openness are conservative and conventional

Agreeableness Its good to have high agreeableness because its brings kindness

friendly and a team worker

Conscientiousness individual with a high a level are original and effective. their

focus is just on their job and if this level is low in some one there that person will be very

slow, careless and undutiful

Perception

The cognitive process meant for interpreting the environmental stimuli in a

meaningful way is referred to as perception. The study of perception plays important role for

the managers. It is important for mangers to create the favourable work environment so that

employees perceive them in most favourable way.

Abilities and Skills

The physical capacity of an individual to do something can be termed as ability. Skill

can be defined as the ability to act in a way that allows a person to perform well. The

individual behaviour and performance is highly influenced by ability and skills. A person can

perform well in the organisation if his abilities and skills are matched with the job

requirement. The managers plays vital role in matching the abilities and skills of the

employees with the particular job requirement

Demographic Factors

The demographic factors are socio economic background, education, nationality, race,

age, sex, etc. Organisations prefer persons that belong to good socio-economic background,

well educated, young etc as they are believed to be performing better than the others. The

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young and dynamic professionals that have good academic background and effective

communication skills are always in great demand. The study of demographic factors is

significant as it helps managers to pick the suitable candidate for a particular job.

Attitude

According to psychologists, attitude can be defined as a tendency to respond

favourably or unfavourably to certain objects, persons or situations. The factors such as

family, society, culture, peers and organisational factors influence the formation of attitude.

The managers in an organisation need to study the variables related to job as to create the

work environment in a favourable way that employees are tempted to form a positive attitude

towards their respective jobs. The employees can perform better in the organisation if they

form a positive attitude.

My opinion

As the network structure, Paul Roger recruit the staff in different places mostly at

home. He behave in that manner because there will be no more internal office and work

problems. And also let the staffs do at their home make them feel relax and no pressure to

come office in time. They can do their works freely with no limitation time. Thus why, he

behave as this manner.

the effectiveness of different Leadership styles in different

organizations

Leadership has a direct cause and effect upon relationship between organizations and

can shape the organization’s success. Leaders determine values, culture, change tolerance and

employee motivation. Leaders can appear at any level of an institution and are not exclusive

to management. Successful leaders do, however, have one thing in common. They influence

those around them in order to make the maximum benefit from the organization’s resources,

including its most vital and expensive: its people.

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Figure .4

In fact, the influence of leaders and their effectiveness in moving people to a shared

vision can directly shape the people, its materials, how patrons use or interact with them and

whether or not that experience is beneficial. With leadership potentially playing such a vital

role in the success of information centres and patron experiences, it is useful to consider the

different types of leaders and their potential impact on libraries as organizations.

Current leadership theories describe leaders based upon traits or how influence and

power are used to achieve objectives. When using trait-based descriptions, leaders may be

classified as autocratic,

democratic,

bureaucratic or

charismatic.

If viewing leadership from the perspective of the exchange of power and its utilization to

secure outcomes, leaders are

situational,

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transactional or

transformational.

Understanding these different tropes can provide a vocabulary for discussion that can

lead to meaningful, desired results. It bears nothing that are not all leaders are created equal,

and leadership quality may vary enormously across industries or simply within an

organization. In addition, identifying an individual leader’s style is central to evaluating

leadership quality and effectiveness especially as it relates to organizational goals.

Autocratic

Autocratic leadership can be called “do as I say” types. Typically, Autocratic leaders

are inexperienced with leadership thrust upon them in the form of a new position or

assignment that involves people management. Autocratic leaders can damage an organization

seriously as they force their ‘followers’ to execute strategies and services in a very narrow

way based upon a subjective idea of what success looks like. There is no shared vision and

little motivation beyond coercion. Commitment, creativity and innovation are typically

eliminated by autocratic leadership. In fact, most followers of autocratic leaders can be

described as biding their time waiting for the inevitable failure this leadership produces and

the removal of the leader that follows.

Bureaucratic

Bureaucratic leaders create, and rely on, policy to meet organizational goals. Policies

drive execution, strategy, objectives and outcomes. Bureaucratic leaders are most

comfortable relying on a stated policy in order to convince followers to get on board. In

doing so they send a very direct message that policy dictates direction. Bureaucratic leaders

are usually strongly committed to procedures and processes instead of people, and as a result

they may appear aloof and highly change adverse.

The specific problem or problems associated with using policies to lead aren’t always

obvious until the damage is done. The danger here is that leadership’s greatest benefits,

motivating and developing people, are ignored by bureaucratic leaders. Policies are simply

inadequate to the task of motivating and developing commitment. The specific risk with

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bureaucratic leaders is the perception that policies come before people, and complaints to that

effect are usually met with resistance or disinterest. Policies are not in themselves destructive,

but thoughtlessly developed and blindly implemented policy can de-motivate employees and

frustrate desired outcomes. The central problem here is similar to the one associated with

autocratic leaders. Both styles fail to motivate and have little impact on people development.

In fact, the detrimental impact could be significant and far outweigh any benefits realized by

these leadership styles.

Democratic

It sounds easy enough. Instead of one defined leader, the group leads itself.

Egalitarian to the core, democratic leaders are frustrated by the enormous effort required to

build consensus for even the most mundane decisions as well as the glacial pace required to

lead a group by fiat. The potential for poor decision-making and weak execution is significant

here. The biggest problem with democratic leadership is its underlying assumptions that

everyone has an equal stake in an outcome as well as shared levels of expertise with regard to

decisions. That’s rarely the case. While democratic leadership sounds good in theory, it often

is bogged down in its own slow process, and workable results usually require an enormous

amount of effort.

Charismatic

By far the most successful trait-driven leadership style is charismatic. Charismatic

leaders have a vision, as well as a personality that motivates followers to execute that vision.

As a result, this leadership type has traditionally been one of the most valued. Charismatic

leadership provides fertile ground for creativity and innovation, and is often highly

motivational. With charismatic leaders at the helm, the organization’s members simply want

to follow. It sounds like a best case scenario. There is however, one significant problem that

potentially undercuts the value of charismatic leaders: they can leave. Once gone, an

organization can appear rudderless and without direction. The floundering can last for years,

because charismatic leaders rarely develop replacements. Their leadership is based upon

strength of personality. As a result, charismatic leadership usually eliminates other

competing, strong personalities. The result of weeding out the competition is a legion of

happy followers, but few future leaders.

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Situational

Situational leadership theory suggests that the best leaders constantly adapt by

adopting different styles for different situations or outcomes. This theory reflects a relatively

sophisticated view of leadership in practice and can be a valuable frame of reference for

experienced, seasoned leaders who are keenly aware of organizational need and individual

motivation. Most importantly, it allows experienced leaders the freedom to choose from a

variety of leadership iterations. Problems arise, however, when the wrong style is applied

inelegantly. Also, considering our earlier discussion regarding some of the more ineffective

leadership styles like autocratic and bureaucratic, this style requires a warning or disclaimer

related to unintended or less than optimal results when choosing one of these styles. With that

said, situational leadership can represent a useful framework for leaders to test and develop

different styles for various situations with an eye towards fine-tuning leadership results.

Situational leadership, however, is most effective when leaders choose more effective styles

like charismatic, transactional, and transformational.

Transactional

The wheeler-dealers of leadership styles, transactional leaders are always willing to

give you something in return for following them. It can be any number of things including a

good performance review, a raise, a promotion, new responsibilities or a desired change in

duties. The problem with transactional leaders is expectations. If the only motivation to

follow is in order to get something, what happens during lean times when resources are

stretched thin and there is nothing left with which to make a deal? That said, transactional

leaders sometimes display the traits or behaviours of charismatic leaders and can be quite

effective in many circumstances while creating motivated players. They are adept at making

deals that motivate and this can prove beneficial to an organization. The issue then is simply

one of sustainability.

Transformational

Transformational leaders seek to change those they lead. In doing so, they can

represent sustainable, self-replicating leadership. They do not force to perform like the

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personality (charismatic) or bargaining (transactional) to persuade followers.

Transformational leaders use knowledge, expertise and vision to change those around them in

a way. They make the followers with deeply embedded buy-in that remains even when the

leader that created it is no longer on the scene. Transformational leaders represent the most

valuable form of leadership since followers are given the chance to change, transform and, in

the process, develop themselves as contributors. Organizationally this achieves the best

leadership outcome since transformational leaders develop people. Transformational

leadership is strongly desired since it has no artificial constraints. It is particularly suited for

fast-paced, change-laden environments that demand creative problem solving and customer

commitment.

In my opinion

Paul Roger is using the autocratic leadership as to do in his own ways . He need

more than leaders and leadership; they need the right kinds of each. To remain viable as

institutions, and to add value to the constituents they serve, the card design business

leadership must manage change, develop employees and provoke customer commitment.

That said, there is a clear difference between leadership styles and there may be instances

where one style is more effective; thus a need for flexibility and perhaps an

inventory/awareness of who might best lead an initiative based on their styles. In fact, certain

leadership styles actually undermine morale, creativity, innovation and employee

commitment. Taking the time to consider the types of leaders he have in his card design

business could be a worthwhile exercise in terms of understanding leadership and its impact

on his organization.

Organizational theory underpins principles and practices of

organizing and of management.

Organizations are ‘social arrangements for the controlled performance of collective

goals’. Organizational theory and management theory is used in many aspects of a working

business. Many people strive to adhere to the theory to help them become better at their jobs

or more successful in life, although this may lead to them having to sacrifice some of their

personal principles in order to succeed.

One example of following organizational theory in the financial sector would be an

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employee or manager who wants to know how to achieve goals by having a set structure to

follow. In addition, someone in a human resources sector will have to make decisions through

their working day that will undoubtedly change the structure and practice of a working day of

all other employees in the company.

If an individual gets so wrapped up in trying to fit the terms of organizational theory,

they may start to neglect others areas of business. In the some way, management theory may

also underpin the personal values of some individuals. For instance, they may disagree with a

particular rule or regulation that has been introduced by the company. However in order to

carry out their job as a manager effectively and professionally, they need to move away from

their principles and execute the job.

For that the manager`s role is described by Fayal’s theory as follows:

Planning

It is the ongoing process of developing the business’ mission and objectives and

determining how they will be accomplished. Planning includes both the broadest view of the

organization, e.g. its mission, and the narrowest, a tactic for accomplishing a specific goal.

Organizing

Establishing the internal organizational structure of the organization. The focus is on

division, coordination, and control of tasks and the flow of information within the

organization. It is in this function that managers distribute authority to job holders.

Commanding

Fayal’s called this maintain activity among the personnel, it involves instructing and

motivating subordinates to carry out tasks.

Coordinating

This is the task of monitoring the activities of individuals and groups within the

organization, reconciling differences in approach, timing and resource requirement in the

interest of overall organizational objectives.

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Controlling

It is a four step process of establishing performance standards based on the firm’s

objective, measuring and reporting actual performance, comparing the two and taking

corrective or preventive action is necessary.

In other way Henery mintz berg describes in other way.

He explains three main types of managerial roles

1. Interpersonal {figurehead, leader, liaison}

2. Information {monitor, spokesmen, disseminator}

3. Decisional roles {entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator negotiator}

Interpersonal Roles

Figurehead

The manager is a symbol, obliged to perform a number of duties. He represents the

organization in various ceremonies etc.

Leader

Managers select and trained the team members. He/she used to motivate the team to

achieve pre defined goal.

Liaison

Manager duty is to communicate with people outside the work unit trying to

coordinates two project groups.

Informational Roles

Monitor

The monitor involves seeking current information from many sources. The manager

acquires information from others and shares it with concerns people to stay well informed.

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Disseminator

The managers send external information into his organization and internal information

from one subordinate to another.

Spokesman

The managers transmit information out to his organization’s environment to speak on

behalf of the organization.

Decisional Roles

Entrepreneur

The manager acts as initiator and designer of much of the controlled change of the

organization. By using the monitoring role, he seeks opportunities, sees problems, and

initiates actions to improve situations.

Disturbance Handler

The manger role involves resolving conflicts among subordinates or between the

managers departments and other departments.

Resource Allocator

This role of manager involves deciding about how to allocate people, time,

equipment, budget and other resources to attain desired outcomes.

Negotiator

Managers participate in negotiation activities. Managers represent department during

negotiation of union contracts, sales, purchases, budgets, represent departmental interest.

Managerial Authority

The formal and a manager to make decisions, issues, orders and allocate resources to

achieve organizational goals and objectives.

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Managerial authority is the position that empowers a manger to exercise command

and control over those placed under him for realization of the assigned role in an

organization.

My opinion

In this way of being organized, Paul Roger's business has advantages. Firstly, he is

operating the business with a low-cost organizational strategy. With the way the Brake even

point can reach rapidly and the profit outcome will be massive in future time. Secondly, there

will be no time delay because they transfer design by linkage of computer. The design can be

send and receive simultaneously. Finally, without the work regularly time, he can spend out

of the office to find news customers and to analyze their want and need.

the different approaches to management and theories of

organization used by different organization

Human Behaviour Approach

It is a kind of Human Relations, Leadership or Behavioural Science Approach. It

bears the existing and newly developed theories and methods of the relevant social sciences

upon the study of human behaviour ranging from personality dynamics of individuals to the

relations of culture. As management is the process of getting things done by people,

managers should understand human behaviour. Emphasis is put on increasing productivity

through motivation and good human relations. Motivation, leadership, communication,

participative management and group dynamics are the central core of this approach. It

suggests how the knowledge of human behaviour can be used in making people more

effective in the organization.

Social System Approach

Organization is essentially a cultural system composed of people who work in

cooperation. For achieving organization goals, a cooperative system of management can be

developed only by understanding the behaviour of people in groups. Cooperation among

group members is necessary for the achievement of organization objectives. For effective

management, efforts should be made for establishing harmony between goals of the

Hein Htet Aung

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_system

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_dynamics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behavior

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_sciences

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_relations


organization and the various groups therein. It has real significance to the practising manager

in the sense that managers operate in social system.

Socio-Technical Systems Approach

The socio-technical systems approach of management views an organization as a

combination of 2 systems – a social system and a technical system. The real pattern of

behaviour in the organization is determined by the interaction of two. Social systems of the

organization is governed by social laws as well as by psychological forces. Technical systems

consists of technological forces operating in the organization like physical setting of work,

rules, procedures etc. While analysing management problems of getting things done by

people, adequate consideration should be given to technology as well as informal interactions

of people.

Decision Theory Approach

Management is essentially decision-making. Members of the organization are

decision-makers and problems solvers. Organization can be treated as a combination of

various decision centres. The level and importance of organization members are determined

on the basis of importance of decisions, which they make. Quality of decision affects the

organization effectiveness.

All factors affecting decision-making are the subject matter of study of management.

Besides processes and techniques in decision making factors affecting decisions are

information systems, social and psychological aspects of decision-makers..

Management Science Approach

It is known as Mathematical or Quantitative Measurement Approach. Management is

regarded as the problem-solving mechanism with the help of mathematical tools and

techniques. Management problems can be described in terms of mathematical symbols and

data. Thus every managerial activity can be quantified. This approach covers decision-

making, systems analysis and some aspects of human behaviour. It has contributed

significantly in developing orderly thinking in management which has provided exactness in

Hein Htet Aung

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_analysis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_mathematical_symbols

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socio-technical_systems


management discipline. This approach is a fast developing area in analysing and

understanding management.

Figure .5

Systems Approach

A system is basically a combination of parts, subsystems. Each part may have various

sub-parts. An organization is a system of mutually dependent parts, each of which may

include many subsystems. It is considered as an Abstract Approach and Lack of Universality

in it.

Contingency or Situational Approach

it is the most recent development in the field of management. This attempts to

integrate all the management approaches. Management action is contingent on certain action

outside the system or subsystem as the case may be. Organizational action should be based on

the behaviour of action outside the system so that organization should be integrated with the

environment. Because of the specific organization – environment relationship, no action can

be universal.

Operational Approaches

Management is the study of what managers do. It emphasises on management

functions and various concepts and principles involved in performing these functions.

Management functions are universal irrespective of the type of organizational or level of

management in an organization, though there may be differences on emphasis on a particular

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function in a particular organization or at particular level. The conceptual framework of

management can be constructed on the basis of the analysis of management process and

identification of management principles. The central core of managing revolves around

planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. This central core of management is

unique and is not found in other activities.

My opinion

Paul Roger might decide to change the organizational structure of his business. He has

long term plan to grow his card business as he want to extend around the US. To do so, he

cannot go along with the network structure as the operation system will become less efficent.

Therefore he need to change his organizational structures according to the further business

plan.

Conclusion

Paul Roger's is running the card design business in a very systemic organizational

structure ways. With many advantages of structure, the business has grows with the time. But

now for the future business plan to sell designs in the US and a small printing business in

Manchester, he will need to change his organizational structure from network structure to

bureaucratic structure to run his business in a systemic way. He should also try the new

organizational cultures to have a good communication and coordination with his stuffs. And I

believe the new styles of leadership will also bring a very bright future and glorious

successful for his card business in near future,

Figure .6

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Reference

Website

http://wps.peasoned.co.uk

http://employment.blutit.com

http://google.com

http://yahoo.com

http://wikipedia.com

Book

Robbins, S. P., & Juidge, T.A(2009). Organization behaviour

David Lei and John W.Slocum, Jr. (2005) Strategic and Organizational Requirements

for Competitive Advantage

Harvard business essentials : managing creativity and innovation, 2003, Harvard

Business School Press, Boston, Mass.

Ayman, R. & Korabik, K. 2010, “Leadership”, American Psychologist, vol. 65, no. 3,

pp. 157-170.

From hang out book of "Organizational and Business Structure"

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Unit 3 : Organizations and Behavior

Assignment title: Motivation and Teamworks in organizations

Submitted by:

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Content

No Content Pg

1. Scenario 30

2. Task 3.1 32

3. Task 3.2 34

4. Task 3.3 37

5 . Task 4.1 38

6. Task 4.2 41

7. Task 4.3 42

8 conclusion 43

9 reference 43

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Scenario

In june2006 a group of 11 Samsung Electronics Co. employees pledged to do the last thing

more people desire just as spring bursts into summer; stay inside the drab room with small

curtained windows for the bulk of the next six weeks. The product planners, designers,

programmers, engineers had recently entered Samsung's so-called Value Innovation Program

(VIP) Center, just south of Seoul. They were asked to outline the feature and design of the

company's mainstay flat-screen TV, code-named Bordeaux. And their bosses had void to keep

them posted their until they had completed the assignment.

It's all part of a new mantra at Samsung" market driven change". In the past decade Samsung

has radically improved the quality and design of its products, Yun Jong Yong, Samsung's old

chief executive, now wants the company to rival the likes of Microsoft Corp, and IBM as a

key shaper of information technology. By 2010 he aims to double sales, from $85 billion last

year to $170 billion

How to make Samsung more innovative? One key initiative is the VIP center. Yun set the

program in 1998 after concluding that as much as 80% of cost and quality is determined in

the initial stages of development. By bringing together everyone at the beginning to thrash

out differences, he believed the company could streamline its operations and make better

gadgets. In the past two years, though, the center's primary aim has shifted to" creating new

value for customers." says Vice-President Lee Dong Jin, who heads the facility. Translation:

Find that perfect balance of cost, innovation, and technology that makes a product great.

If it weren't such hard work it might almost be fun. The center at Suwon, Samsung's main

manufacturing site, 20 miles from Seoul, is open 24 hours a day. House in a five-story former

dormitory, it has 20 project rooms, 38 bedrooms for those who need to spend the night, a

kitchen, a gym, traditional baths and Ping-Pong and pool tables. Last year some 2,000

employees cycled through, completing 90 projects with names such as Rainbow, Rapido, and

Rocky. While some teams wrap up their works within weeks, other projects drag on for

months, and all division leaders sign a pledge that participants won't return to their regular

jobs until they have finished the project.

The Bordeaux team shows how the VIP center works. The goal was to create a flat-screen TV

that would sell at least 1 million units. But the team member quickly discovered that they had

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strongly differing opinions about what customers want in a TV. The designers proposed a

sleek, heavily sculpted model Engineers wanted to pack in plenty of functions and the best

picture and sound quality. Product planners were concerned primarily with creating

something that would beat the offerings of Sharp Corp., then the leader in LCD TVs.

Every steps of the way team members drew what Samsung calls " value curves." These are

graphs that rank various attributes such picture quality and design on a scale of 1 to 5, from

outright bad to excellent. The graphs compared the proposed model with those of rival

products and Samsung's existing TVs. The VIP Center specialists also guided the term in

discussions exploring ideas and concepts from entirely different industries, picking up hints

about the importance of the emotional appeal in the offerings of furniture makers and

Hollywood. " We wanted a curve resembling a wine glass, and a glossy back to make the TV

fit in with other furniture." says designer Lee Seung Ho, who worked on the Bordeaux

project.

One challenge the team faced: Surveys showed that shoppers buy a flat-screen TV as much

for its look as a piece of furniture as for its technological muscle. some members went to

furniture stores to figure out what made buyers tick, and discovered that the design of the set

trumpets most other considerations. So the group started shedding function in favors of form,

cutting corners on high-tech feature to spend more to make a TV that looks good even when

it's turned off.

The initial response is encouraging. In the last week of May(2006), Samsung inched ahead

Sony to become the No1 LCD TV brand in the U.S., garnering market share. Yun now says

he wants to become the top maker of digital TVs, including those using plasma and rear-

projection technologies, in the U.S. this year.

Pretty grand ambitions. But Yun has a strong record of setting stretch goals and achieving

them. Under his stewardship, Samsung has transformed itself from an industry also-ran into

the richest electronics maker in Asia. Now it could also become the coolest if Yun can

reinvest Samsung one more time and get his engineers, designers, and marketers to dream up

products such as the Bordeaux and reality fire consumers' imaginations.

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Task 3.1

Discuss the impact that different leadership styles may have on motivation

in organizations in periods of change

Leadership is an association through which one person influences the behaviors of other

persons in an organization. "Motivation is the process by which the behavior of an individual

is influenced by others, through their power to offer or withhold satisfaction of the

individual's needs and goals".

Leadership styles and their impacts on motivation:

Leadership is about influencing, motivating and inspiring people. The essential job of

management is the well-organized and effective use of human resources for the attainment of

organizational targets. Effective using of human resource cannot be achievable without

motivate the employees of the organization. Therefore, to motivate the employees, leadership

styles play a significant role because they make the company culture that influences the

organization and its performance. There are different types of leadership styles and each type

has its own impact on motivation in work organizations and those are autocratic, democratic

and laissez-faire leadership.

Autocratic leadership:

The autocratic leadership style is one which leaders have absolute power over their workers

or team. They tell people what to do instead of asking for employee's opinions or suggestions.

For example, Samsung use autocratic leadership because the company needs too or the tasks

will not be approved out inside the business. Samsung's autocratic leaders give employees

their role and responsibilities. This can give their business clear route but it may also guide

managers to overlook input from their teams. It is important when Samsung's business faces a

critical situation or when an immediate problem occurs that requires an urgent reaction.

Autocratic leadership style allows Samsung's managers to make most functioning decisions.

For example, if an accident happens in the Value Innovation Program(VIP) Center, manager

might take control to ensure a quick and co-ordinate reply, and they have the right to make

the last decision. However, Samsung's managers are attempting to convince their teams to

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accept their opinion. Also their managers get the opinions of the lower staff before taking a

decision. So if they did not use autocratic then Samsung's wouldn't be run sufficiently.

Democratic leadership:

Although democratic leaders make the last decisions, they call other members of the team to

add to the decision-making process. For example, Samsung accepts democratic leadership to

boost job contentment by involving team members, and helps to develop people's skills.

Under this leadership style, Samsung's staffs feel esteemed, that is why staffs are encouraged

to work hard by more than a monetary remuneration. Samsung chooses leadership roles to

staffs in the organization so that everyone is clear about their responsibilities, to implement

the strategic decisions through efficient communication and doing a follow up on the

employees to ensure that they providing quality services. This increases team motivation and

encourages creativity.

Laissez-faire leadership:

"Is a style where the manager observes that members of the group are working well on their

own". Samsung's managers adopted laissez-faire leadership, where they give all authority

and power to the employees and they must determine goals, make decisions, and resolve

problems on their own. Working under laissez-faire leadership style, employees can improve

their communication skills, teamwork skills as well as enhance loyalty and responsibility.

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Task 3.2

Compare the application of different motivational theories within the

workplace

Motivation theories can be classified extensively into two different viewpoints. See content

and process theories of motivation in . Content theories emphasis on what motivates

individual and process theories emphasis on the real process of motivation. Motivation is

complex. It's influenced by withdrawals and reinforced by multiple factors. According to

classic motivational theorists such as Maslow and Herzberg, human beings have a set of

needs or desired outcomes and will act in such a way to fulfill them while other motivational

theorists such as Victor and Locke argued that the informed expectations and particular

targets will become motivator factors that lead humans to act and work in order to reach

desirable goals.

"Maslow puts forward a theory that there are five levels of human needs which employees

need to have fulfilled at work". There are two things to remember about Maslow's model.

First, employee must satisfy lower level needs before they seek to satisfy higher level needs.

Second, once they have satisfied a need, it no longer motivates them; the next higher need

takes its place.

In other hand, Herzberg theory suggests that there are two basic needs of individuals such as

hygiene factors (environmental factors) and motivation factors. Herzberg outlines the main

issues concerning motivation: those factor that motivation employee in the workplace

(motivation factors) and those factors that prevented job dissatisfaction (hygiene factors).

Herzberg encouraged leaders to study the job itself rather than conditions of work.

Porter and Lawler argues that human act according to their conscious expectations that a

particular behavior will lead to specific desirable goals. Three component of expectancy t

theory are:

"E - P (Expectancy): The employee believes that his/her efforts will result in acceptable

performance.

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P - R (Instrumentality): the employee believes that acceptable performance will lead to the

desired outcome or reward.

R (Valence): the employee values the reward".

Comparing to other theories, Locke theory suggests that motivation and performance will be

high if individuals are put specific objectives which are difficult, but accepted and where

comment is given on performance. Practical implication for the manager of goal theory

include: the need for systematic identification of specific performance goals. The need for

goals to be challenging but realistic; the importance of complete and accurate feedback on

results and the need for goals to be determined either by a superior or by the individuals

themselves.

However, according to McGregor theory, manager of organization posses two different

assumptions about the human nature and he explained these two assumptions in two different

theories: Theory X and Theory Y. According to theory X, the human being has always being

inherited for the disliking of the work. They always try to avoid the work either they can do

or not. According to him, managers always think that their employees are lazy. Manager has

to forced, direct and controlled his people to do work.

For example: Samsung use two motivation hierarchies (Maslow and Herzberg). Samsung use

Maslow theory because it suggested them if they achieve one level then it motivates them to

achieve the next. Also Samsung aims to motivate its staffs both by paying interest to hygiene

factors and by enabling satisfiers. For example, it motivates and empowers its staffs by

suitable and opportune communication, by giving responsibility and involving employees in

decision making. They forums this in which staff can be part of the discussions on pay rises.

This shows credit of the work that staffs do and rewards them. Samsung staff can even

control what food goes onto its restaurant menus. Employees consequently become motivated

to make choices that will increase their use of the restaurants.

In other hand ASDA believe in McGregor theory 'y'. They completely have a positive

approach towards their employee handling. They create awareness between their employees

to gather information about different fields. The employees working as ASDA either

individually or working as a team learn to face challenges. The different method adopted by

ASDA is that they make different teams and make them competitor between themselves by

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providing the same task and hence see their performance by the results gained for the

improvement of the company. Theory X does also apply to ASDA, especially where staffs

are concerned. The emphasis is on the use of money and control to encourage employees to

perform in the correct manner. In addition to this, ASDA give time and a half pay to

employees on Sunday as a motivation.

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Task 3.3

Evaluate the usefulness of a motivation theory for managers .

Motivation is to encourage people to work, independently or in teams in the ways such as to

create best results. It is the desire to apply high levels of attempted towards organizational

aims, conditioned by the attempts and capability to satisfy some individual need. Motivation

is apply to the whole class of drives, desires, needs and wishes. Managers motivate their

subordinates is to say that they do those things which they hope will satisfy these desires and

compel the subordinates to perform in a desired method. The most important task of

management is to motivate others. It comprises the abilities to communicate, to set an

example, to challenge, encourage, getting feedback, to develop and train, to inform and to

provide a just reward. See motivation process on.

Employees have to be treated with diligence. The manager has to stay friendly as well as

maintain a level of distance with his/her staff. It is a tricky ground to tread. The staffs look up

on the manager as their leader. They expect maturity, rationality and understanding from their

superiors. Simple things like calling people by their first name, chatting or even a general

inquiry about their well-being, brings in a feeling of belongingness. All the employees in the

organization vibrate to a different place. A treatment that motivates one may not motivate the

other. Understanding the difference in character and temperament in between the individuals

is important. Managers set reasonable goals. Planning too high task creates a feeling of non-

achievement, right from the beginning itself. The goals set should be such which looks

feasible to the staffs to be achieved. A slightly higher target than expected provides a

challenge.

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Task 4.1

Explain the nature of groups and group behavior within organizations

"The term group can be defined as two or more persons interacting and working together for

a common purpose". When people work in groups rather than as individuals, the goals of the

organization can be easily achieved. However, working in a group is a complex task. Group

dynamics refers to the interactions among the members of a group. A work group of an

organization is the most important base for the social identity of employees in that

organization. Therefore, performance at work and relationships outside the organization are

influenced by the nature of groups in the organization.

Nature of Groups:

Different kinds of groups are created to get specific results in organizations. The members

accept a common task, become mutually dependent in their performance, and interact with

each other to promote its achievement. There are three views on the nature of interaction

between members of a group. The first view is the normative view, which describes how to

carry out activities and manage a group. According to the second view, group dynamics

includes of a set of techniques which include, role play, team building, sensitivity training

and self-managed teams. The third view explains group dynamics from the point of view of

the internal nature of the groups. The structure of groups and performance are discussed in

this view along with the effect of groups on individuals, other groups, and the complete

organization.

Dynamics of Group Formation:

Organizations form groups for a variety of reasons. Different classical theories of groups

attempt to explain why managers form groups. The theory of proximity suggests employee's

closeness as the reason because individuals who working at places located close to one

another tend to form groups. According to balance theory, group formation results from the

resemblance of attitudes and values between members. Individuals with common interests

sustain their relationship by an equal balance between their attitudes and common interests.

Another theory of group formation is the exchange theory. It suggests 'reward-cost' outcomes

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of interaction as the reason. By becoming members of a group, individuals complete their

need for association.

Formal Groups:

A group formed by the organization "to achieve a specific task is termed as a formal group".

The organization structure a formal group and gives tasks and responsibilities to different

members with the intent of reaching organizational aims. Command groups and task groups

are examples of formal groups. "A command group is relatively permanent in nature and

finds representation in the organization chart. Task groups, on the other hand, are formed for

a specific task and are temporary in nature".

Informal Groups:

"Informal groups are formed by the staffs themselves". The reasons for the formation of

informal groups can be the need for closeness, ordinary interests, growth or support. There

are two types of informal groups: friendship groups and interest groups. Members of

friendship groups have a friendly relationship with each other, common interests and are

similar in age and view, but interest groups are formed to manage an activity and are

temporary.

The Five-Stage Model:

According to the five-stage model of group development, all groups pass through the

forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning stages.

Forming: This is the first stage of group formation where members aim to identify acceptable

behavior in a group. The members try to format their behavior so as be a part of the group.

Storming: In this stage, disagreements about leadership between members might give leads to

other involvements. By the end of this stage, a comparatively clear structure of positions in

the group emerges.

Norming: This stage of group increases a sense of comradeship in members through the

development of close relationships.

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Performing: In this stage, members of the group show committed performance to achieve

aims defined in the norming stage.

Adjourning: This is the last stage for provisional groups such as task groups or committees

formed to do some tasks. After this stage, the groups stop to exist. While some of the

members may feel happy about the achievements, others may be unhappy that they will lose

friends after the group disperses. The effectiveness of groups is supposed to increase through

the stages.

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Task 4.2

Discuss factors that may promote or inhibit the development of effective

teamwork in organizations

"An effective team is one that achieves high level of task performance, member satisfaction,

and team viability". There are a number of factors that are required to develop effective

teamwork, and those factors are: good leadership, effective communication, diversity and

plan for disagreement resolution. Leadership is one of the most important parts of teamwork.

This means that the team leader have the ability to create and sustain a working culture that is

positive, which in turn will help to motivate.

For example, Samsung have good leadership and this helps them to motivate and even inspire

the team members to get involved in creating a positive working environment, along with

high levels of obligation. Samsung's team leader not only focuses on their own aim and

direction of the team, but also makes sure that the other members of the team share this focus.

Also they are capable to promote a high level of morale between the team members so that

they feel supported and valued. Samsung train their employees to have good and effective

communication because communication is a very important factor of interpersonal

interaction.

Therefore, one of the key facets of teamwork is open communication, wherein it enables

members of the team to expressive their feelings, plans and shares their ideas, and

understands each other's viewpoints. Also in case of poor communication observed

Samsung's leaders work around the aspect and make way for effective communication

between the team members. Diversity also promotes creativity, innovation, and raises

Samsung's awareness and respect for differences, which will support effective teamwork.

However, team members have a way of saying their opinions without fear of causing offense

to anyone. In fact, it is recommendable for the team leader to actually sit with the parties in

disagreement and work out the differences between them. However, teamwork can only come

about when the team leader sets a task, which can be following by the team members.

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Task 4.3

Evaluate the impact of technology on team functioning within a given

organization

New technology has been introduced into the workplaces. Many organizations see new

technology as the means to increase profit and to stay competitive in a marketplace. For

example, at Samsung, IT is at the heart of everything they do to make better electronic

products for customers. New technologies can free up Samsung's staff capacity, increase job

satisfaction through better communication and improve role responsibilities, by giving

different grades of staff an opportunity to take part in new tasks. On the positive side, new

technologies have an impact on how staff can be trained and updated. Examples include

simulation technology, accessing information via handheld devices, interactive DVD's and

online training. Samsung use online technologies because it is easier for staff to access

information, share good practice and keep up to date with new research.

The use of new technologies can improve and in some cases hinder team functioning. As

technology changes teams must update and maintain their knowledge in order to function

effectively. E-mail, Mobile phones, groupware and computers are technologies which have

improved team functions within an organization. Samsung use these technologies to improve

team functions. Email allows staffs to communication with each other from different place

which means that Samsung team members do not need to be in the same place at the same

time in order to communicate effectively. They use mobile phones because it allow teams to

communicate even when team members are out of the office or otherwise unavailable.

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Conclusion

Many information systems departments themselves are also discovering that they can

stimulate improvement in overall company performance by integrating information systems

to internal structural change. To do so involves establishing self-directed work teams with

more responsibility and freedom. They found that the original support provided by their

systems and information systems staff did was not aligned with the way that the company did

business. Because of their good teamwork under the leadership of Vice-President Lee Dong

Jin in company organization, Samsung can achieve their goal of double sales to $ 170 billion

by 2010 and to become the top maker of digital TVs near soon.

Reference

Handbook of Organizational Behavior, Robert Golembiewski, ed. 2nd. Ed. 2001

(KSL Core Ref. HD 58.7.H355)

Handbook of Organizational Performance: behavior analysis and management. 2001

C. Merle Johnson et al., eds. (KSL Stacks HD 58.7 .H364 2001)

IEBM Handbook of Organizational Behavior, Arndt Sorge and Malcolm Warner, eds.

1997 (KSL Stacks. HD 58.7 .I43)

Griffin, R. W., & Moorhead, G. (2007). Organizational behavior: Managing people

and organizations (8th ed.)

http://www.wekipedia.com

http://www.hbs.edu/faculty/units/ob/Pages/default.aspx

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadob.html

http://sps.northwestern.edu/program-areas/undergraduate/organization-behavior/

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complete assignment of organization and behaviour

Documents

card business

card designers

new business

organizational theory

business environment5

different organization239

different 14organization7

american card manufacturer