compilation of lecture in toa

7/28/2019 Compilation of Lecture in TOA

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CHAPTER 1

Architectural Design process and MethodologiesMETHODOLOGY- OR A SYSTEMATIC METHOD OF PROBLEM SOLVING, BUILDS

UPON THE CONCEPT BY HELPING TO MAKE THE BEST USE OF THE DESIGN

TOOLS ACQUIRED IN CREATIVITY

BEST ACHIEVE BY DEVELOPING NEW IDEAS.THEN DEVELOPING IT TO THE

FULLEST.

DESIGN METHODS AND TOOLS

WHY USE A METHOD WHEN SOLVING A DESIGN PROBLEM?

IMAGINEERING BALANCE BENEFITS TO ADOPT A PROBLEM SOLVING

METHOD

IDENTIFY THE REAL PROBLEM

RECORD THE FINDINGS

EFFICIENT MECHANISM

IN SHORT A DESIGN METHOD-IS THE VEHICLE YOU USE TO GET A PROJECT

FROM ITS BEGINNING TO ITS END DESTINATION.

A DESIGN PARADIGM

DESIGN TOOLS

PRESTATEMENT- THIS IS A STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM THAT YOU,

THE DESIGNER WILL HAVE TO RESOLVE.

PROBLEM STATEMENT- YOU DONT WRITE THE PROBLEM STATEMENT

UNTIL AFTER YOU HAVE DETERMINED THE PROBLEM.

INFORMATION THIS IS THE EXHAUSTIBLE STAGE AT WHICH YOU

UNCOVER ALL THE OF THE DETAILS THAT RELATE TO YOUR PROBLEM.

RECORD ALL THE INFORMATIONS;

LITERATURE

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EXPERIENCED PERSONS

OBSERVATION

ANALYSIS- THIS IS A THINK STAGE

PARTIAL SOLUTIONS CARPETING SHOULD BE PLACED WHERE

LECTURES OCCUR SO THAT THE SPACE BE QUIETER.STRONG COLOR

CONTRASTS SHOULD BE USED WHERE DISCUSSIONS WILL OCCUR.

AUDIOVISUAL AIDS SHOULD BE PLACED WHERE THE ENTIRE CLASS CAN

BENEFIT FROM THEM.

COMBINED SOLUTION 2 CLASSROOMS SECTIONS WILL BE CREATED: 1

FOR SMALL GROUP DISCUSSIONS WILL UTILIZE CONTRASTING COLOR

SCHEMES; A LECTURE SPACE WILL BE PAINTED A PASTEL COLOR. FOR

ACOUSTICAL PURPOSES, THE ENTIRE SPACE WILL BE CARPETED.

VENETIAN BLINDS, ALLOWING FOR LIGHT AND VISUAL CONTROL OF THE

OUTSIDE SURROUNDINGS, WILL BE INSTALLED AT THE WINDOWS.

SYNTHESIS THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE PROJECTS SOLUTION

IN A GRAPHICAL MANNER

EVALUATION MAY TAKE PLACE AT DIFFERENT TIMES;

AFTER THE PROJECT HAS BEEN FINISHEDAND HAS BEEN USED FOR A

WHILE.

BEFORE THE ACTUAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE PROJECT

FACTORS TO EVALUATE A PROJECT;

POPULATION DENSITY

BUILDING BULK

WIDTH OF STREETS

TRAFFIC CONDITIONS AND

PARKING/LOADINGREQUIREMENTS

LAND USE AND ZONING

GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS

HYDROLOGICAL CONDITIONS

METEOROLOGICAL

CONDITIONS

ENVIRONMENTAL

CONDITIONS

AVAILABILITY AND CAPACITY

OF PUBLIC UTILITY/SERVICE

SYSTEM

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CHAPTER 2

CONCEPTUALIZATION TECHNIQUES OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

Architectural Concepts- the designers way of responding to the design situationpresented in the program. Sometimes called the BIG IDEA, BASIC FRAMEWORK, andPRIMARY ORGANIZER. The designer must divide the project situation into amanageable number of parts, deal with them individually and then synthesize them intoone whole simultaneous building.

Some concerns and issues of a building;1. Functional zoning2. Architectural space3. Circulation and building form4. Response to context5. Building envelope

CONTEXT FOR CONCEPT GETTING1. General Philosophy and life values of the designer some psychological

categories that combine to influence the formation of a design philosophy andwhich affect the making of design decisions are;a. Motivation and interestb. Enhancement of self imagec. Dependence on or independence of outside reinforcement of self worthd. Expansion of ones sphere of influencee. Concern to fellow man

f. Immediate and deferred goalsg. Conservation of what is scarce and valuedh. Quest for simplificationi. The material and the spiritual

2. Design Philosophy can be attained thru training and experience, has usuallydeveloped a design philosophy, a set of postures or values about design whichhe relies upon for making form in building design. Almost always includesattitudes and values about a range of issues that are closer to design activity.

3. View of the Problem by the designer presented with a specific design project- theway that the designer perceives, understands and describes that project occurswithin the framework of his life values and design views. Different designers will

see the problem differently.Perceptions usually begin the entire planning process..5

4. Categories of concern are;a. Function-[activity, grouping and zoning]b. Space- [ volume required by activities]c. Geometry-[circulation, form and image]d. Context-[site and climate]

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e. Enclosure-[structure, enclosing planes and openings]f. Systems-[mechanical, electrical, etc.]g. Economic-[first costs, maintenance cost]h. Human Factors-[Perception, behavior]

5. Design Analysis- why do we think of so many great ideas? Because design

involves problem solving and solving demands idea production. What then is thePROBLEM?6. Tentative solution- Brainstorming- a group process in which several people, for

a given amount of time, gather together and discuss a particular problem. Duringthis time, they all contribute positive thoughts to the discussion and try to producea workable solution. Patience should be practiced. Dont be too anxious tocome up with the perfect solution.

7. Criticism- above all faith and confidence in yourself say what you feel.Question what you do not understand. PROBLEM SOLUTIONCRITICISMS

8. Geometric- the detailed visual inter-relationships between all the parts of the

building as the operational stage develops. The visual objectives should be keptin mind at all stages but, because of the inherent difficulties of design teamworking, there is an increasing need to consider detailed engineering decisions ingeometric terms.

CHAPTER 3

MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE

1. ALVAR AALTO-Architecture must create buildings which are conceived as a total

artistic expression, it has emotion beyond sentimentality and must be human beyondwhimsy.

Theories in Designing;a. Standardizationb. Functionalismc. Monumentalismd. Responsive and humanisme. Organic ArchitectureWorks;a. Newspaper office and Plant, Turkey [1927-30]

b. Paimo Tuberculosis Sanatorium [ 1929-33]Styles of Design;a. He balanced the old and new stylesb. He contrast the natural and technologicalc. He alternates large expanses of smooth glass or wall with slender columns.d. He interrupts the routine rhythm of structure

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2. MARCEL LAJOS BREUER -[a Hungarian Architect]-A building has a straightgeometrical lines even when this line are free, it must always be an evident that theyhave been studied and they did not spring up spontaneously.

Phases of his work;

a. Amerikanismus- influences of American techniquesb. Constructivism- designing each floor in recessed to floors below it.c. Harnishmacher- he named after the structure he designed.Works;Harnishmacher house, GermanyUnesco Secretariat building and conference hall with Nervi and Zehrfuss

3. FELIX CANDELA [born in Madrid, worked as an engineer specialized in constructionof light concrete roof]-Architecture becomes an art only when it is scientific.

Works;a. Cosmic Rays pavilion University, Mexico City [1951]

b. The Xochimilco Restaurant [1958] his favorite work.

4. ANTHONY GAUDI [Spanish Architect] When you limit architecture to aestheticexperiment you are making technology at end instead of means.

Styles of Design;

a. Never use 90 degrees anglesb. Use of hyperboloid and parabolicWorks;a. Casa Vicensb. Sagrada Familia, Barcelona his famous work

5. WALTER GROPIUS [German Architect and founder of Bauhaus. Pioneer in modernarchitecture and first adviser of TAC]- Arts and Architecture the new unity.

Styles of Design;a. Less ornaments and with modern structural features.b. Functionalism or International Style.Works;a. Fagus Factoryb. Hall of Machinery

6. PHILIP JOHNSON [An American Architect also an advocate of International Style inU.S]-Volume rather than Mass.

Works;a. The glass house, Connecticutb. New York State building at Lincoln Theater

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7. LOUIS KAHN [American Architect famous for monumental structures in brick andconcrete] Searching for what a materials want to be.

Styles in design;a. Form is used to describe the pure ideal existence of architectural program

Work;a. Yale Art Gallery brought him a nationwide recognition

8. LE CORBUSIER [a pseudonym for Charles Eduard Jeanerette, a Swiss Architectand one of the masters of modern Architecture.]- A house is like a machine to Livein.

Styles in Designa. The Pelotisb. Curtain Wallc. Free plan

d. Free faadee. Roof gardenWorks;a. UN Headquarters with Oscar Niemeyer

9. Adolf Loos [born in Czechoslovakia]-Ornaments equal Crimes.

Styles in Design;a. Palin White Wallsb. Rectilinear linesc. Rectangular Fenestration

Works;a. Steiner House, Vienna

10.ERICH MENDELSOHN [German Architect]-Architecture as a piece of Sculpture.

Styles in Design;a. A dynamic sculptural qualityb. Horizontal emphasisc. Materials like steel, glass and concrete are commonly usedd. Organic unitye. Symmetrical compositionWorks;a. Einstein tower, Berlin

11.LUDWIG MIES VANDEROHE- Form must be created from the nature of our workwith the methods of our time, yet to prefer aestheticism is another aestheticism.

Styles in Design;a. Skin and Bone

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b. Pure Formc. Universal in Spaced. Less is more and almost nothingWorks;a. German Pavilion

b. Seagram Building with Philip Johnson

12.RICHARD JOSEPH NEUTRA [A MODERNIST Architect] A house is like a flowerplot in which you can root something out of its family life and will bloom.

Work;Kauffman house, palm Spring Cal.

13.OSCAR NIEMEYER [A Brazilian Architect]- To avoid repetition of already knownforms and solutions an architectural work must contain basically a minimum ofcreative ability and must convey a personal contribution of an architect.

Architecture is not merely a matter of engineering, but an expression of spirit ofthe imagination of poetry.

Styles in Design;a. Free formsb. Straight and curved lines rampsc. Curve lines in plans

d. Glass walle. Low pitch roofWorks;a. Pampulhas Cruciform Churchb. UN Building, New York with Le Corbusier

14.IEOH MING PEI [ a Chinese Architect]Styles;a. Abstract form using stone, concrete, glass and steelb. Buildings and nature were combined especially the light and shadow mixed.Work;a. Louvre Pyramid, France

15.AUGUSTE PERRET [French Architect]- Truth is indispensable to Architecture andevery Architectural lie Corrupts.

-Any project is bad if it is more difficult or more complicated to construct thannecessary.

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Work;a. Notre dame Du Raincy Cathedral, France

16.ELIEL SAARINEN [Finnish Architect mostly of his buildings are neo-classical style]-

Beauty Grows from necessity not from repetition of formulas.

Works;a. Helsinki Railway Station, Finlandb. National Museum, Finland

17.EERO SAARINEN [known for his powerful sculptural forms, a constructivistarchitect]- Function influence but does not dictate form.

Works;a. St. Louis Arch

b. Transworld Airways Terminalc. Auditorium at MIT Campus

18.LOUIS HENRY SULLIVAN- Form Follows Function.

Works;a. Carson Pirie Scott Dept. Storeb. Transportation Building, Chicago

19.KENZO TANGE [Japanese Architect]-Modern Architecture need not be western.

Styles;a. Simplicity rules in designingb. Ban on ornamentc. Honesty to materialsd. Avoidance by all cost the attitude of Buddhism.Work;a. Tokyo National Gymnasium, 1964 Olympics

20.PIER LUIGI NERVI [an Italian Architect and engineer]-Strength through Form.

Styles;a. Applications of Roman and Renaissance for aesthetically pleasing structuresb. Rib and vaultc. Using sophisticated pre fabrication materialsWorks;a. Olympic Stadium, Romeb. Palazzetto Dello Sport

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21.FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT- Organic Architecture

Works;a. Solomon R Guggenheim Museum, NYb. The falling Water, PA-the finest house of the 20th century

CHAPTER 4

FUNCTIONAL CONCEPTS AND THE INTERIOR ENVIRONMENT

Solving problems in Architectural Design begins with familiar study of plan elements,which develops into consideration of interior and exterior areas and details. The variousunits of plan are first arranged in a horizontal manner in order to secure a workable

relationship between the different areas. This pattern is dictated by the function of thebuilding and the desirable size and shape of the units themselves.The rooms of the houseThe galleries of the museumThe units of the factory

- All this must be laid out to facilitate movement through building, quickly andeasily. There should thus be economy and directness of circulation.

- This type is called Planning For Potential CirculationTHE PRINCIPLES RELATED TO FUNCTION

1. Need for adjacency

rule242424

G O L F

9

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Clubhouse, Entertainment,Health Club, Sports Shops

2. Relatedness to Departments [ example: Hospital]

NURSING

ADMINISTRATION

DIAGNOSTIC------------THERAPHEUTIC

SUPPLIESNURSES

MOTHER

BABY

10

Pediatric

sIntensive

CareOrthoped

icsMedical

Surgical

Radiolog

y

Emergen

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Respirator

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Physical

Therapy

Laborator

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Surgery

Offices,

Acct. etc.

etacetcetc..DM

INISTRATIONE

mergency

Obstetric

ian

DELIVERY

ROOMS

Nurse

LOCKE

RS Nurse

statio

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stora

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Preparat

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Mothe

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entry

Soiled

storag

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Nurse

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Observa

tion

Labor

room

Lockers &

sleep

Doctors

Entry

Recove

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partum


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DOCTOR

BUBBLE DIAGRAM OR SCHEMATIC RELATIONSHIPS OF UNITS

3. Sequence in time--------EXAMPLE: PARKING GARAGE

CHECKING IN

THENCHECKING OUT

4. Required environments

a. Furniture typesb. Need to view

Best View

Good View

No View

11

EnterGarage

Check

Car

GetTicket

Exitby

Foot

Return forcar

Submit

ticket

Makepayme

ntt

Get

receip

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WaitForcar

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Getcar

Depart

Garage


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5. Relative proximity to building

INCOMING PASSSENGER

OUTGOING PASSENGER

FUNCTIONAL DESIGN- this deals with the development of plan arrangement to servein a purely mechanical way the functions of the building. It discovers the proper sizes ofrooms and their relations to each other. It furnishes the elements of comfort: light, heatand ventilation. It determines the correct sizes and location of the structural memberswhich give the building strength.However, even when all these requirements are satisfied, architecture does notnecessarily exist. The building may remain only an engineering structure without thespirit of architecture which is called LOGICAL BEAUTY.

USER POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS

CHARACTERISTICS ARCHITECTURAL IMPLICATION

CULTURAL FACTOR Consideration variation exist among people withrespect to their cultural background, religious

attitudes, intellectual development, skill development,attitudes toward others, and where and how they livein terms of spatial features and modern technology.

BODY SIZE People of different nationalities, as well as individualsof the same nationality, vary considerably in terms ofsize. Differences in size impact on architecturalspace, including clearances and reach distances.

MOBILITY The impact of restricted mobility on human-

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architectural interfaces may be critical o theoperational utility of a system concept.

STRENGTH Architectural features that require lifting, pushing,pulling or twisting must be tailored to the weakestmember of the expected user population.

SENSORY FACTORS Principal sensory factors associated with architecturalsystems relate to visions, hearing and touch.

MOTOR SKILLS A limited number of people have superior motor skillcapabilities as a result of either innate capability ortraining. Still others are even more limited by physicalhandicaps

COGNITIVE SKILLS Understanding the operational aspects of theproposed architectural concepts is critical to itseffective use.

USER EFFICIENCY- it is often said that user efficiency does not sell products-

appearance does. From a human factors point of view, however, efficiency is of primeimportance to the eventual effectiveness of any system.

PARAMETER VARIABLES

VISION What a person sees clearly establishes the basic input to that person.His use response depends on how well the architectural conceptimplies what the designer intends the user to do with it. The criticalvariables include the following;

1. Visibility- is critical features bright or are they obscured by

intervening elements glare or shadow?2. Legibility- are critical features clear, or are they distorted by

lack of contrast or illusory geometrics.3. Conspicuousness- is features that are important to detecting,

recognizing and understanding lost in the background.4. Recognizability- are features natural, familiar and or similar to

the observers expectations, or are they distorted or purposelymade to look like what they are not?

HEARING What people hear not only affect their ability to communicate but mayalso affect their general capacity to perform other tasks. The criticalvariables include;

1. Audibility if certain sounds must be heard, the acousticenvironment must be designed to carry the sounds and notblock them.

2. Intelligibility- the acoustic environment must be designed sothat it will not distort the sounds intended for the listener.

3. Signal to noise ratio- the combined communications andacoustic system must be designed to maximize the probabilitythat extraneous noises will not obscure the desired sound

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signal.4. Noise annoyance- adequate noise attenuation must be

provided to minimize the possible deleterious effects that anannoying noise can have on individual task performance.

STABILITY How well a person performs ambulation or biomechanical or other

manipulative tasks depends on the stability-aiding elements of thearchitectural system and or the possible impediments designed intothe system. In addition, there are critical visual interactions that mayadd to the instability of the user. Among the typical features toexamine are the slopes of floors, walkways, stair treads, handrailsand door thresholds. Structural vibration also impacts on userstability.

MOBILITY How well people perform dynamic tasks, tasks in which they mustmove their bodies and limbs depends both on the clearancesprovided around their task envelope and on the supporting areaprovided to maintain stability.

CONVENIENCE How ell people perform various tasks depends on a great extent onhow conveniently they can move from one place to another. Thisrequires careful consideration of functional relationships. Thesequence of events , time constraints, and emergency demands inorder to create a logical and energy saving arrangement of spacesand activities within spaces, lack of convenience not only reducesimmediate user efficiencies but also may add to fatigue and possibleoperator failures.

CHAPTER 5

VALUE, ASPIRATION AND CULTURE

(Philippine Architecture)

Pre Hispanic architecture is usually characterized by its use of indigenous

woody materials.

Filipino living is well- organized and independent villages, the barangays.

The native dwellers lived in houses made of wood and bamboo, roofed by nipa

palm leaves called BAHAY KUBO ( nipa hut)

Other materials used:

Yantok (rattan)

Stone

Clay

BAHAY KUBO (nipa hut)

The mainstream form of the housing

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Supported by four or more post

Arrangement of typical BAHAY KUBO

SILONG:

Space beneath the house

Serve as work place; granary or pen for livestock

BULWAGAN (living area)

The principal spaceUsed as receiving guest, dining and sleeping

SILID

Served as dressing room and closetFor pillows and also mats

BATALAN ( shower)

Open porch, install as part of the houseAn unroofed platform, were water jars are placed

BANGERAHAN:

A storage shelf and drainer

The structure and design of the nature houses resulted from various factors that

may be dictated by the natural setting, available resources, customs, beliefs andneeds of the occupants.

Examples: Coastal areas, hinterlands, mountain areas

SPANISH COLONIZATION

Introduced European architecture

Antilles styles ( through Manila galleon)Ex. The city of Manila

20th CENTURYEx. The Makati City

ASPIRATION

A drawing of something in, out (or through by or as if by suction ) A dream of something

VALUESWebster defines value as that which is desirable or worthy of esteem for its own

sake; thing or quality having intrinsic worth. In the sociological context acts, customs,institution, etc., regarded in particular especially favorable way by a people, ethnicgroup.

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Value affect all of our decisions including:How we think ______ and dont thinkBelieve ___________ and dont believe

Act ______________ and reactDo ______________ and dont do

FOUR BASIC VALUES1. Integrity2. Discipline3. Hardwork4. Justice

Architectural Design Values

Make up an important part of what influences an architect and designer whenthey make their decisions.

Traditional Design Values

Is a long tradition of being inspired b and re- use design elements of existingbuildings and products

The tradition based on design value1. Critical traditions/ regionalist2. Revivalist3. Conceptualists

AESTHETIC DESIGN VALUES

The expansion of architectural and industrial design ideas and vocabularies, which tookplace during the last century, has created a diverse aesthetic reality within these twodomains.

SEVEN VALUES OF AESTHETIC DESIGN

1. Artistic aspects and self expansionIt is characterized by a belief that individual self expression; should be utilizedand/or be the base used in designing.

2. The spirit of the time design value:Is based on the conception that every age has a certain spirit or set of sharedattitudes that should be utilized when designing.

3. The structural, functional and material honesty design value:Structural honesty is linked to the notion that

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Functional honesty is linked to the idea that a building or product form shall beshaped on the basis of its intended function, often known as Form followsfunction.Material honesty implies that materials should be used and selected on the basisof their property.

4. The simplicity and minimalism design valueIs based on the idea of simplicity is beauty

5. The nature and organic designIs based on the idea of nature

6. The basic, tradition and vernacular aesthetic design valueIs based on a belief that a building and product should be designed from timelessprinciples that transcend particular designers, cultures and climates.

7. The regionalism design valueIs based on the belief that building and to some degree products should bedesigned in accordance with the particular characteristics of a specific space.

CHAPTER 6

DESIGN AND PUBLIC POLICY

Public policy can be generally defined as the course of action or inaction taken by

governmental entities with regard to a particular issue or set of issues. Other scholarsdefine it as a system of course of action, regulatory measures, laws and funding

priorities concerning a given topic promulgated by governmental entity or its

representatives.

Concerns

The integration of design, architecture and public policy is often overlooked in its

importance to our quality of life. In order to raise public awareness and to explore these

important issues.

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

By having a group of active practitioners as the core of the design faculty, architecture

at MIT is centered on contemporary practice. While we are keenly aware of the

necessity to learn, to borrow, to exchange with other disciplines and we actively pursue

interdisciplinary collaboration, we believe the basic intelligence of architecture is

generated first of all from the bottom up and from within.

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Design today is confronted by and has to address a set of contemporary conditions

namely climate change, globalization, technology and urbanization. As difficult as it

might be, we are also extremely interested in how these issues will inform and inspire

design, thus education.

Practice in turn is about giving the best of the knowledge produced at school to thesociety. With such conviction and idealism, we prepare our students for the future.

COMPUTATION

The Computation discipline group inquires into methods of architectural design, and

challenges the limits of current technology, as well as conventional design teaching and

practice. It focuses on the development of innovative computational tools, processes,and theories, and applying these in creative, socially meaningful responses to

challenging design problems. Faculty, research staff, and students work in diverse and

mutually supportive areas including:

Digital modeling and visualization

Rapid prototyping and CAD/CAM technologies

Shape representation and shape synthesis

Generative and parametric algorithms

Digitally mediated remote collaboration in design and construction

Software/hardware development of advanced tools for design at all scales from

buildings and industrial artifacts to urban and larger spatial configurations.

CHAPTER 7

Activity analysis and linkages for efficiency in shelter

Activity - something somebody does: something that somebody takes part in or does(often used in the plural) leisure activities

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Analysis - close examination: the examination of something in detail in order tounderstand it better or draw conclusions from it.

Design from linked Requirements in a Housing Problem

A requirement is a situation that must be present otherwise an observable human orsocial need would go unsatisfied. Any two requirements that would either help orhinder one another in solution therefore interact and need to be thought if a satisfactorysolution is to be found for both.

Requirement are thought of as points and links as lines between them. Once thesegroups of heavily interlink requirements have been found we have the necessary size ofproblem, without it being limited to a single recognizable conceptual classification. Aschematic diagram is the most useful description of the solution .

LIST OF REQUIREMENTS

1. People should be able to dispose of refuse without having to store it in theirdwelling and without having to leave their dwelling.

2. Refuse for collection should be stored in such a way as to facilitate ease oftransfer to a disposal unit.

3. For a heating system to be efficient there should be minimum heat loss from thedwelling.

4. All dwellings should have some sunlight in day living areas.5. People should be able to collect deliveries in a secure place, those in receipts of

goods should feel that their goods are secure.6. People should be able to control the noise that enters their dwelling.

7. There should be enough outdoor space for recreation, gardening, and outdoorentertainment of visitors.8. Ventilation should be a through flow of air.9. Children need supervision when away from the dwelling.10.All dwellings should have some sunlight in day living areas.

The first problem is to find a measure of just how good any particular groupings ofrequirements are in terms of most links inside groups and least links between groups.This measure can then be used to compare any divisions of the whole set until the bestone is found. The mathematics to drive such a measure is complex and demands thatall requirements have an equal probability of finding a total solution whether links arepositive (i.e. two requirements help one another in solution) or negative (i.e. they hinderone another).

In this particular case the procedure used was to compare all possible groupings of justa single requirements together with all the rest left as groups of just a singlerequirement. In this way the groups of heavily interlinked requirements were built upfrom the set of single requirements.

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The final group selected area shown in diagram, or what we call a schematic diagram.A schematic diagram for each of the groups was then produced as the result of furtherdiscussion of what originally intended by the requirements. It was also possible to statethe basic idea behind each diagram, which necessarily left out the details.

CHAPTER 8

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCEPT OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

How does the Environment influence Values?

Values can influences peoples own self-concept. In design, it is readily accepted fact

that people will generally take better care of space and its contents if it contains some

extra comforting additions that normally are absent. For example, carpeting, in a

residence hall or office might make the users feel that those providing for them cared

more about creating a pleasant place for them to live and work than just building a basic

shell for their use.

You must recognize the implication here that the human values are evident in the

physical environment. As a designer you must discover what will please people enough

to draw them to a particular place and what will make them stay there.

How values influence Environment?

Living environment is deeply affected by human values, and the housing environment

rises in part, upon human feelings: that is values. Some designs are, indeed vernacular,

this means that their seemingly primitive form is actually as highly evolved as the

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present people and environmental conditions permit and require. Vernacular living

environments most often satisfy people quite comfortably and completely. Their

materials are indigenous to the area, and the physical arrangement of the living spaces

is uniquely and adequately planned for the lifestyle of the inhabitants.

It takes sensitivity, along with knowledge to realize what you can change and when.

Recognizing the value of an institution as large as a country or small as a family can

help guide your selection of an appropriate design. Misinterpreting information can lead

to disastrous, perhaps to the creation of totally inappropriate environmental solution.

Folk Beliefs In Construction And Design

In the process of building a man makes decisions, which are, derives from his own

idea. His ideas, and therefore in a sense his self, seem to be embodied in the building-

in the design. The architecture of folks evolves and modified by ideas and imitation.

Man discovered that over and above satisfying his functional needs, the decisions he

made in designing a building created a relationship between him and the building, giving

it meaning.

CHAPTER 9

ENERGY CONSERVATION AND THE DESIGN PROCESS

Energy Conservation

It refers to reducing energy through using less of an energy service. Energy

conservation differs from efficient energy use, which refers to using less energy for a

constant service. For example, driving less is an example of energy conservation.

Driving the same amount with a higher mileage vehicle is an example of energy

efficiency. Energy conservation and efficiency are both energy reduction techniques.

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One of the primary ways to improve energy conservation in buildings is to use

an energy audit. An energy audit is an inspection and analysis of energy use and flows

for energy conservation in a building, process, or system to reduce the amount of

energy input into the system without negatively affecting the output(s). This is normally

accomplished by trained professionals and can be part of some of the national

programs discussed above. In addition, recent development ofsmart phone apps

enable homeowners to complete relatively sophisticated energy audits themselves.

Building technologies and smart meters can allow energy users, business and

residential, to see graphically the impact their energy use can have in their workplace or

homes. Advanced real-time energy metering is able to help people save energy by their

actions.

In passive solar building design, windows, walls, and floors are made to collect, store,

and distribute solar energy in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the

summer. This is called passive solardesign or climatic design because, unlike

active solar heating systems, it does not involve the use of mechanical and electrical

devices.

The key to designing a passive solar building is to best take advantage of the

local climate. Elements to be considered include window placement and glazing

type, thermal insulation, thermal mass, and shading. Passive solar design techniques

can be applied most easily to new buildings, but existing buildings can retrofitted.

Energy and Architectural Design

Heat, light, sound and water are important elements in the design of spaces along

with color, texture, materials and form.

Energy Consumption in Buildings

The energy consumed by a building is the result of the energy needs of the structure

and the efficiency with which those needs are satisfied. Energy conservation aims at

both reducing basic demand by cutting a buildings energy appetite and improving the

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efficiency of the energy supply system by eliminating waste.

The energy demands of a structure are a function of:

1. Its design

2. The environment in which it is located

3. The way in which it is operated

ENERGY SAVING TIPS

A list of commonly recognized energy savings measures for buildings.Energy savings measures for buildings are provided below. Some are simple and

inexpensive to implement, while others are more complicated and expensive. The

extent of energy savings realized, the implementation cost, and the implementation

approach will vary (sometimes substantially) by consumer, building, geographic

location, or scale of implementation. For measures that are more expensive, decisions

about implementation should consider how much time it will take to recover the

investment.

For your convenience, the tips below are also available in Adobe Acrobat PDF format.

No-Cost Measures

Lower the temperature setting on your hot water heater to 120F.

Set your central heating and cooling system thermostats to 68F or lower in the

winter and 72F or higher in the summer.

Turn off lights and appliances when not in use.

Actively manage indoor temperatures by opening and closing windows and

window coverings (e.g., open windows to take advantage of cool evening

breezes, close blinds or curtains against direct sunlight in the summer to reduce

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heat gain, open blinds or curtains to capture heat gain from sunlight during the

winter, close blinds or curtains in the winter to reduce heat loss).

Ensure heating registers and vents are not blocked by furniture or window

coverings.

Use cold water in your clothes washing machines and run only full loads.

Use a clothesline.

Use the "air dry" cycle on your dishwasher and run only full loads.

Clean refrigerator coils and seals and defrost freezer units. Set the refrigerator

temperature to 35F and the freezer temperature to 0F.

Reduce the use of heat-producing appliances (e.g., ovens, ranges, clothes

dryers) on hot days.

Unplug or get rid of spare refrigerators and freezers, particularly if they are

not ENERGY STAR appliances.

Use the stairs instead of an elevator.

Block off chimneys when not in use.

Drain sediment from your water heater tank.

Low-Cost Measures

Replace incandescent light bulbs with compact fluorescent bulbs (CFLs).

Install power strips to shut off the power use of appliances that occurs even when

they are switched off.

Install ceiling fans and other fans to circulate air in the building.

Insulate your water heater and hot water pipes.

Replace furnace, air conditioner, and heat pump filters regularly.

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Install or replace weather stripping around windows and doors.

Install storm windows.

Install low-flow showerheads and faucets to reduce use of hot water and repair

leaky faucets.

Install an ENERGY STAR-rated programmable thermostat.

Replace refrigerator and freezer seals as needed to ensure a tight seal.

Install dimmers and motion sensors on lights where possible to control electricity

use.

Higher-Cost Measures

Hire a qualified company to conduct an energy audit of your building.

Weatherize and insulate your building.

Replace old appliances with ENERGY STAR appliances.

Replace air conditioner units with evaporative coolers, attic fans, or whole-house

fans.

Replace old heating units and water heaters with high-efficiency systems.

Install solar tubes to reduce the need for indoor lighting, particularly in interior

rooms.

Install awnings, tinted window film, and green cover (trees, vines) to reduce a

building's heat gain.

Lighting

We set out to design a building where no artificial lights would be needed in the

daytime. This is more complex that it sounds because artificial lighting is required even

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in buildings where window areas for adequate day lighting have been provided.

Experience told us that many people prefer to switch on artificial lights after blocking out

all natural light by curtains, particularly in summer. The culprit for this seemingly

irrational behavior is glare from window areas, large or small. Glare is not a function of

brightness or size of light source but of contrast. Car headlights cause acute glare on a

dark road, much less on a properly lit road and are barely perceptible during daytime.

Space Cooling and Thermal Comfort

Thermal comfort for human beings depends upon air temperature, mean radiant

temperature, relative humidity and air velocity. Machines, however, are affected mainly

by the air temperature and in exceptional circumstances by the mean radiant

temperature or relative humidity. The design of the buildings for people is therefore

somewhat different from that for machines. Ceiling fans (for example) will affect the

comfort level of people but not of machines. Because people can move about from one

space to another and can put on additional clothing or take it off, the comfortable

working conditions for machines which are stationary are usually more exacting than for

people.

Ventilation

Structural ventilation of buildings at night helps to cool down the building and the

building mass so cooled warms up slowly the next day. During daytime when the

outdoor air temperature is high it is best to minimize ventilation. Natural ventilation of

day-use spaces (offices and laboratories) in summer is therefore of no use whatsoever.

Improper ventilation is generally the reason for the poorer thermal performance of office

buildings as compared to houses. Offices tend to be ventilated during the daytime and

closed up at night for security.

Air-ConditioningThe computer areas require greater cooling than is possible with natural cooling

methods. The ideal situation would be one in which computers could be 'tropicalised' to

work at higher temperatures, or if computers could have built-in air-conditioners to cool

only the critical heat generating parts. In the absence of such computers, it is necessary

to provide cooling of the entire computer work area.

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Solar Energy

Photovoltaic cells are still too expensive for general use and require a further

investment in storage batteries. A much better alternative is the use of biomass, plants

grown especially for use as fuel. Trees like Ku Babool, Siras, Saru, Nilgiri, Soo Baval,

Pardeshi Baval are very useful for this purpose. They require investment only for initial

plantation, irrigation and harvesting. Subsequently these plants can be dried and burnt

in a furnace which could be used to produce electricity or better still they could be

converted into gaseous fuel. Water hyacinth, a water weed that is useful in sewage

treatment can be used directly in a biogas digester to produce biogas. The limitation on

the production of biomass is the land or water area that is available for this purpose. On

the site for this complex, there is plenty of vacant land available and cultivation of

biomass is therefore the best method of generating energy from renewable sources. It is

important to remember that conversion of fuel to electricity is a low efficiency process

and whenever possible the fuel should be used directly as heat energy.

Wind

Wind, a highly erratic energy source can be used for the major water pumping

requirements of the complex. But windmills are not useful for producing electricity.

Storage of energy is not a problem with water pumping as water itself can be stored at

the higher level. With electricity produced by wind, storage of energy is very expensive.

The technology for water pumping by wind mills is readily available in India. The

Allahabad Polytechnic is manufacturing wind-mills for low wind-speed areas. There are

some other methods of generating energy on site, such as solar ponds or solar towers.

They are all in experimental stage and not very practical to use here. Any technique of

generating energy that is selected must be easy to maintain.

DESIGN PROCESS

The design process:

The process of design is such that it has to follow a schematic phase structure. Even in

architectural design a distinct process is followed. While the information and decisions

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made in one of the phases / stages of the architectural design process form the basis of

the subsequent stages, design is seldom a linear process. Instead, one typically moves

back and forth between the phases, allowing ideas from more detailed designs to

influence and modify the overall design direction previously established.

Conceptual design

The first phase in the process involves conceptualizing a preliminary design based on

the client's ideas and inputs. Abstract concepts are developed, tested and redeveloped

continually with the aim of creating a set of information for the subsequent phases of the

design process to evolve and persist. The preliminary design is presented to the clients

who suggest the requisite changes. After which the design is reviewed and adjustments

and changes are made. During this time, layout, form and overall appearance of both

the building and the site are determined. Sketches, drawings and study models or CAD

computer aided designs and 3D architectural designs are prepared to help evaluate the

ideas and concepts. These set the final direction for refining the design.

Drafting and detailing

Usually this phase runs parallel to the conceptual design phase. As the conceptual

thinking at the level of detail is vital for the construction, maintenance and eventualdisassembly of the building and hence, should be included in the early design iterations.

Once the size, layout and character of the building and site are refined, design of

certain feature elements such as stairs, cabinetry, fireplaces and built-in furniture may

begin. Drawings or CAD preparations are created that describe some of the important

technical details. Plans, elevations and sections through the building are

developed.Architectural details combine to form shape and enclosure, between them

are connecting lines or materials arranged according to the production information.

Their strategic placing collectively determines that shape and characteristics of the

building.

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CAD Views and Rendering

After the design and drafting of the building structure, interior and exterior views are

created by incorporating color, and the rendering of the materials to be used. The

architect chooses and develops a set of views that will enable the architecture to be

communicated to, and understood by, all the people involved in the development

process as well as the clients. A comprehensive 3D architectural view enables the

clients to verify that their specifications regarding the structure have been adequately

addressed and depicted. Architectural views usually consist of front, side and plan view;

in general and 3D architectural views in particular. Architectural rendering refers to

creating a two dimensional or three dimensional image of a structure showing its

different attributes. Traditionally architects used hand-drawn sketches, pen and ink

drawings, and watercolor renderings to represent their designs. Commercial demand for

hand-drawn rendering has declined as computer generated renderings lead

architectural rendering into an exciting future

Finalization and implementation

The design and drafts are scrutinized and presented to the clients. Suggestions and

adjustments are incorporated into and the design is finalized. The finalized design is

then communicated to all involved in the construction and development process. Thedesign is then implemented and construction begins.

CHAPTER 10

LIGHT, COLOR AND TEXTURE

Light

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When analyzing a two-dimensional work of art, implied mass and light are often

described together. In the real world, light serves to reveal the world around us and help

us understand forms and spatial relationships. Light and shadow model an objectgive

it a three-dimensional appearance. The range of lights and darks are referred to as

values. During the Italian Renaissance, painters learned how to model mass in two

dimensions through value, a technique called chiaroscuro, literally lightdark.

Color

Color is a function of light. Without light there is no color. No object possesses color

in and of itself.

White light is made of color, a fact proven be Sir Isaac Newton in 1666. Newton passed

white light through a prism and refracted it into the colors of the rainbow. He then

recombined the colors by passing them through a second prism. When we look at an

object, a red apple for example, the color we see is the red light waves of the spectrum

bouncing off the apple. All of the other colors are absorbed.

The color wheelis a circular arrangement of the spectral colors that allows us to see

their relationship to each other.

Primary Colors: red, blue and yellow, are called primary because theoretically

they cannot

be made by a mixture of other colors.

Secondary Colors: Orange, green, and violet, are each made by mixing two of

the primary

colors.

Tertiary Colors: Are the product of a primary and an adjacent secondary color.

Color Properties

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All colors have three properties, hue, value, and intensity.

Hue: the name of the color according to the categories of the color wheel

Value: the relative lightness or darkness of the color. A color lighter that the

hues normal

value is a tint; a color darker than the hues normal value is a shade,

Intensity: refers to the relative purity of a color. It is also called chroma or

saturation. To

lower a colors intensity, an artist may add a little gray, or add the colors

complement, or

opposite on the color wheel.

Color Harmonies

A color harmony, also called a color scheme, is the selective use of two or more

colors in a single

composition. There are several types:

Monochromatic harmonies are composed of a color,

its tints and shades, and varying levels of intensity.

Complementary harmonies involve colors directly

opposite each other on the color wheel.

Analogous harmonies combine colors adjacent to each

other on the color wheel.

Triadic harmonies are composed of any three colors

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equidistant from each other on the color wheel.

Although an artist may choose a specific color harmony for a painting, it is more likely

that he or she

will speak of working with a restricted palette-a limited number of colors, or an open

palette.

Texture

Texture may be actual, as found in the materials of architecture and sculpture or it

may be visual

texture, an illusion created by the painters skill. Naturalistic paintings can reproduce the

appearanceof various textures in the same way that photography does. Visual texture is

also present in the way brushstrokes are handled: rough, loose, smooth or dappled.

CHAPTER 11

Signs, Symbols and the cultural basis of Architectural design

THREE MAIN TYPES OF SIGNS1. Indexical Sign or index

Something which had an existential between signifier and signified

2. Iconic SignsA different set of relations between signifier and signified although, there is

always present an existential and therefore indexical relation as well

ICON a sign which refers to the object that is denotes by virtue of certaincharacters of its own and which it possesses just the same, whether any suchobject actually exist or not.

3. Symbolic Sign

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Where conventional usage sets the arbitrary relation between signifier andsignified.

SYMBOL a sign which refers to the object that it denotes by virtue of law,usually any association of general ideas, which operates to cause that symbol to

be interpreted as referring to that object.

SYMBOLSSYMBOLISM assumes primary importance as the basic strategy of perception. It is a

phenomenon (object, sounds, smell or tactile sensation) which has a meaning additionalto that which is communicated by its superficial configuration or stimulus profile.

BUILDING DESIGN AS AN ICONIC SYSTEM TRANSFORMATION

1. PRAGMATIC DESIGN in which available materials are used, and they puttogether initially by trial and error until a building form was achieved which

actually worked.2. TYPOLOGIC DESIGN - in which the members of a particular culture share afixed mental image of what the design of a48building from should be like using the materials which happen to be available, ata particular place with a particular climate, to house an established lifestyle.

3. ANALOGICAL DESIGN the drawing of analogies (usually visual) into thesolution of ones design problems with existing buildings, with forms from nature,from painting and so on.

4. CANONIC (geometric) DESIGN in which the form is generated by some two ormore dimensional geometric system.

Examples of international signages and symbols

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CHAPTER 12

Behavioral stress and circuits

Animal behavior is critically dependent on adequate function of neuronal circuits in the

central nervous system (CNS). Monitoring the environment, choosing behavioral

strategies and executing appropriate motor acts are all undertaken using patterns of

electrical activity generated within the CNS. Much of an animal's physiology is

concerned with maintaining the physical environment of circuits in the CNS and when

these homeostatic mechanisms go awry, or are inadequate to compensate for an

external disturbance, circuit dysfunction and disrupted behaviors ensue. It is important

to note that even mild, or predicted, alterations in environmental conditions such as

those associated with a changing diet (Xia et al., 1997) or seasonal variations

(Rosenthall and Bezanilla, 2000) could be sufficient to exert long-term modulatory

effects on neural operation. Much of the variability in behavioral results obtained from

different laboratories working with genetically identical strains of mice has beenascribed to idiosyncratic laboratory environments (Crabbe et al., 1999)

The heat shock (HS) response is a highly conserved cellular response to a variety of

different stressors including ischaemia, free radicals, excitatory amino acids and high

temperature (Morimoto and Santoro, 1998; Sharp et al., 1999). The response is

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characterized by a rapid transcriptional activation of genes (Morimoto, 1993) resulting in

increased levels of several heat shock proteins that are distinguished according to their

molecular weights (e.g., HSP40, HSP60, HSP70, HSP90). HSPs act as molecular

chaperones to assist in refolding proteins to their native states or as proteases to break

down denatured protein aggregates (Feder and Hofmann, 1999)

Cognitive architectures can be characterized by certain properties or goals, as follows,though there is not general agreement on all aspects:

1. Implementation of not just various different aspects of cognitive behavior but ofcognition as a whole (Holism, e.g. Unified theory of cognition). This is in contrastto cognitive models, which focus on a particular competence, such as a kind ofproblem solving or a kind oflearning.

2. The architecture often tries to reproduce the behavior of the modeled system

(human), in a way that timely behavior (reaction times) of the architecture andmodeled cognitive systems can be compared in detail. Other cognitive limitationsare often modeled as well, e.g. limited working memory, attention or issues dueto cognitive load.

3. Robust behavior in the face of error, the unexpected, and the unknown. (seeGraceful degradation).

4. Learning (not for all cognitive architectures)

5. Parameter-free: The system does not depend on parameter tuning (in contrast toArtificial neural networks) (not for all cognitive architectures)

6. Some early theories such as SOAR andACT-R originally focused only on the'internal' information processing of an intelligent agent, including tasks likereasoning, planning, solving problems, learning concepts. More recently manyarchitectures (including SOAR, ACT-R, PreAct, ICARUS, CLARION), FORRhave expanded to include perception, action and also affective states andprocesses including motivation, attitudes, and emotions.

7. On some theories the architecture may be composed of different kinds of sub-architectures (often described as 'layers' or 'levels') where the layers may bedistinguished by types of function, types of mechanism and representation used,

types of information manipulated, or possibly evolutionary origin. These arehybrid architectures (e.g., CLARION).

8. Some theories allow different architectural components to be active concurrently,whereas others assume a switching mechanism that selects one component ormodule at a time, depending on the current task. Concurrency is normallyrequired for an architecture for an animal orrobot that has multiple sensors andeffectors in a complex and dynamic environment, but not in all robotic paradigms.

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9. Most theories assume that an architecture is fixed and only the informationstored in various subsystems can change over time (e.g. Langley et al., below),whereas others allow architectures to grow, e.g. by acquiring new subsystems ornew links between subsystems (e.g. Minsky and Sloman, below).

It is important to note that cognitive architectures don't have to follow a top-downapproach to cognition (cf. Top-down and bottom-up design).

The ability to cope with novel and/or potentially threatening situations, such as an

unfamiliar environment or physical danger, is essential to survival. This capacity is built

into specific brain circuits whose development is influenced by multiple experiences

beginning early in life. Environmental stimuli that activate these circuits are often

referred to as stressors, and stress reactions are the bodys chemical and neural

responses that promote adaptation.

Toxic stress refers to strong, frequent or prolonged activation of the bodys stress

management system. Stressful events that are chronic, uncontrollable, and/or

experienced without the child having access to support from caring adults tend to

provoke these types of toxic stress responses. Studies indicate that such stress re-

sponses can have an adverse impact on brain architecture. In the extreme, such as in

cases of severe, chronic abuse, toxic stress may result in the development of a smaller

brain. Less extreme exposure to toxic stress can change the stress system so that it

responds at lower thresholds to events that might not be stressful to others, thereby

increasing the risk of stress-related physical and mental illness.

Tolerable stress refers to stress responses that could affect brain architecture but

generally occur for briefer periods that allow time for the brain to recover and thereby

reverse.Nevertheless, it also can become toxic stress in the absence of supportive

relationships

Positive stress refers to moderate, short-lived stress responses, such as brief

increases in heart rate or mild changes in the bodys stress hormone levels. This kind of

stress is a normal part of life, and learning to adjust to it is an essential feature of

healthy development. Adverse events that provoke positive stress responses tend to be

those that a child can learn to control and manage well with the support of caring adults,

and which occur against the backdrop of generally safe, warm, and positive

relationships. The challenge of meeting new people, dealing with frustration, entering a

new child care setting, getting an immunization, and overcoming a fear of animals all

can be positive stressors if a child has the support needed to develop a sense of

mastery. This is an important part of the normal developmental process.

Example of behavioral stress and circuit

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CHAPTER 13

Building materials as expression of Architectural design

Honesty of Expression

This is a principle to be observed in connection with use of materials. The materials of

architecture have the primary function of enclosing space for the protection of mans

interest and activities, an achievement which can be attained more satisfactorily by

paying the proper attention to the qualities of materials.

Materials and construction could express in addition, the function of the building.

Humble materials should be used with its simple structure and the more ornate reserved

for ambitious building.

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False front is a front wall which extends beyond the side wall of a building or above

the roof.

ECONOMY OF MATERIALS

Correct specifications of materials for the type of structure is important. For instance, a

cheaper cost material for a low cost house and a more expensive material for a

luxurious type of house.

Suggested materials For simple structure For ambitious Building:

1.Galvanized Iron Sheet 1. Long Span colored roof tiles

2.Wood Siding concrete hollow 2. Reinforced concrete wall brick

Block walling

3.Wood flooring or cement 3.Concrete slab with vinyl tile

Tiles floor,granolithic or marble floor

4.Plywood ceiling 4.Spraytex and acoustical

5.Plywood partitions 5.Narra or pine boards panelings

6.Wood or steel windows 6.Aluminum frame windows

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7.Flush doors 7.Panel doors

Building materials have certain physical properties to be structurally useful. Primarily,

they must be able to carry a load. This material property is called ELASTICITY. If amaterial were not elastic and deformation were present in the structure after the

removal of the load, repeated loading and unloading eventually would increase the

deformation to a point where the structure will become useless.

A second property of a building materials is its STIFFNESS. The property is defined by

the elastic modulus, which is the ratio of the stress (force per unit area) to the strain

(deformation per unit length)

THE VISUAL EXPRESSION OF MATERIAL

Architectural speaking, to produce means a ways to produce in some material but in

the theoretical analysis it is necessary to make a distinction between the two concepts.

1. The Materials of Nature/ Ancient Materials

For building purposes and for furniture, wood can be used in its natural state.

Many different kinds of tools can, however be used for cutting and sawing. Wood,

can be bowed and, with modern techniques, bent into complicated curved

surfaces.

2. StoneThe great building material of nature, one of the oldest and perhaps the most

permanent.

a. Granite is a course grained stone and should be used for large, bold formswith little carving. It is hardest and perhaps the most durable of the buildingstones. It 56 is often applied to base courses where protection is desired.

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b. Sandstone the various sandstone range in color from white to different tintsof red and brown or blue gray. This material is popular for use in buildingswhose characters lean more to informality than to formality.

c. Marble is a lime one which is sufficiently close in texture to admit of beingpolished. It may be divided into two classes.

d. Limestone has a fine, even texture and its colors range from a light creamto buff and from a light gray to a darker, bluish gray. It is an excellent wall orexterior stone and leads itself very well to carving.

3. LeatherCharacterized by its high degree of plastic malleability which it requires through

the soaking process it undergoes during manufacture. After drying it is no longer

malleable but keeps its form unless a special process enables it to keep its

flexibility.

4. Ceramic MaterialsCan be manufactured in many different ways. Clay can be used to make bricks,

roofing tiles, or toilet tiles, clay pot. Thus the form of a ceramic object does not

always tell us an much about the materials as to the color and texture.

5. Metal6.

At an early stage, objects of iron and other metals were cast in forms. Today,

rolling and pressing are perhaps the most important manufacturing method.

a. Bronze is one of oldest of allows composing chiefly of copper and tin. It iscast into shape and lends itself to the treatment of many architecturalfeatures. Its permanency and beauty have stood the test of time.

b. Wrought Iron The delicacy and spontaneity of wrought iron harmonize withrougher surface an informality, it is distinguished from other metals by themanner in which it is produced and by the final effect obtained. Instead ofbeing cast it is worked upon the anvil while it is hot or cooling.

c. Copper the ductility of copper makes it particularly adaptable for cornices,spandrel, roofing. The protective green carbonate which forms upon thesurface gives an interesting quality to the materials

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d. Lead a flexible and permanent material. It may be poured into interestingshapes, cast, rolled or hammered, patterns, may be beaten into its surface. Itis best used in sheets to cover or enclose, and as such may be decorated in afitting manner. Since it is a soft material, the detail of thee ornament shouldbe simple in character.

e. Chrome-Nickel-Steel a hard, nor corrosive metal and can be worked likemany others, leading itself to welding stamping and forging. It may bepolished or left dull or even enameled in color. It is used in interiors for doors,panels and grille.

f. Aluminum are of the white metals and is noted for its lightness. It is noncorrosive (non ferrous) and non staining.

NATURE

Glass is a hard, brittle and usually transparent substance manufactured by fusing

together some form of silica and a base lime or lead oxide.

Use :

The modern use of a glass has assumed so many forms. Glass has been colored and

rolled into various shapes for many architectural uses in a building. Combined with

metal is made into furniture and equipment. Where a sense of cleanliness is desired, itis used for wall coverings and panelings. Where a decorative is needed upon the

interior, its black, shining surface may assist in producing a mantel.

For modern designs, stained glass is being employed for character dining restaurants.

In designing stained glass windows, factors to be kept in mind are:

1. The character of the glass should be established by the nature of the surroundingarchitecture may be Gothic

2. The dominance of color or design will be coordinate to the color. Realism is notexpressive of the conventional combinations necessary with glass and lead.

3. The position of the window and the source of the light should materially affect thechoice of colors.

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7. Textiles-The foremost characteristics of textiles is the intertwining of weft with the warf. If a

printed pattern is applied to a uniformity coloured piece of textile, a bad expression will

be given to the production technique as well as the material itself.

CHAPTER 14

Construction methods and structures as expression

Folk Belief in Construction

1. Dont start the construction of a house at a period when the moon is waning, or

entering its last quarter. Pick a time on or about a full moon.

2. Start a construction on a Monday; never on a Friday

3. Avoid starting construction when the year is about to end. A better time is when the

year has just begun, January to June.

4. Never have a house built when your wife is pregnant and is expected to give birth

at that very month.

5. Before giving the order to lay the foundation or put up the post of your house,

make peace with all your enemies especially those belonging to your own family

or clan.

6. In the North, they usually practice the flowing of blood from some animals or

chicken and all foundations or corners of the wall are splattered with this blood in

honor of the spirit that might be living within the premises. Also a few drops of wine

is offered with some prayer dedication before any wine is partaken.

7. Before cement is poured into the foundation, one peso coins should be dropped

inside the forms to bring good luck. Other place silver medals of any patron saints,

for protection. Some also place coins at the stair foundation.

8. When any vertical part of the house is being erected, like the first post, or the first

row of hollow blocks or cement

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9. wall, the father or the eldest member of the family should be present to witness.

Two contributes to the solidity of the house.

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10.Do not build a house directly perpendicular to the street. If space still allows it,

locate the house such that it lies in position which is at angle with the street. This

way, the inhabitants keep out of the way of disaster.

10.No part of your house should cover or overhang an anthill (punso) in Tagalog.

They say that the small spirit man or nuno will get angry.

11.No part of house should cover or overhang a site of a recently cut tree; neither

should the new house overlap any portion of the old house.

12.Never use materials that once belonged to a church.

13.As much as possible, avoid using materials that came from the owners old

house. The bad luck of the old house will be transferred to the new house, the old

people say.

14.All nails and screws that become bent in the process of building a house shouldbe kept in a box and not left lying around. Leaving them scattered will bring

misfortune to these involved in the construction.

15.It is taboo to use wood the sap of which is still fresh what they call weeping

wood (lumuluha).

16. The number of the main posts should always be even; not odd, never 13 pcs.

17.Flooring planks whether of wood or of bamboo must be laid parallel to the

steps of any stairway to make it 90 degrees to their stair will make the good luck go

down the stairs.

The longer length of the roof must lie parallel to the road instead of perpendicular to

it.

19. The number of steps in every stairs must fall to the count of either oro (gold) or

plata (silver) never mata (death) since if the last counting is mata, bad luck or

poverty is to be expected.

20. The principal stairs, the masters bed should face the east, so that the rising sun

may shine on them.

21. To the Muslims, the principal room and stairway should face the direction of

Mecca.

22. Doorways should not face each other along a straight path, or a door to the

window. They should lie on a staggered path. Good fortune flows quickly out of the

house if arranged in a straight path.

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23. Main doorways should not face the west or where the sun sets. It brings bad

luck.

24. Main door should always open towards the inside to bring in good luck. Reverse

opening to the outside will bring out the good luck.

25. Do not occupy a new house until it is completely built and blessed. Before you

will occupy the new house, bring in first the common necessities in a house like

sugar, rice, salt, and also the statue of Christ in a throne.

26. The arrangement of the bed should not directly be parallel and vertical to the girt

or rafter as the old folks say it will cut into half your good fortune.

27. Umbilical cord of a child is inserted in the staircase so that the stringer would

strongly connect itself to the girder.

28. House plan shaped like a cross should be avoided for this brings bad luck.

29. A basement placed in flat level land indicates graves. This is a sign of early

death in the family.

30. To avoid wealth or money from flowing out of the household, main doors should

not face the exit doors

compilation of lecture in toa

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