comparison of the effects of transgenes on osmotic …
TRANSCRIPT
COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTS OF TRANSGENES ON OSMOTIC STRESS IN POTATO
By
Bader Alsubaie
A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Crop and Soil Sciences – Master of Science
2016
ABSTRACT
COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTS OF TRANSGENES ON OSMOTIC STRESS IN POTATO
By
Bader Alsubaie
The potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is considered the fourth most significant food security crop
globally. As with other crops, growth of the potato plant is affected by many environmental stresses
such as drought, salinity, and intense temperature all of which reduce its productivity. In the case of
developing tolerance to abiotic stresses through transgenic approaches, genes such as
isopentenyltransferase (IPT), XERICO, and mannose 6-phosphate reductase (M6PR) have been
cloned for the purpose of addressing drought tolerance in potato and other crops. In this study, we
transformed the three different genes XERICO, M6PR, and IPT into the tetraploid S. tuberosum a
cultivar (CV) Désirée, a red-skinned variety with high transformation efficiency and susceptibility to
drought stress, to evaluate the response of transgenic lines to drought conditions in both the laboratory
and greenhouse. Due to its ability to modify the osmotic potential in a controlled manner, in vitro
laboratory experiments were conducted using poly ethylene glycol (PEG) to induce plant water deficit
in tissue culture experiments. Based on the height of plant, number of leaves, number of roots, fresh
and dry weight, all genetically engineered (GE) lines exhibited hypersensitivity to 4.8 % PEG in in-
vitro cultures. When the transgenic (XERICO, M6PR, and IPT) Désirée lines were subjected to severe
drought treatments (withholding water for 14 days in the greenhouse experiments) some events
recovered after re-watering, whereas the non-transgenic Désirée did not. Also, experiments
conducted with detached leaves from transgenic Désirée lines showed lower transpirational water
loss than the control non GE counterparts. These results suggest that the overexpression of XERICO,
M6PR, and IPT plants can confer improved drought tolerance in cultivated potatoes.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to thank my God for honoring me with his grace and mercy, and leading
me to what I have achieved. I would like to thank my family for their precious patience and
infinite support. I will never forget the continued guidance and help from my advisor Dr. David
Douches. Also, I would like thank Daniel Zarka, Joseph Coombs, Norma Carpintero, Kelly
Zarka, Alicia Massa, Swathi Nadakuduti, Sylvia Morse, Greg Steere, Matt ZuehlkeDonna Kells,
Chen Zhang, Kate McGlew, Felix Enciso-Rodriguez,Michael Hardigan, Maher Alsahlany,
Shafiqul Islam, Natalie Kirkwyland, Susan Akinyi Otieno. Also, I would like to thank all my
friends who supported me through my journey. Finally, it was a blessing to be a graduate student
in one of the best agriculture universities in the world Michigan State University.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... vi
KEY TO ABBERVIATIONS………………………………………………………………........vii
Chapter 1: Literature Review ......................................................................................................... 1 History and Importance of Potatoes ............................................................................................. 1 Drought Stress in Potato .............................................................................................................. 2
Breeding for Drought Resistance ................................................................................................. 3 Genetically Engineered Potato ..................................................................................................... 4
Selected Genes for Abiotic Stresses Tolerance ........................................................................... 6
Chapter 2: Evaluation Of Transgenic Potatoes ............................................................................... 9 Research Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 9 Material and Methods ................................................................................................................ 10
Plant Material and Transformation ....................................................................................... 10 Gene Constructs .................................................................................................................... 10
PCR Detection and Expression of Transgenes ..................................................................... 12 In Vitro Osmotic Stress Experiment ..................................................................................... 14
Greenhouse Reduced Watering Experiment ......................................................................... 17
Greenhouse Terminal Drought Experiment .......................................................................... 17
Rate of Leaf Water Loss ....................................................................................................... 20 Results ........................................................................................................................................ 21
Identification of Transgenic Plants ....................................................................................... 21
Identification of Individual Plants Expressing the Transgene .............................................. 22 In Vitro Drought Assessment................................................................................................ 26
Greenhouse Terminal Drought Experiment .......................................................................... 37 Relative Leaf Water Content ................................................................................................ 40
Leaf Water Loss Over Time ................................................................................................. 41 Reduced Water Experiment .................................................................................................. 43
Discussion .................................................................................................................................. 46 In conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 49
Future work ........................................................................................................................... 50
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 51
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Primer Sequences and expected product size ................................................................. 14
Table 2: PCR and RT PCR results for presence and expression of the transgene. ....................... 23
Table 3: Lines used in the experiments......................................................................................... 24
Table 4: Summary of the plant revival rates after re-watering ..................................................... 39
Table 5: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment. .......................................................... 42
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Construct Design ........................................................................................................... 12
Figure 2: Summary of the in vitro PEG procedure ....................................................................... 16
Figure 3: Relative water content experiment procedure ............................................................... 19
Figure 4: Leaf water loss over time experiment procedure .......................................................... 21
Figure 5: PCR from transgenic lines were used in experiments ................................................... 25
Figure 6: RT-PCR from the transgenic lines used in experiments ............................................... 26
Figure 7A: Analysis of height of plants at 15 days ....................................................................... 29
Figure 7B: Analysis of number of leaves at 15 days .................................................................... 30
Figure 7C: Analysis of number of roots at 15 days ...................................................................... 31
Figure 8A: Analysis of plant height at 30 days............................................................................. 32
Figure 8B: Analysis of number of leaves at 30 days .................................................................... 33
Figure 8C: Analysis of root number at 30 days ............................................................................ 34
Figure 8D: Analysis of fresh weight at 30 days ............................................................................ 35
Figure 8E: Analysis of dry weight at 30 days ............................................................................... 36
Figure 9: The phenotypic transition through 14 days drought and re-watering ........................... 38
Figure 10: Relative water content of leaves of transgenic and non-transgenic plants .................. 40
Figure 11: Analysis of tuber number for reduced water experiment ............................................ 44
Figure 12: XERICO Appearance ................................................................................................... 45
Figure 13: Height of transgeneic and non-transgentic plants in reduced water ............................ 46
vii
KEY TO ABBERVIATIONS
ABA – abscisic acid
Bt – Bacillus thuringiensis
CBF – C repeat binding factor
CK – cytokinin
CPB – Colorado potato beetle
CV – cultivar
DW – dry weight
EPA – Environmental Protection Agency
FW – fresh weight
GE – genetically engineered
HP – height of plant
IPT – isopentenyltransferase
M6PR – mannose 6-phosphate reductase
NL – number of leaves
NR – number of roots
PCR – polymerase chain reaction
PEG – poly ethylene glycol
PLRV – Potato Leaf Roll Virus
PSARK – promoter senescence associated receptor protein kinase
PVY – Potato Virus Y
RT-PCR – reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction
viii
RWC – relative water content
TW – turgid weight
USDA – US Department of Agriculture
1
Chapter 1: Literature Review
History and Importance of Potatoes
The cultivated potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is ranked fourth among the most significant
economical food crops following rice, wheat, and maize (Barnaby et al. 2015). Globally, more than
a billion people eat potatoes, and total potato production exceeds 300 million metric tons
(POTATOBUSINESS, 2016). More than 4,000 native potato varieties can be found with different
sizes, shapes, and colors and mostly originated in the Andes (Devaux et al. 2009). In addition, there
are more than 90 wild potato species with significant diversity for natural resistance to biotic and
abiotic stresses in spite of the fact that some of them are too bitter for consumption (Spooner, 2013).
The potato is a vegetatively propagated plant with an ability to produce 5-20 new tubers per
plant that are clones of the mother plant. The potato can also produce flowers and berries that contain
up to 100-400 seeds. These true potato seeds can be planted to produce new tubers, but they each
have unique genetic combinations from both the maternal and paternal plants.
The cultivated potato belongs to the Solanaceae family, along with tomato, tobacco, and pepper.
Potatoes were introduced to Europe and North America (Spooner et al. 2005) from the Andes. Today,
potatoes are planted in over 100 countries around the world (International Potato Center, 2014).
Potatoes can grow under harsh conditions that other crops might not tolerate (Lutaladio and Castaldi,
2009). The geographic distribution of the cultivated potato shows that it can be grown in all regions
except Antarctica (Rowe and Powelson, 2002).
The potato is an important crop consumed by millions of people on a daily basis (Mullins et al.
2006). In 2013, the total world potato production was 376 million tons and the US ranked fifth, with
2
19 million tons (FAO, 2015). More than half of the total potato production globally is from
developing countries (Monneveux et al. 2013). Many developing countries depend on potatoes as a
staple food (Lutaladio and Castaldi, 2009), yet grow the crop in poor and undernourished soils.
Potatoes are sold in fresh market, and are used as raw material for chip processing. French fry
production contributes to an increase in farmer profit that helps to reduce poverty and improve
nutrition (Scott et al. 2000). The potato is also an important source of protein, vitamin C, and several
forms of vitamin B, carbohydrates, and minerals (Camire et al. 2009; White et al. 2009; Birch et al.
2012).
Drought Stress in Potato
When crops are subjected to abiotic stress, the resulting physiological and biochemical changes
can affect the growth and productivity of the plant (Pachauri, 2007). Growers lose billions of dollars
yearly because of abiotic stresses on crops (Senaratna et al. 2003). Drought is recognized as the most
prominent abiotic stress, reducing the productivity of agricultural crops globally with a negative effect
on the economy. The definition of drought is the shortage of water in the root zone, leading to reduced
crop productivity (Kramer et al. 1995).
Drought affects more than 9% of the world’s total arable land, and could lead to more than 50%
average yield loss of globally important crops (Bray et al. 2000). Drought stress can reduce plant
growth, stem height, leaf extension, and movement of stomata (Hsiao, 1973). Water deficit is a
serious problem that the potato crop suffers from, due to inconsistent rainfall or poor supplemental
irrigation system (Thiele et al. 2010). In the US, summer crops excluding the potato, suffered drought
and heat estimated to cause $40-88 billion in losses in 2011 and 2012 (NOAA, 2011, 2012).
3
The potato is susceptible to water deficit, which negatively affects tuber number (Eiasu et al.
2007), tuber size (Schafleitner et al. 2007) and tuber quality (Mackerron et al. 1988). Climate change
is expected to affect global potato yield with losses between 18-32% during the first three decades of
this century (Hijmans, 2003). Potato is susceptible to water stress because it has a shallow root system
compared to other crops (King et al. 2003). However, some potato species, such as Solanum acaule
and Solanum demissum showed high levels of drought tolerance in in vitro and greenhouse (Arvin
et al. 2008). Such species are being studied to determine the underlying genes and molecular
mechanisms for tolerance, with the intention of engineering these genes into susceptible potato
varieties so that they can tolerate drought. Search for genes that confer tolerance to drought will be
important to protect crops from the negative effects of climate change and thus improve crop
production (Lobell et al. 2011).
Breeding for Drought Resistance
Drought tolerance is a complex trait controlled by many genes (quantitative inheritance pattern).
These genes and their expressions are affected by various environmental elements, for example, heat
(Blum, 2011). Drought tolerant phenotypes can be rather complex. Drought stress can affect the
morphological and physiological traits in plants. In terms of physiological traits, researchers have
proven that there is a relationship between different physiological responses of crops, such as high
amounts of relative water and potential water, and their resistance functions under drought conditions
(Clarke et al. 1982; Ritchie, 1990). Drought tolerance can also be related to morphological responses,
such as early maturity, small plant size, and reduced leaf area (Rizza et al. 2004). Therefore, screening
for these traits can be difficult for conventional breeding. Also, since many genes control drought,
conventional breeding methods can be labor-intensive, expensive, and time consuming, as efforts are
4
required to separate undesirable traits from desirable traits (Nezhadahmadi et al. 2013). For this
reason, genetic engineering and molecular-marker strategies are used to increase the efficiency of
developing drought-tolerant germplasm (Gosal et al. 2009).
Genetically Engineered Potato
With respect to developing crops tolerant to abiotic stresses conventional breeding has only had
limited success, due to the quantitative nature (controlled by polygenes) of the traits. Since genetic
engineering technology has the ability to transfer specific genes that confer tolerance to abiotic
stresses, this method may provide more success. S. tuberosum L was one of the early crop plants that
used Agrobacterium mediated transformation technique (An, 1986) for genetic engineering. Tomato
was the first GE food crop that became commercially available in the US in 1994 (Kramer et al. 1994).
Many scientists use genetic engineering methods to improve the efficiency of breeding for abiotic and
biotic stresses tolerance. Many GE crops resistant to abiotic stresses are in the pipeline for
commercialization: drought-tolerant maize (Monsanto, 2013), rice (Stein et al. 2010), peanut (Qin et
al. 2011) ; salt tolerance cotton ( Liu et al. 2012), alfalfa ( Liu et al. 2011), tobacco (Jha et al. 2011);
salt and drought tolerant tomato (Goel et al. 2011). Several cultivars of GE potatoes were
commercialized and grown by farmers in the past, but were discontinued (except for the Innate potato
released in 2015) due to processing industry acceptance issues, although there were no safety concerns
with the products. For example, the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) potato resistant to the Colorado potato
beetle (CPB) was approved by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1995 (EPA, 1999), and
sold commercially to US farmers. In addition, two other events combining the CPB resistance with
the Potato Leaf Roll Virus (PLRV), and Potato Virus Y (PVY) were also commercialized in 1998.
The Amflora potato, a GE potato that produces pure amylopectin starch and developed only for
industrial applications (in paper manufacturing and in the textile and adhesives industries) was
5
approved in the European Union market in 2010 (Abdallah, 2010). The Amflora was later discontinued
due to lack of public acceptance (Katarzyna, 2013).
Another example of a successful gene being introduced into a cultivated potato variety is the
introduction of the late blight resistance gene from the wild species S. bulbocastanum into S.
tuberosum. Potato late blight, caused by the fungal pathogen Phytophthora infestans, damaged the
potato crop in Ireland and caused the Irish potato famine (Haas et al. 2009). A late blight resistant gene
cloned from S. bulbocastanum and introduced into Katahdin, a susceptible cultivar, provided
resistance to late blight disease (Song et al. 2003).
In the MSU potato breeding program, genetic engineering technologies are being used to develop
tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses as well as for improving quality traits. For example, resistance
to insect pests such as CPB (Cooper et al. 2007); tuber moth and CPB (Douches et al. 2002) as well
as resistance to the fungal pathogen P. infestans responsible for late blight disease (Kuhl et al. 2007)
have already been developed. In addition, tolerance to abiotic stresses such as cold (Nichol, 2011) has
also been developed. Furthermore, genetic engineering has been used to improve quality traits through
invertase silencing to lower reducing sugars, that produce dark color and bitter tasting in potato chips,
with acid invertase (K. Zarka, pers.com.), also gene editing (Butler and Douches, 2016).
Commercialized GE crops have increased since 1994. A number of GE crops are commercially
planted globally. For example, GE crops were planted on 179.7 million hectares in 28 countries in
2015 (James, 2015). In the US, several GE crops have been evaluated to be safe for the environment,
and are now commercially available. Most of these crops have been approved for human consumption,
and animal feed. In 2015, approximately 93% of the cotton, soybean, and corn crops planted in the US
were GE varieties (USDA, 2015). As for potato; the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) approved
the Innate potato varieties for commercial planting. These potatoes were genetically engineered to
6
reduce bruising and browning, which lower the production of acrylamide upon fry processing (Waltz,
2015).
Selected Genes for Abiotic Stresses Tolerance
XERICO, mannose 6-phosphate reductase (M6PR), and isopentenyltransferase (IPT) have been
identified to produce abiotic stress tolerance. Abscisic acid (ABA) is a plant hormone that plays a
significant role in response to stress conditions in plants. Under drought conditions Ko et al. (2006)
characterized a RING-H2-type zinc-finger protein, also known as XERICO, that shows an increase
in cellular ABA levels. The authors used the Cauliflower Mosaic Virus (CaMV) 35S promoter to
drive constitutive expression of the XERICO gene in Arabidopsis, and observed a further increase in
cellular ABA, resulting in drought tolerance. Under drought treatment created by not watering the
plants for 10 days, CaMV35S XERICO up-regulated the transcription of AtNCED3, a gene that
produces a key enzyme in ABA biosynthesis, providing transgenic plants a greater tolerance to
drought stress (Ko et al. 2006). Also, fresh weight (FW) measurements indicated that water loss from
the leaves of transgenic plants was reduced to about 7.5%, whereas the leaves of non-transgenic plants
lost around 15% (Ko et al. 2006). In another study, Zeng et al. (2013) used the XERICO gene from
Arabidopsis under the control of CaMV35S promoter in rice. Detached rice leaves from the XERICO
expressing lines showed lower transpirational water loss in comparison to the control plants. Also,
transgenic rice lines showed a significant increase in ABA contents under drought and salt stress
conditions (Zeng et al. 2013).
Mannose 6-phosphate reductase (M6PR) is a key enzyme involved in mannitol biosynthesis, a
sugar alcohol that may help as a compatible solute to counter salt stress in celery (Zhifang and
Loescher, 2003). High compatible solute concentrations inhibit loss of water or balance salt
accumulation, however, this protection feature can occur at lower concentrations for significant
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osmotic effects (Zhifang and Loescher, 2003). In this study, the authors used M6PR gene from celery
under the control of the CaMV35S promoter in Arabidopsis, a non-mannitol producing plant. Their
results showed that all the transgenic Arabidopsis lines contained mannitol throughout the plants.
Interestingly, M6PR-transgenic Arabidopsis plants were phenotypically similar in comparison with
non-transgenics in the absence of 300Mm NaCl. However, when the plants were subjected to salt
treatment in soil irrigated with 300Mm NaCl, mature M6PR-transgenic Arabidopsis showed a high
level of salt tolerance, growing, flowering and producing seeds whereas wild type (WT) showed
severe salt stress (Zhifang and Loescher, 2003).
It has been found that during drought, there is an increase in leaf senescence that reduces canopy
size, yield, and photosynthesis. For example, Rivero et al. (2007) showed that delaying leaf
senescence could enhance drought tolerance. Gan and Amasino (1995) showed that leaf senescence
can be delayed in transgenic plants by expressing the IPT gene as this gene produces an enzyme that
induces the production of cytokinin (CK), inhibiting leaf senescence. Rivero et al. (2007) used a
senescence associated receptor protein kinase promoter (PSARK) isolated from bean to express the
IPT gene in tobacco, producing drought tolerance by delayed leaf senescence. As expected in
transgenic tobacco plants, the expression of the IPT gene induced the synthesis of CK, which in turn
resulted in enhanced drought tolerance. Furthermore, under severe drought treatments, these
transgenic tobacco plants only partially wilted and did not display drought-induced senescence. Upon
re-watering the transgenic plants recovered and showed full turgor in leaves and resumed growth. In
addition, transgenic tobacco displayed greater root and shoot biomass and a 160% increase in seed
yield, compared to the non-transgenic plants. During drought, the water content of the transgenic
plants was only slightly reduced, from 86% - 92%. After re-watering, the water content of the
transgenic plants returned to control levels. Transgenic plants showed greater control of reactive
8
oxygen species and enhanced expression of stress-response transcripts. However, nitrogen
mobilization was not affected, no developmental changes were seen, and there was no delay in
flowering and seed set. Water use efficiency values in the transgenic plants were two to three times
higher than those before drought. When provided with only 30% of the amount of water used under
control conditions, minimal yield losses were observed in transgenic plants (Rivero et al. 2007).
In addition, Kuppu et al. (2013) used the IPT gene in cotton, under the control of an inducible
promoter, SARK. The transgenic cotton showed delayed senescence under water deficit treatment in
the greenhouse, and produced more root and shoot biomass compared to the non-transgenic line.
Moreover, the IPT plants showed a greater drought tolerance under growth chamber conditions
(Kuppu et al. 2013).
The goal of this research was to individually test several different transgenes and determine if
they could confer drought/osmotic stress tolerance in potato plants expressing each transgene and thus
reduce the water requirement, without significantly impacting the plant’s growth. There were three
main research objectives in this study. The first was to individually express the three different genes,
XERICO, IPT, and M6PR to confer abiotic stress tolerance in the potato cultivar (CV) Désirée, a
drought susceptible variety. The second objective was to use reverse transcriptase polymerase chain
reaction (RT-PCR) to select the events for gene expression. The third was to conduct laboratory and
greenhouse experiments to evaluate each event, and to characterize the value of these genes for
tolerance to drought and osmotic stress in potato.
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Chapter 2: Evaluation of Transgenic Potatoes
Research Objectives
The purpose of this study was to individually examine a set of transgenes for their ability to
confer drought/osmotic stress tolerance in cultivated potato. The first objective was to transform the
potato CV Désirée, using each of the genes a) Arabidopsis XERICO, b) Celery mannose-6-
phosphate reductase (M6PR), and c) Agrobacterium isopentenyltransferase (IPT) gene. The first
two genes have been shown to confer drought and salt tolerance respectively, when overexpressed
in Arabidopsis (Zhifang and Loescher 2003; Ko et al. 2006). Meanwhile, the IPT gene, under the
control of water-deficit responsive and maturation specific PSARK, has been shown to result in
delayed leaf senescence and extreme drought tolerance in tobacco plants (Rivero et al. 2007), and
enhanced drought tolerance in cotton plants (Kuppu et al. 2013).
The second objective was to characterize the transgenic events using polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) with gene specific primers to confirm the presence of the transgenes, and RT-PCR
to observe the relative transcription of the transgenes in individual plants to identify which plants
could be advanced for further studies.
The third objective was to examine the growth characteristics of the GE plants in a water
restricted environment, which was created in vitro by modifying the osmotic potential in a
controlled manner using polyethylene glycol (PEG) supplemented growth medium (Barra et al.
2013). Additionally, plants were examined after growth in vivo in a greenhouse study using a
reduced watering protocol during the life of the plant, and a terminal drought protocol (Rivero et al.
2007). In this study, the effect of the three transgenes on conferring drought tolerance was observed
by comparing the transgenic plants with the non-transgenic counterparts of Désirée.
10
Material and Methods
Plant Material and Transformation
The potato CV Désirée, which is highly amenable to transformation, was independently
transformed with three vector constructs, each containing one of the osmotic stress genes using a
protocol as described by Cearley et al. (1997) (Figure 1). Cuttings for tissue culture were grown in
culture tubes in Murashige and Skoog basal medium with vitamins (MS) (PhytoTechnology
Laboratories, Overland Park KS); 4.3 g·L-1 MS, 30 g·L-1 sucrose, pH 6.0, 7 g·L-1 agar. The stock
cultures were maintained at 25°C, with a 16 h photoperiod. The construct pSPUD98 (Fig. 1A) is a
plant transformation vector with a T-DNA, which contains the XERICO gene (a gift from Dr.
Kyung-Hwan Han, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI) under the control of CaMV35S
promoter. Shoots recovered from transformation experiments were placed on a rooting medium.
Shoots that rooted in the selection medium were tested via PCR to confirm the presence of the gene.
Positive lines selected for further research were designated either DES.98, 97, or 96 and were
maintained in tissue culture then transplanted into pots in the greenhouse for bioassays.
Gene Constructs
The 1.9 kb PSARK IPT fragment was cut from plasmid PARC593 using EcoR1 and inserted
into binary vector pBINPLUS. The XERICO gene (610 bp) was synthesized and designed to
contain BamHI and XbaI sites and inserted between a CaMV35S promoter and a nopaline
synthase terminator in pBINPLUS binary vector. The shoots recovered were designated as
DES.98. The construct pSPUD97 (Fig. 1B) containing the gene M6PR (Zhifang and Loescher,
11
2003) a gift from Dr. Wayne Loescher, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, was used
to introduce the M6PR gene under the control of a CaMV35SS promoter in pBINPLUS binary
vector. Shoots recovered from transformation experiments were designated DES.97 and were
treated as described above. The restriction sites were designed by Zhifang and Loescher (2003).
The construct pSPUD96 (Fig. 1C) was used to introduce the IPT gene under the control of the
inducible SARK promoter (Arcadia Biosciences, Davis CA). Shoots recovered from
transformation experiments were designated DES.96 and were treated as described above.
12
PCR Detection and Expression of Transgenes
A single shoot was taken from each explant to eliminate the possibility of duplicate events.
DNA from individual plants that had rooted in the kanamycin selective medium was then subjected
to PCR, using gene specific primers to confirm the presence of the transgene. Using PCR, 34, 36,
and 26, transgenic events were examined to test for the presence of IPT, M6PR, and XERICO genes,
respectively. The DNA from each of these plants was isolated using the Qiagen Dneasy Plant Kit
according to the manufacturer’s directions (Qiagen, Valencia, CA USA). For PCR reactions, 2 µL of
DNA from each sample was mixed with 10 µL of Go Taq® Master Mix 2x (Promega, Madison, WI,
USA), and 1 µL each (10µM) of reverse and forward primers for the respective genes (Table 1) in a
20µL reaction. PCR cycling conditions were: 95°C for 3min, 35 cycles of 95°C for 30s, 50°C
(XERICO and IPT) or 55°C (M6PR) for 30s, 72°C for 45s and a final extension at 72°C for 5 min.
Figure 1: Construct Design
Figure 2Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5Figure 6
Figure 7Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10
The T-DNA regions of A. pSPUD98, B. pSPUD97 and C. pSPUD96
constructs depicting the positions of the XERICO and M6PR genes
containing the constitutive CaMV35S promoter, or the IPT gene containing
the inducible PSARK promoter. The nptII gene for kanamycin resistance
was used as the selectable marker.
13
PCR products were separated and visualized on a 1% agarose gel stained with 10 mg/µL ethidium
bromide.
Frozen transformed potato leaf tissue stored at -80°C was milled to powder under liquid
nitrogen, and RNA was extracted using an RNeasy Plant Mini Kit (Qiagen, Valencia, CA, USA)
according to the manufacturer’s guidelines. The RNA was eluted in a final volume of 30 µL. To
remove contaminating genomic DNA, samples were then subjected to a deoxyribonuclease treatment
using an Ambion TURBO DNA-free kit (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA). A Super Script One-Step
RT-PCR with Platinum Taq kit (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA) was then used to perform the RT-
PCR according to the manufacturer’s directions. For the RT-PCR, 4 µL of RNA and 1 µL of each
primer (Table 1) were mixed with 10µL of 2X reaction buffer and 1 µL of SuperScript III RT/
Platinum Taq Mix in a final volume of 20 µL. The RT-PCR cycling conditions were: 50°C for 30
min, 94°C for two min, 30 cycles of 94°C for 15 S, 55°C for 30 S, 72°C for 45 S, and a final
extension at 72°C for five min. The RT-PCR products were then separated and visualized as
described above for the PCR products. Also, the RNA was run in the gel to demonstrate the quality
of samples before doing RT-PCR.
14
In Vitro Osmotic Stress Experiment
Tissue culture grown plants were assessed for their ability to grow on MS medium
supplemented with 4.8% PEG (mol. wt. 8000, SIGMA, USA). The pH of the media was adjusted to
5.8 ±, and the media solidified with 5 gL-1 agar (Caisson Labs, Logan UT, USA). To conduct this
drought experiment, five IPT, six XERICO, and seven M6PR transgenic events were used,
respectively (Table 2). These lines were chosen for the presence of appropriate gene expression,
expected phenotypes, and availability. Plant nodal segments of similar age and quality (second and
third nodes) were selected from transgenic and control Désirée plants, transferred to 4.8% PEG
medium, and grown under standard conditions for tissue culture. Nodal cuttings were also
transferred at the same time into regular MS growth medium to use for growth comparisons. The
tubes were placed in racks using a completely randomized design (CRD) with five replications. The
Table 1: Primer Sequences and expected product size
Gene Primer sequence Expected Product Size (bp)
XERICO
Forward 5’-GACAACATCATTTCTACCGACA-3’
595
Reverse 5’-TAGCTGTACACAACAAACACACTC-3’
M6PR
Forward 5’-GGTGTTTGGGAGGTTGATGC-3’
510
Reverse 5’-GTTACTCCTTTGGTTGCGCTC-3’
IPT
Forward 5’-GGTATCATCGCAGCCAAGCA-3’
476
Reverse 5’-GCTGCGTTAACTTGGGGGAA-3’
15
plants were maintained at 22°C, with a 16 h photoperiod. Measurements were recorded for number
of leaves (NL), number of roots (NR), and height of plants (HP) at 15 days and 30 days. Fresh
weight (FW) and dry weight (DW) were also measured at 30 days (Figure 2) (Barra et al. 2013).
Two-way analysis of variance was used to evaluate the effect of the different genes and drought
conditions.
16
(A) Explants were placed in standard MS and PEG medium.
(B) Number of leaves (NL), number of roots (NR), height of plant (HP) were
measured at 15 and 30 days.
(C) Fresh weight (FW) measured at 30 days.
(D) Dry weight (DW) measured at 30 days.
Figure 2: Summary of the in vitro PEG procedure
17
Greenhouse Reduced Watering Experiment
Four-week old tissue culture grown transgenic plants, and control Désirée plants were
transferred to a greenhouse for in vivo studies. For the experiment, four events from XERICO,
M6PR, and IPT were used with four replications for each event (Table 3). The plants were grown in
10.16 cm diameter pots containing Greens Grade soil (Siteone Landscape Supply, Dimondale, MI)
at 25±3οC, and supplemental light with a 16h light/8h dark cycle. Cheesecloth was used to line the
pots to prevent soil loss. During the experiment, plants were fertilized twice a week using Peters
Professional 20-20-20 (BFG supply, Kalamazoo, MI). Plants were divided into two representative
sets. In the first set, plants were watered until the soil was fully soaked. These plants received full
watering twice a week for the entire length of the experiment. The second set of plants were
watered with only 30% (restricted water) of the volume of water used for the first set, at the same
intervals mentioned above, for the entire length of the experiment. The two sets of plants were
arranged in a randomized complete block design. The height of each plant was measured each week
and FW above the ground, DW, and the number and size of tubers were measured at the end of the
experiment. The plants were allowed to grow for 10 weeks. One-way analysis of variance was used
to evaluate the effect of the different genes and drought conditions.
Greenhouse Terminal Drought Experiment
For the greenhouse terminal drought experiment, we used the same type of soil and pots as
described above. The tissue culture plants were transferred to the greenhouse as described for the
reduced watering experiment. Four different events each were used from XERICO, M6PR, and IPT,
with four replications for each line (Table 3). Plants were watered as needed until they were 31 days
18
old, after which water was completely withheld for 14 days. The plants were then re-watered for
three days, and were scored as either living or dead. Also, pots were weighed daily to estimate water
loss. Leaf water content was also measured at the end of terminal drought experiment at 14 days.
Four fresh detached leaves were weighed (FW) from each line, including the controls from the
terminal drought experiment. To determine the turgid weight (TW), the same detached leaves were
soaked in water contained in Petri dishes for 24h, and then they were weighed. The leaves were
dried for 24h using an oven at 100 °C and weighed again to obtain dry weight (DW) (Rivero et al.
2007) (Figure 3). The relative water content (RWC) of the leaves from the terminal drought
experiment was determined by using the formula:
RWC = (FW – DW) / (Turgid weight – DW)
One-way analysis of variance was used to evaluate the effect of the different genes and drought
conditions.
19
(A) The detached fresh leaves were weighed
(B) The same leaves were soaked in water for 24h under laboratory
conditions and then weighed
(C) The leaves were put in the dryer for 24h and then weighed.
Figure 3: Relative water content experiment procedure
Figure 81
Figure 82
Figure 83
Figure 84
20
Rate of Leaf Water Loss
To determine if the expression of the transgenes effect leaf transpiration, the rate of leaf water
content loss was measured. Three detached leaves from fully water-expended plants were used from
each transgenic line as well as a Désirée control plant from terminal drought and reduced water
experiments. Detached leaves were placed in Petri dishes under the same conditions as intact plants,
and were weighed immediately, at 30 min, 60 min, two hour, three hour, and four hour time
intervals. The percentage of water loss over time was then calculated (Figure 4). JMP statistical
software and R were used to analyze all experiments data.
21
Results
Identification of Transgenic Plants
A total of 26 XERICO shoots selected after rooting on kanamycin selection media were
identified as positive for containing the transgene. A total of 36 M6PR shoots were selected after
rooting on kanamycin, however, only 24 plants were confirmed positive for the presence of the
transgene. A total of 34 IPT shoots were selected after rooting on kanamycin with 33 confirmed
positive for the presence of the transgene (Table 2). However, some of the lines were chosen in
drought tolerance experiments (Figure 5).
Three detached leaves from Désirée and transgenic lines were weighed over
different times to identify the water loss from the leaves.
Figure 96 Leaf water loss over time experiment procedure.
Three detached leaves from Désirée and transgenic lines were weighed over
different times to identify the water loss from the leaves.
Figure 4: Leaf water loss over time experiment procedure
Figure 128
Figure 129
Figure 130
Figure 131
Figure 132
22
Identification of Individual Plants Expressing the Transgene
A subset of events was subjected to end-point RT-PCR. Ten XERICO plants, 15 M6PR plants,
and 9 IPT plants were positive for transgene expression (Table 2) and some of these events were
chosen for the presence of appropriate gene expression (Figure 6) and used for bioassays in vitro and
in the greenhouse (Table 3).
23
Table 2: PCR and RT PCR results for presence and expression of the transgene.
XERICO PCR
RT-
PCR
M6PR PCR
RT-
PCR
IPT PCR
RT-
PCR
DES.98.04 + NO DES.97.01 + + DES.96.02 + + -
DES.98.05 + + DES.97.02 + + DES.96.03 + -
DES.98.07 + NO DES.97.03 + + DES.96.04 + +
DES.98.08 + + DES.97.04 + + DES.96.05 + -
DES.98.09 + NO DES.97.05 + + DES.96.07 + -
DES.98.11 + NO DES.97.06 + + DES.96.08 + +
DES.98.12 + NO DES.97.07 + + DES.96.09 + -
DES.98.13 + - DES.97.08 + - DES.96.10 + +
DES.98.18 + + DES.97.09 + + DES.96.11 + NO
DES.98.20 + NO DES.97.10 + + DES.96.12 + -
DES.98.21 + + DES.97.11 + + DES.96.14 + -
DES.98.23 + + DES.97.12 + + DES.96.15 + -
DES.98.26 + + DES.97.13 + + DES.96.16 + NO
DES.98.27 + + DES.97.14 + NO DES.96.18 + NO
DES.98.28 + NO DES.97.15 + NO DES.96.19 + NO
DES.98.30 + + DES.97.16 + + DES.96.20 - -
DES.98.31 + + DES.97.17 - NO DES.96.21 + +
DES.98.32 + - DES.97.18 + NO DES.96.22 + +
DES.98.34 + - DES.97.19 - NO DES.96.24 + -
DES.98.37 + NO DES.97.20 + - DES.96.25 + NO
DES.98.38 + + DES.97.21 - NO DES.96.26 + NO
DES.98.39 + NO DES.97.22 - NO DES.96.27 + -
DES.98.40 + NO DES.97.23 + NO DES.96.28 + -
DES.98.41 + NO DES.97.24 - NO DES.96.29 + NO
DES.98.42 + NO DES.97.25 + NO DES.96.30 + -
DES.98.43 + NO DES.97.26 - NO DES.96.31 + NO
DES.97.27 - NO DES.96.32 + -
DES.97.28 + + DES.96.33 + NO
DES.97.29 - NO DES.96.34 + +
DES.97.30 + NO DES.96.35 + NO
DES.97.31 - NO DES.96.36 + +
DES.97.32 - NO DES.96.37 + -
DES.97.33 - NO DES.96.38 + NO
DES.97.34 + + DES.96.39 + NO
DES.97.35 + NO DES.96.02 + NO
DES.97.36 - NO
(+) = Presence of gene and expression
(-) = Absence of gene and expression
(NO) = The lines were not tested with RT-PCR.
(+) = Presence of gene and expression
(-) = Absence of gene and expression
(NO) = The lines were not tested with RT-PCR.
(+) = Presence of gene and expression
(-) = Absence of gene and expression
(NO) = The lines were not tested with RT-PCR.
(+) = Presence of gene and expression
24
Table 3: Lines used in the experiments.
1PEG experiments. 2Terminal drought. 3Reduced water. 4Relative water content. 5Leaf water loss
over time.
Line PE1 TD2 RW3 RWC4 LWLT5
DES.98.08 X X X X
DES.98.21 X X X X X
DES.98.27 X X X X X
DES.98.31 X X X
DES.98.38 X X
DES.98.23 X X
DES.96.04 X X
DES.96.08 X X X X X
DES.96.22 X X X
DES.96.36 X X X X
DES.96.38 X X X
DES.97.01 X X X X X
DES.97.12 X X X X
DES.97.13 X X X
DES.97.02 X X X X
DES.97.04 X X
DES.97.07 X X
DES.97.11 X
DES.97.34 X X
DES X X X X X
25
The presence of XERICO DES.98 (A), M6PR DES.97 (B), and IPT DES.96 (C) genes was
visualized by PCR using 100 bp ladder (L). Désirée DES and water used as a negative control
for XERICO, M6PR, and IPT . The expected product size for XERICO is 595 bp the XERICO
plasmid used as positive control.The product size for M6PR is 510 bp and the M6PR plasmid
used as positive control. The IPT product size is 476 bp and the IPT plasmid used as a positive
control.
DES = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO
L= Ladder 100 bp
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
B
C
C
C
C
C
Figure 5: PCR from transgenic lines were used in experiments
Figure 175
Figure 176
Figure 177
Figure 178
Figure 179
26
In Vitro Drought Assessment
A subset of lines were subjected to a series of drought experiments in order to test the
efficiency of IPT, XERICO, and M6PR events. For the in vitro drought assessment five, six and
seven IPT, XERICO, and M6PR events were used, respectively. Analysis of measurements taken
after 15 days showed significant reduction effect of the line (gene) and medium (non PEG or PEG)
The presence of appropriate gene expression of XERICO DES.98 and the RNA (A), M6PR
DES.97 and RNA (B), and IPT DES.96 and RNA (C) was visualized by RT-PCR. Water used
as a negative control for XERICO, M6PR, and IPT . Also, the RNA for the expected product
size for XERICO is 595 bp the XERICO. The product size for M6PR is 510 bp. The IPT
product size is 476 bp.
Reverse Transcriptase PCR from the transgenic lines used in experiments.
The presence of appropriate gene expression of XERICO DES.98 and the RNA (A), M6PR
DES.97 and RNA (B), and IPT DES.96 and RNA (C) was visualized by RT-PCR. Water used
as a negative control for XERICO, M6PR, and IPT . Also, the RNA for the expected product
size for XERICO is 595 bp the XERICO. The product size for M6PR is 510 bp. The IPT
product size is 476 bp.
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Figure 6: RT-PCR from the transgenic lines used in experiments
Figure 198
Figure 199
Figure 200
Figure 201
Figure 202
27
on HP, NL, and NR. However, there was no significant line (gene) by medium interaction effect on
any of the outcome measures (Figure 7 A, B, C). For the measurements taken after 30 days, a
significant effect of the line (gene) was observed on HP, NL, NR, and FW, but not on DW. The
medium also had a significant reduction in all the measurements. At 30 days, we found the line by
medium interaction effect was significant for only the height of plant and number of roots. However,
the non PEG medium lines were greater than the PEG medium (Figure 8 A, B, C, D, E). The
summary of data on HP, NL, NR, FW, and DW was displayed using box plots. The observations of
the plant height at 15 days was similar to the 30 day, plant height was greater in the control medium
than the PEG medium. For the PEG medium at 15 days, we found the highest average plant height
under the drought condition occurred with the IPT line DES.96.38 (Figure 7A). For the PEG
medium at 30 days, we found the IPT line DES.96.36, the XERICO line DES 98.08, and Désirée to
have the highest variability in plant height (Figure 8A). Of these, the highest average plant height in
the drought condition occurred with the IPT line DES.96.36. Interestingly, unlike what we found
from the 15 day measurements, the patterns observed in the two treatment conditions were very
different, suggesting that time had an effect between the two treatments. As expected, leaf number is
greater in the control medium than the PEG medium at both 15 and 30 days. For the PEG medium at
15 days, the highest average leaf number in the drought condition occurred with IPT lines
DES.96.38 and DES.96.36 (Figure 7B). For the PEG medium at 30 days, the highest average leaf
number occurred with the IPT lines DES.96.38 and DES.96.36 just as it was at 15 days (Figure 8B).
The number of roots was found to be greater in the control medium than in the PEG medium at 15
and 30 days. For the PEG medium at 15 days, DES.96.36 had the highest variability and highest
values for the number of roots (Figure 7C). For the PEG medium at 30 days, we found that unlike at
15 days, the M6PR lines DES.97.04 and DES.97.34 had the highest variability for number of roots.
28
All other lines except for DES.96.36 were severely affected by the PEG treatment (Figure 8C). Fresh
weight was also greater in the control medium than the PEG medium, suggesting a treatment effect.
For the PEG medium, DES.96.36 had the highest variability and values for fresh weight (Figure 8D).
Similarly, the dry weight was greater in the control medium than the PEG medium, indicating a
treatment effect. For the PEG medium, DES.96.36 had the highest variability and highest values for
dry weight just as for fresh weight (Figure 8E). In summary, the PEG 4.8 % treatment had a negative
effect on the lines. The IPT lines DES.96.36 and DES.96.38 showed good performance in 4.8 %
PEG medium, although was a negative effect from the PEG.
29
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Hei
gh
t of
pla
nts
(cm
)
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Analysis of height of plants at 15 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Analysis of height of plants at 15 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Analysis of height of plants at 15 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 7A: Analysis of height of plants at 15 days
Figure 213A
30
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Analysis of number of leaves at 15 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Analysis of number of leaves at 15 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Analysis of number of leaves at 15 days.
Désirée = Control
Lea
f n
um
ber
Figure 7B: Analysis of number of leaves at 15 days
Figure 7B
31
Root
nu
mb
er
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 7 C. Analysis of number of roots at 15 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 7 C. Analysis of number of roots at 15 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 7 C. Analysis of number of roots at 15 days.
Désirée = Control
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Figure 7C: Analysis of number of roots at 15 days
Figure 215AFigure 7C
Figure 7C
Figure 216AFigure 7C
32
Hei
gh
t of
pla
nts
(cm
)
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 8 A. Analysis of plant height at 30 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 8 A. Analysis of plant height at 30 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 8 A. Analysis of plant height at 30 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Analysis of plant height at 30 days.
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Figure 8A: Analysis of plant height at 30 days
Figure 8A
33
Lea
f n
um
ber
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 8 B. Analysis of number of leaves at 30 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 8 B. Analysis of number of leaves at 30 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 8 B. Analysis of number of leaves at 30 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 8B: Analysis of number of leaves at 30 days
Figure 8B
34
Root
nu
mb
er
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 8 C. Analysis of root number at 30 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 8 C. Analysis of root number at 30 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 8 C. Analysis of root number at 30 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 8C: Analysis of root number at 30 days
Figure 8C
35
Fres
h w
eigh
t (m
g)
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 8 D. Analysis of fresh weight at 30 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 8 D. Analysis of fresh weight at 30 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 8 D. Analysis of fresh weight at 30 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Figure 8D: Analysis of fresh weight at 30 days
Lines
Lines
Lines
36
Dry
wei
gh
t (m
g)
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 8 E. Analyzing dry weight at 30 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 8 E. Analyzing dry weight at 30 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO.
Figure 8 E. Analyzing dry weight at 30 days.
Désirée = Control
DES.96 = IPT
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Figure 8E: Analysis of dry weight at 30 days Analyzing dry weight at 30 days.
Lines
Lines
Lines
37
Greenhouse Terminal Drought Experiment
To assess the tolerance of transgenic plants to drought stress, the plants were exposed to drought
(withholding water for 14 days). The transgenic plants did not display any morphological alterations
in comparison with non-transgenic Désirée when grown before the drought treatment (Figure 9 A).
After one week without water, all plants displayed some stress (Figure 9 B). After two weeks
without water, all plants displayed severe stress symptoms, with control plants severely wilted and
transgenic plants partially wilted (Figure 9 C). All plants were then returned to their normal pre-
drought watering schedule for three days (Figure 9 D). Désirée did not recover and died. However,
some transgenic lines recovered and the leaves looked healthy and resumed their growth, after which
foliage was visually scored for revival. Table 4 summarizes the revival rates of transgenic plants.
The rate of revival for XERICO lines ranged from 25-75%. The rate of revival for M6PR lines
ranged from 75-100%. The rate of revival for the IPT lines ranged from 25-75%. There was a 0%
revival rate for the Désirée control plants. Pots were weighed during the two weeks without water
and the results indicated that rate and extent of drying remained the same. One-way analysis of
variance was used to analyze the water loss from the pots, and the results showed no significance in
the percentage of water lost from pots.
38
(A) XERICO, IPT, and M6PR plants with Désirée control prior to drought treatment with
fully healthy growth.
(B) XERICO, IPT, and M6PR plants with Désirée control at one-week drought condition
exposed some stress.
(C) XERICO, IPT, and M6PR plants with Désirée control at two-week drought treatment.
(D) Revival of plants following three days re-watering with Désirée as control (no revival).
Figure 9: The phenotypic transition through 14 days drought and re-watering
Figure 9: The phenotypic transition through 14 days drought and re-watering.
39
1 Revival Rate. 2 Control
Table 4: Summary of the plant revival rates after re-watering
XERICO RR1 (%) M6PR RR (%) IPT RR (%) Désirée2 RR (%)
DES.98.08 50 DES.97.01 75 DES.96.38 25 DES 0
DES.98.27 75 DES.97.13 100 DES.96.08 75
DES.98.38 25 DES.97.02 75 DES.96.36 25
DES.98.21 75 DES.97.12 75 DES.96.22 25
40
Relative Leaf Water Content
Four fresh detached leaves (Table 3) were weighed from each line including Désirée as a
control from the terminal drought experiment to determine the water content in the leaves at two
weeks withholding water (Figure 10). DES.97.01 had the highest value among the lines (36.9%),
whereas DES.98.21 and DES.96.38 had the lowest values for RWC (23%, 21%), showing a
significant difference in comparison to the highest value of DES.97.01. The lines DES.97.12, DES,
DES.98.27, DES.96.08, DES.97.02, DES.98.08, DES.97.13, DES.96.38, DES.96.36, and DES.96.22
had similar values for RWC (Figure 10).
DES = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO
RWC results after two weeks withholding water. Means with the same
letter are not significantly different (α = 0.05).
Lines
Table
25:
Analysis
of leaf
water
loss over
time
experime
nt.Lines
Mea
n o
f R
WC
(%
)
Figure 10: Relative water content of leaves of transgenic and non-transgenic plants
Table 1: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment.Lines
Table 2: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment.
Table 3: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment.Lines
41
Leaf Water Loss Over Time
In this experiment, three detached leaves from the control and sub sample of XERICO lines
DES.98.31 and DES.98.21 showed less wilting in the reduced water experiment (Figure 11). In
addition, subsamples of M6PR lines DES.97.13, DES.97.12, DES.97.02, DES.97.01, and XERICO
lines DES.98.08, DES.98.27, and IPT line DES.96.08 displayed a higher revival rate among the
lines in the terminal drought experiment that followed by re-watering (Table 3). All leaves were
weighed at designated time intervals to identify water loss over time (Figure 4). Results showed
significant differences between the lines at different time intervals (Table 5). All M6PR, IPT, and
XERICO lines had less water loss over time in comparison to Désirée control. Among these lines,
DES.97.12, DES.97. 13, DES.98.08, and DES.96.08 belonging to Group B, showed less water loss
over the time interval. However, DES.97.01 and DES.98.21 also belonging to Group B, did not
consistent water loss across the time intervals. Group A (DES) is the group that lost the most
amount of water, and was consistent over time. Group B, which showed a significant difference in
comparison with Group B, lost the least amount of water. Group AB (DES.97.02, DES.98.31,
DES.98.31, DES.98.27) had similar results, but did not have significant variances of the percentage
of water lost over time (Table 5).
42
DES = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO
All transgenic lines had much less water loss in comparison with
Désirée. Means with the same letter are not significantly different
(α = 0.05).
DES = Control
DES.96 = IPT
DES.97 = M6PR
DES.98 = XERICO
All transgenic lines had much less water loss in comparison with
Désirée. Means with the same letter are not significantly different
(α = 0.05).
Table 5: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment.
Table 57: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment.
Table 58: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment.
Table 59: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment.
Table 60: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment.
Table 61: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment.
Table 62: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment.
Table 63: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment.
Table 64: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment.
Table 65: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment.
43
Reduced Water Experiment
For the measurements taken for full water, no significant effect of the line was observed for
plant height, number of tubers, fresh weight, and dry weight except tuber weight. The F statistic for
ANOVA test was significant for the tuber weight, but the Tukey test was not. The Tukey test
requires a larger sample size to detect group differences than the overall ANOVA test (Brooks and
Johanson, 2011). The second set of plants were watered with 30% (restricted water) of the volume
of water used for the first set at the same intervals for the entire length of the experiment. Also, one-
way analysis of variance was used for this experiment. Measurements taken on the lines for plant
height, fresh weight, and dry weight showed no significant effect of restricted water. However,
there was a significant effect on tuber number although significance was not consistent with two-
way analysis of variance (Figure 11). DES.97.04 showed the highest value for mean tuber number
(6) among the lines whereas DES.96.08 with the lowest mean tuber number (1.25) was significantly
different from DES.97.04. Although the mean for the number of tubers for DES.97.07, DES.98.27,
DES.96.04, DES.97.01, DES.98.23, DES.96.36, DES.96.38, DES.98.21, DES.97.34, DES.98.31
and DES ranged from 1.3 - 4.7, they were not significantly affected by the restriction of water.
Restriction of water did not show any significant differences among the plants, some of transgenic
lines showed less stress visually based on morphological traits on leaves in comparison to Désirée
(Figure 12) and height between the two treatments (Figure 13).
44
The tuber number in restriction water treatment was significant but it wasn’t significant with
two-way analysis of variance. The transgenic M6PR DES.97.04 had the highest tuber number.
Means with the same letter are not significantly different (α = 0.05).
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Full water
Full water
Full water
Full water
Full water
Full water
Full water
Full water
Full water
Restriction water
water
Restriction water
water
Restriction water
water
Restriction water
water
Restriction water
water
Restriction water
water
Restriction water
Figure 11: Analysis of tuber number for reduced water experiment
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines
45
The transgenic XERICO lines DES.98.31 and DES.98.21 showed
less stress phenotypically when water was restricted at 30% in
comparison with Désirée.
Figure 12. The transgenic XERICO lines DES.98.31 and
DES.98.21 showed less stress phenotypically when water was
restricted at 30% in comparison with Désirée.
Figure 12: XERICO Appearance
Table 72: Analysis of leaf water
loss over time experiment.Lines
Table 73: Analysis of leaf water
loss over time experiment.
Table 74: Analysis of leaf water
loss over time experiment.Lines
Table 75: Analysis of leaf water
loss over time experiment.Lines
Table 76: Analysis of leaf water
loss over time experiment.
46
Discussion
Drought is a serious abiotic stress factor that restricts the productivity of crops with
socioeconomic impacts (Salinger et al. 2005). Developing adaptive agricultural systems are
important for the changing environment and use of genetic engineering to develop stress tolerance
of crops has become an important tool to enhance the breeding process (Zhang et al. 2011). The
goal of this study was to compare the effect of osmotic stress responsive genes when expressed in
potato CV Désirée. We hypothesized that the three different genes the Arabidopsis XERICO gene,
(A) indicates restricted water and (B) indicates fully watered. The transgenic M6PR
DES.97.01 showed similar in the height results in A, and B treatments. The transgenic
XERICO DES.98.31 line was higher in B in comparison to A although it was not
significant. The transgenic IPT DES.96.08 showed similar results for height in A and B
treatments. The non-transgenic line Désirée was severely effected in A treatment in
comparison to B treatment.
Figure 217Figure 13. The height of the transgenic and non-transgenic plants in the reduced
water
experiment.
(A) indicates restricted water and (B) indicates fully watered. The transgenic M6PR DES.97.01
showed similar in the height results in A, and B treatments. The transgenic XERICO DES.98.31
line was higher in B in comparison to A although it was not significant. The transgenic IPT
DES.96.08 showed similar results for height in A and B treatments. The non-transgenic line
Figure 13: Height of transgenic and non-transgenic plants in reduced water
experiment.
Table 96: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment.Lines
Table 97: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment.
Table 98: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment.Lines
Table 99: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment.Lines
Table 100: Analysis of leaf water loss over time experiment.
47
the celery mannose-6-phosphate reductase (M6PR) gene, and Agrobacterium isopentenyltransferase
(IPT) will improve drought resistance in CV Désirée, a susceptible variety. For in vitro drought
assessment experiment, we used 4.8% PEG to induce osmotic stress. Based on the study by Barra et
al. (2013) where 149 INIA-Chile potato genotypes were evaluated using PEG with different
concentration in the beginning, 4.8 % PEG concentration was able to distinguish the genotype
responses to drought such as plant height, leaf and root number, fresh and dry weight. These results
classified the genotypes as high, intermediate, low, and very low tolerance to water stress.
However, we found that the 4.8% PEG medium has a significant effect on all the
measurements taken, irrespective of the time they were taken. All transgenic lines displayed
hypersensitivity to 4.8% PEG and the morphological traits such as NL, NR, HP, FW, and DW were
severely effected in comparison to control MS media without PEG.
In the Zeng et al. (2013) study, transgenic XERICO rice had higher revival rates in comparison
to non transgenic lines when the plants were exposed to drought by withholding water for 11 days.
The revival rate of XERICO rice plants was 49.2% whereas the control non-transgenic lines were
only 9.5%. They suggested that the enhanced drought tolerance of transgenic XERICO plants was
due to decreased water loss by transpiration. They supported this hypothesis by measuring fresh
leaf water loss over different time points as a signal of transpirational water loss. The leaves of the
XERICO line plants had much less water loss in comparison to the control. The conclusion of this
study was that overexpressing the XERICO gene in transgenic rice plants showed reduced
transpirational water loss conferring enhanced drought tolerance in rice by a significant increase in
ABA content. Many studies support that ABA is involved in improved drought tolerance by
increasing ABA content (Ko et al. 2006) resulting in stomatal closure to inhibit transpirational
water loss during drought conditions (Blatt, 2000).
48
The results of Rivero et al. (2007) showed that the WT tobacco plant did not recover from
withholding water experiment for 15 days whereas the transgenic IPT plants recovered and leaves
showed full turgor and the plants continued their growth after re-watering. Even though the ABA
increased the drought tolerance in plants, transgenic IPT plants were not associated with drought
tolerance in their experiment. Also, the transgenic IPT plants had higher water content in
comparison with WT. The conclusion of this study was that CK content was associated with the
drought tolerance in IPT tobacco by delaying leaf senescence.
In our data, we had similar results to the two previous studies in terms of the different revival
rates compared to control. We observed different revival rates among M6PR, XERICO and IPT
lines. However, the non transgenic Désirée could not recover upon re-watering and died. With the
revival of XERICO, IPT, and M6PR potato lines in the terminal drought experiment, the results
suggest that overexpression of M6PR, XERICO and IPT confer enhanced drought tolerance in
potato.We hypothesized that drought tolerance caused by transgenic plants may have a reduced
transpiration rate (Zeng et al. 2013) or the water content in the leaf was higher during the drought
period (Rivero et al. 2007). For this reason, we conducted two additional experiments to identify the
reason behind the drought tolerance. The first experiment was to determine RWC. The results of
RWC from Rivero et al. (2007) showed the WT had reduced water content (60%) compared to IPT
transgenic plants (92% to 86%) during the drought period when there was no significant difference
in the soil moisture level. In our data, while there were some minor differences in RWC of the lines,
the majority of plants showed similar amounts of water loss from leaves during the drought period
(Figure 10) as determined from dry pots. So, the genes were not causing the plant leaves to keep the
water content higher during the drought period rather they must be providing some other protective
components allowing the cells to recover when water becomes available.
49
The second experiment was to measure the leaf water loss over time. The purpose of this
experiment was to test whether a decreased transpiration rate might indicate increased water use
efficiency so the plant can survive a longer period of drought. Results of a similar study by Zeng et
al. (2013) on leaf water loss over time showed that transgenic leaves of XERICO plants had much
less water loss in comparison to non-transgenic counterpart. Our data confirmed these results as
transgenic lines had less water loss over time in comparison to the non-transgenic Désirée (Table 5).
These results suggest that transgenic plants confer improved drought tolerance by decreased
transpiration rate in leaves during drought conditions. In a study by Rivero et al. (2007), where
transgenic tobacco plants grown under two watering systems, full water (1 liter/day) and restricted
water (0.3/day) were tested for four months showed that seed yield and biomass of WT plants were
affected by the restricted water conditions showing a reduction of 57% in biomass and 60% seed
yield. However, the transgenic plants showed minimal reduction, although not statistically
significant in biomass and seed yield (8-14%). In our data, the statistical analysis of results did not
show a significant difference between the transgenic lines in restricted water compared to full water
system for fresh weight, dry weight, plant height, number of tubers and weight of tubers. However,
there was visually significant results for some transgenic lines. Some of the transgenic lines
displayed a drought tolerant phenotype. The leaves of these transgenic lines especially XERICO lines
showed less stress (Figure 12). Also, some of the transgenic lines showed differences in height
between the two treatments, albeit not statically significant (Figure 13).
In conclusion
The goal of this study was to determine if the transgenic lines from M6PR, IPT and XERICO
conferred drought resistance to the potato CV Désirée which is susceptible to drought. The results
50
indicate that the three genes can confer drought resistance to the potato CV Désirée. Some of the
transgenic lines showed promising results from the series of drought experiments such as the M6PR
lines DES.97.12, DES.97.13, DES.97.02, DES.97.01, XERICO lines DES.98.08, DES.98.31,
DES.98.27, DES.98.21, and the IPT line DES.96.08. These lines will be used in the future
bioassays.
Future work
Some results of the different experiments were promising and hence need to be repeated with a
larger number of the plants. For future molecular work, we will screen additional lines that might
show high expression. Also, we will re-design the XERICO gene construct by changing the
constitutive promoter to an inducible promoter. For the in vitro experiment, we will use different
PEG concentration because 4.8 % PEG seems too high for drought treatments on the lines. Also, we
will use different time measurements because the growth of plants increased with time. In RWC
experiment, we will measure the RWC at different time points before and during the drought
treatment to identify the RWC in the plants. It is hard to control the weather in Michigan, but a field
trial is essential to test the performance of transgenic plants for drought tolerance. The GE lines that
showed promising results in in vitro and in vivo will be evaluated in field trials with irrigation and
without irrigation as just the GE potato lines containing the CBF ( C repeat binding factor) gene
was treated at the Montcalm Research Center (Nichol et al. 2015). Finally, for the commercial
purposes, we will consider inserting combination of these three genes to provide more durable
drought resistance to the potato.
51
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