comparative government keynote

Introduction to Comparative

PoliticsH o w d o w e b a l a n c e

f r e e d o m a n d e q u a l i t y ?

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Why we compare?Comparison is fundamental to all human thought

Comparison is the methodological core of scientific study of politics

compare the past and present

compare experiences of various nations

develop explanation

test theories

“experiments”


What do we compare?

Institutional Approach

Cultural Approach

Rational Approach


Politics

public decisions

within a community

political system

authoritative

Power: ability to get people or groups to do what they otherwise would not do

coercive means


Why do we Accept Authority?

Legitimacy - Something or someone is recognized and accepted as right and proper.

What are the sources of legitimacy?

Law - built on rules and procedures

Tradition - built by habit and custom over time

Charisma - build on force of ideas and presence of leadership


There are Five Themes that we will See Throughout this Course



Political Life is filled with conflict as states struggle between the proper balance of equality and freedom.




There has been a recent significant shift toward democracy as a system of government.





Capitalism and market economies have become the preferred method of doing business.






Globalization is one of the most important phenomena occurring on the planet today.






Globalization is one of the most important phenomena occurring on the planet today.

it ever more difficult to develop mutually acceptable and effective policies to cope with their problems, whether domestic or international in origin.


Technical Definitions We Must Agree On Before Going Further



A State exists when four parts come together: territory, population, sovereignty and legitimacy. It is characterized by such institutions as an army, police, taxation, a judiciary, and a social-welfare system. States are what we compare in this class.




A Nation is a psychological sense of identification with a people, i.e., “I am an American.” A Nation-State is a state whose territory and identity largely coincide, i.e., Japan.





A Regime is a set of rules and institutions that control access to, and exercise of, political power and that typically endure from government to government. These rules are often embodied in a constitution. France’s five different






Government is the leadership or elite in charge of running the state.







organizations of individuals







organizations of individualsauthorized by formal documents







organizations of individualsauthorized by formal documentsmake binding binding, coercive decisions on behalf of a particular community


How can we break down the tasks that a state normally does?



Political Socialization



Political SocializationPolitical Recruitment



Political SocializationPolitical RecruitmentPolitical Communication



Political SocializationPolitical RecruitmentPolitical CommunicationInterest Articulation



Political SocializationPolitical RecruitmentPolitical CommunicationInterest ArticulationInterest Aggregation



Political SocializationPolitical RecruitmentPolitical CommunicationInterest ArticulationInterest AggregationPolicy Making



Political SocializationPolitical RecruitmentPolitical CommunicationInterest ArticulationInterest AggregationPolicy MakingPolicy Implementation



Political SocializationPolitical RecruitmentPolitical CommunicationInterest ArticulationInterest AggregationPolicy MakingPolicy ImplementationPolicy Adjudication


What then, are the good reasons for having governments?

Community and Nation-buildingNationPolitical CulturePolitical socialization

Promoting economic efficiency and growth


What are the biggest challenges for governments?

The biggest challenges facing governments include:

building a common identity, enhancing a sense of community, and instilling a common purpose among its citizens.

Without this community building, states will lose legitimacy in the eyes of their citizens, and thereby become illegitimate.


What are the possible criticisms of government?

Destruction of Community

Violations of Basic Rights

Economic Inefficiency

Government for Private Gain

Vested Interests and Inertia


Debate

Does humanitarian intervention violate state sovereignty?


The Problem of Cleavages

The population of a state may have cleavages that create problems for its government. For example, religious fundamentalists or ethnic minorities may not recognize the legitimacy of the government operating within a state. This can create cleavages:

cumulative cleavages

cross-cutting cleavages


How does a government overcome these challenges?

✤ By making political decisions.

• public decisions• within a community (populated territory)• authoritative -- ability to get people or groups to

do what they otherwise would not do• coercive means• force and/or• monetary resources

✤ The question is “how do we achieve the proper balance of freedom and equality?”


How do we compare states in this class?

We compare states according to a set of functions which are performed in every political system. These functions are interdependent as well as being interactive across state boundaries:

system functions -- (socialization, recruitment, and communication) which maintain the system, keep it stable and running (Chapter 3)

process functions -- (interest articulation and aggregation, policy making, and adjudication) which convert the inputs of demands arising out of the society and the international environment into policy outputs (Chapters 4-6)

policy functions -- (extraction, regulation, and distribution) which interact with and effect the domestic society and international environment (Chapter 7)


System Functions

P o l i t i c a l S o c i a l i z a t i o n , r e c r u i t m e n t a n d

c o m m u n i c a t i o n


Political Attitude


What is Political Attitude? How is it

different from Political Ideology?Political Attitudes are concerned with the speed and methods with which political changes regarding freedom and equality should take place in a given society.

Political Ideology comprises the basic values held by an individual about the fundamental goals of politics, or the ideal balance between freedom and equality.


How are Political Attitudes Identified?

There are four broad categories of Political Attitudes:

Radicals -- a belief in dramatic, often revolutionary change of the existing political, social, or economic order. Radicals believe that the current system is broken.

Liberals -- a belief in evolutionary transformation.

Conservatives -- a belief that change is harmful, and that things should stay as they are.

Reactionaries -- wants to restore political, social, and economic institutions that once existed; want restoration of older values.


Attitude Quiz


Attitude QuizThings would be so much better if we could just go back to the values that made this country great.



If we just take it slow and easy, we can gradually make this a great country.




We need to throw this whole system out and just start over.




We need to throw this whole system out and just start over.

The best thing we can do is just stay the course. Let’s not rock the boat.


A Practical Lesson about Political Attitude



What does a radical in the U.S. want?




What does a radical in China want?




What does a radical in China want?

What you are depends on the political system within which you reside!


Political Ideology


What is Political Ideology? How is it

Different from Political Attitude?Political Ideology comprises the basic values held by an individual about the fundamental goals of politics, or the ideal balance between freedom and equality.

Political Attitudes are concerned with the speed and methods with which political changes regarding freedom and equality should take place in a given society.


Can you tell me more about the differences between Political

Attitude and Political Ideology?

Rather than being concerned with the pace and scope of change (political attitude), ideologies are concerned with describing the ideal relationship between freedom and equality for all.


Can you describe the major categories of Political Ideology?

1. Liberalism -- high priority on individual economic and social/political freedom. (Warning: liberalism as a political attitude and liberalism as a political ideology are completely different concepts!) Associated with nightwatchman state.

2. Social Democracy (Socialism) -- high priority on individual social/political freedom, while permitting state control of economic concerns. Associated with the welfare state.

3. Communism -- high priority on state control of economic and social/political freedom, but sees people as equal, and control as temporary. Associated with police state.

4. Fascism -- high priority on state control of economic and social/political freedom; sees people as unequal. Associated with police state.

5. Anarchy -- high priority on personal control of economic and social/political freedom; government is harmful.


Low Freedom

High Freedom

HighEquality

LowEquality


Low Freedom

High Freedom

HighEquality

LowEquality

Anarchism


Low Freedom

High Freedom

HighEquality

LowEquality

Anarchism Liberalism


Low Freedom

High Freedom

HighEquality

LowEquality


Fascism


Low Freedom

High Freedom

HighEquality

LowEquality


FascismCommunism


Low Freedom

High Freedom

HighEquality

LowEquality


FascismCommunism

Social Democracy


Low Freedom

High Freedom

HighEquality

LowEquality


FascismCommunism

Social Democracy

Weak State


Low Freedom

High Freedom

HighEquality

LowEquality


FascismCommunism

Social Democracy

Weak State

Strong State


Economic Spectrum

Social/Political Spectrum

Social Democrat

Social Democrat

Liberal

Liberal

Social Democrats favor broad government involvement in economic

policymaking and regulation of business

Liberals favor limited government involvement in economic policymaking

and regulation of business

Social Democrats favor a balance of freedom

and equality

Liberals favor a high degree of personal freedom over

social equality.


Reactionary

“Places fundamental importance on the unity and harmony of government and society and is defined by its opposition to forces that might weaken that collective unity” (p. 37)

Anti-democratic, top leader is embodiment of national will and individuals must defer

Society and government should be unified into single, organic whole


Socialism

“Goal is to provide high-quality, relatively equal conditions of life for everyone, with active state assisting in achievement of this goal” (p. 31)

Humans are social and caring by nature

Individual needs are important, but must be subordinated to overall interests of society

Commitment of state to increase material, social and political equality of its members


Conservatism

“Attempts to prevent or slow the transition away from a society based on traditional values and social hierarchy” (p. 28)

People are not always rational, they are emotional and unable to reason clearly

Basic need for order and stability—fosters loyalty to God and country

Inequality is natural aspect of society; requires hierarchy, with individual liberty of greater importance than equality


Classical Liberalism“Highest value on individual freedom and posits that the role of government should be limited” (p.30)

People are rational with natural rights to life, liberty and property

Individuals “contract” with limited forms of government—promote laissez-faire economy.

Equality before law, but no attempt to create material equality

Note: Currently, “liberalism” infers big government and egalitarianism


Ideology Quiz• Voter A: “I worked my way up from poverty to become the successful business

owner I am today. I get frustrated when I think that my tax money goes to support people who won’t help themselves. I think part of the blame belongs with the media – they promote all the wrong values.”

• Voter B: “I really don’t care what other people do in their free time, as long as they don’t bother me. I sure don’t like it when the government tells me what to do with my money or in my own home – I’m certainly not going to turn around and do the same thing to my neighbors.”

• Voter C: “I really worry about the state of the world today. It seems like more and more kids are growing up in poverty and there’s no one there to help them. I think we need to do more toward providing healthcare and education programs for our young people.”

• Voter D: “These days, you can’t be too careful. I think we need to spend a lot more money on the national defense. I wish there was a police officer on every corner! The police could search my car all they want, since I don’t break the law. I also think the government should crack down on the media – their reporting gives our enemies


Political Attitudes


Political Attitudes

What is the necessary pace and scope of change?


Political Attitudes


Radical


Political Attitudes


RadicalLiberal


Political Attitudes


RadicalLiberal

Conservative


Political Attitudes


RadicalLiberal

ConservativeReactionary


Political Attitudes


RadicalLiberal


Political Ideology


Political Attitudes


RadicalLiberal


Political Ideology

What are the fundamental


Political Attitudes


RadicalLiberal


Political Ideology

What are the fundamental goals of politics? Think


Political Attitudes


RadicalLiberal


Political Ideology


economic & social/political


Political Attitudes


RadicalLiberal


Political Ideology



Liberal


Political Attitudes


RadicalLiberal


Political Ideology



LiberalSocial Democrat


Political Attitudes


RadicalLiberal


Political Ideology




Fascist


Political Attitudes


RadicalLiberal


Political Ideology




FascistCommunist


Political Attitudes


RadicalLiberal


Political Ideology




FascistCommunistAnarchist


So what does this mean in terms of collective state ideology?


And what about this?


Process Functions

I n t e r e s t A R t i c u l a t i o n , I n t e r e s t A g g r e g a t i o n ,

P o l i c y m a k i n g , P o l i c y I m p l e m e n t a t i o n

a n d A d j u d i c a t i o n


Three levels of Political Culture



First, the system level: Do citizens identify with the nation and accept the general system of government?




What questions would you ask?





Does education matter?






Does geography matter







What effect does culture have?








Does nationalism exist?








Does nationalism exist?

Is the government seen as legitimate?


Three levels of Political Culture (continued)

Second, the process level: Is the political process operating properly? Is it hearing and responding to your concerns? Closely related to political attitude.

Participants -- People involved in the political process

Subjects -- People who passively obey government officials but are not actively involved in politics

Parochials -- People who are hardly aware of government and politics


Political Culture (see p. 46)


How do Individuals articulate their Political

Actions?Political participation is “all of the political actions by individuals and groups” designed “to influence the actions or selection of political rulers” (p. 54)

Four broad categories of participation: (Verba, et al)

- Voting

- Campaign activities

- Personalized contacts

- Communal activities


Individual Political

Actions (p.55)


Political Participation Studies (p. 61)


Individual Political Beliefs

3 Types of Orientations:

Cognitive orientation - “factual” knowledge about the political world

Affective orientation - feelings or emotions evoked by political phenomena

Evaluative orientation - synthesis of facts and feelings into a judgment


Belief Systems

Beliefs among the mass publics (Converse, 1964)

- Low relative importance of political issues

- Focus on concrete vs. abstract concepts

- Interest in short-term issues

- Volatile opinions


Interest Articulation

& Interest

AggregationTuesday, January 24, 12

Comparison of Interest Articulation & Interest Aggregation


The act in which citizens and social groups express their needs and demands to the government.

(Brainstorming & expressing policy preferences)

Interest Aggregation

Activity in which the political demands of individuals and groups are combined into policy programs.

(Limiting possible policy choices to the few best options)


Comparison of Interest Articulation & Interest

Aggregation


- Policy alternatives are not limited

- Political resources are not accumulated

- Does not determine policy

- Suppression can lead to violence

Interest Aggregation

- Converts the desires and demands of citizens into a few policy alternatives.

- Accumulates political resources in the hands of relatively few political actors.

- In some cases, can determine policy.

- No correlation to violence (depends on how it is done)


Interest Articulation as part of Political Systems

Interest Group Action

- Anomic Groups - Nonassociational Groups - Institutional Groups - Associational Groups - Civil Society - Systems of Interest Groups

Personal (Citizen) Action

- Voting - Informal Group/ Social Movement - Personal Interest Contact - Protest Activity


Who are these interest articulators (groups)?

Individual actors -- influence when enough with similar demands or when individual has high enough level of influenceAnomic Interest groups -- spontaneous outbursts of long-suppressed discontentNonassociational Groups -- common interests or continuing economic or cultural tiesInstitutional Groups -- formal groups such as political parties, business corporations, legislatures, armies, bureaucracies, churches.Associational Groups -- formed explicitly to represent the interests of a particular group, such as trade unions, chambers of commerce, manufacturer’s associations, ethnic associations, religious associations and civic groups.


Interest Group Systems

Pluralist -- Autonomous associational groups compete with each other to influence policy makers. United States is prime example. Competitive, not all public interests are represented, public interest is often neglected.

Democratic Corporatist -- Interest groups legitimately and systematically involved in making and implementing policy. Austria, Netherlands and Norway are examples. May be compromised due to lack of autonomy.

Controlled Interest Group -- Organizations which are penetrated and dominated by political institutions such as parties or bureaucracies.


Questions!

Are interest groups really interested in the quality of the government that they are subject to?

Do interest groups really care about how much power the government has?


Why is interest aggregation important? (p103-104)

Stability (vs. Revolution)

Participation

Welfare

Equality

Liberty

Security


So what is the goal?

The ultimate implication of [democratic]

aggregation processes may be in the

representativeness and adaptability of the

government, and thus its stability. Suppression

leads to dissent.

In a highly divided and conflict-ridden society, authoritarian interest

aggregation “depolarizes” politics and rids the nation of conflict it cannot afford. Is this just an appearance?


Constraints on Interest Groups

Lack of political resources (elements that affect the decisions of political actors)

Compatibility of objectives with existing policy or objectives are an allocation that system can make

Political environment in which they must operate and the range of tolerable dissent (repressive governments generally don’t allow strong opposition groups)


Competitive Party Systems and Interest Aggregation

(p. 90-98)

Competitive party systems try to build support, while authoritarian party systems direct society.

Competitive parties develop platforms


How do Governments Gain Power?

More on Interest Aggregation


Political Party Systems

Dominant-party systems - same party continually captures enough votes to govern (South Africa, Mexico until 1997)

One-party systems - only one legal party, reluctant to give up power(China, Cuba, North Korea)

No-party systems - political parties banned on premise that parties divide loyalty to society (Oman and many US local elections)


Single Member Districts (SMD’s) vs. Proportional Representation

Single member districts, according to Duverger’s Law, result in two party system. Proportional representation results in multiparty systems.

Often results in interest aggregation at the government level instead of at the electoral level.

consensual party system -- two or more parties work together after the electionconflictual party system -- parties are antagonistic and don’t work together accomodative system -- consensual and conflictual???

Can also result in majority-coalition systems where parties work together before the election


Electoral Process

How does the electoral system translate votes into representation? Primaries, runoffs, electoral college?

Plurality —usually single-member districts, candidate with largest number of votes wins

Proportional representation —usually multimember districts, candidates elected in proportion of party share

Preferential—ranked in order of preference, then lowest are redistributed to voter’s second choice…majority

Approval — vote for all acceptable candidates and winner is the one most acceptable to largest proportion


Electoral Process

p. 176


Interest aggregation



Two-party systems - (p. 198) two major parties alternating in power, each with realistic possibility of forming governing majority (Great Britain: Labour and Conservative)

Multiparty systems - (pp. 199-202) majority may require a coalition of two or more parties (Israel: Likud). Often unstable system as coalitions fall apart, leading to dissolution of legislature and succession of new governments.


International Electoral SystemsElectoral System Electoral Formula Number of

Districts Assembly Size

China Electoral College Absolute Majority Vote N.A. 2,985

Iran Qualified Majority Vote

One-third minimum in first

round

196 SMD’s or MMD’s 290

Plurality in second round

Mexico Mixed SMD plurality for 300 deputies 300 500

PR for 200 deputies 1

Nigeria SMD Plurality 360 360

Russia Mixed SMD plurality for 225 deputies 225 450

PR for 225 deputies 1

Great Britain SMD Plurality 646 646


Authoritarian Party Systems (p.98-100)

Aggregation takes place within the ranks of the party. Two types of authoritarian parties:

Exclusive

Inclusive


Military and Interest Aggregation (p. 100-101)

Powerful, but often difficult to maintain because military rulers have a difficult time with interest aggregation.


Trends in Interest Aggregation

Democratization!


What are the Forms that

Governments Can Take?

W h o G e t s t o D e c i d e W h o M a k e s D e c i s i o n s ?

D o e s f o r m a f f e c t s u b s t a n c e ?

Still more on Interest Aggregation


Aristotle’s Descriptions of Various Governments - Described Based on Size

Good Bad

One Person Monarchy Tyranny

Small Group Aristocracy Oligarchy

Large Group Polity Democracy


Remember the concept of Limited government!

Described Based on Limits on Authority

Constitution -- basic rules concerning decision making, rights and the distribution of authority in a political system. Think limited government and rule of law. A constitution is the highest law of the state.

Decision Rules -- non-Constitutional rules governing how decisions are made, who implements them, etc. Most important are voting rules (egalitarian vs. hierarchical)


Constitutional and Nonconstitutional

Regimes

Constitutional regimes “operate under the rule of law and ensure restraints on power holders” (p. 184)

Nonconstitutional regimes are “characterized by unchecked political power—most authoritarian or totalitarian regimes”(p. 184)


Low Freedom

High Freedom

HighEquality

LowEquality


FascismCommunism

Social Democracy

Weak State

Strong State


Low Freedom

High Freedom

HighEquality

LowEquality


FascismCommunism

Social Democracy

Weak State

Strong StateMost Authoritarian Regimes(Usually Non-Constitutional)


Low Freedom

High Freedom

HighEquality

LowEquality


FascismCommunism

Social Democracy

Weak State

Strong StateMost Authoritarian Regimes(Usually Non-Constitutional)

Democracies (Usually Constitutional)


Continuum of Types of Government

Authoritarian Constitutional

Most DemocraciesMost Non-Democracies


Defining Democracy

Democracy - governance by leaders whose authority is based on a limited mandate from a universal electorate that selects among genuine alternatives and has some rights to political participation and opposition” (p. 173)


So what are the Characteristics of a Democracy anyway?

“Democracy is the worst form of government except for all the others” - Winston Churchill

Limited Government (majority rule with minority rights)

Free Speech/Freedom of the Press

Freedom of Petition/Assembly

Popular Sovereignty

Rule of Law

Competitive Elections


Defining Democracy

Participatory Democracy - “active, direct participation by all citizens in the allocation of values” (p. 172)

Representative Democracy - “citizens elect people to represent them and allocate values on their behalf” (p. 172)


Defining Democracy

Electoral Democracy- “citizens periodically select leaders from among alternative contenders who accept the limited mandate” (p. 173)

Liberal Democracy - “citizens enjoy electoral democracy as well as extensive rights and liberties regarding personal freedom, participation and opposition” (p. 173)


Defining Nondemocracies

Dictatorships—absence of a limited mandate

Authoritarian regime (most common form)—same as above, and political rights and freedoms of the citizens are very limited. Nonpolitical aspects of life generally not under control.

Totalitarian regime —res publica becomes total. Allocation of values and control penetrate virtually every aspect of people’s lives. Rely on coercion to survive.


Democracy - Nondemocracy

Continuums

No country fully one or the other

Freedom House measures along scale of political rights and civil liberties and classifies “free, not free or partly free”

About 56% of world population “not free” or “partly free” (Freedom House 2003)


Democracy - Nondemocracy Continuums

14 point scale


Democracy - Nondemocracy Continuums

Freedom House

0

25

50

75

100

2004 2005 2006 2007

Region 1 Region 2


Map of Freedom, 2006 by Freedomhouse


Freedom by Country in 2006 (Freedomhouse)


Freedom by Population in 2006 (Freedomhouse)


Democracy vs. Nondemocracy

p. 184


Freedom in Muslim Countries 2006


Discussion Questions

What do you believe is the “best” form of government?

If we were to hold a constitutional convention today, would you favor retaining all the same governmental forms that exist today?

Some analysts believe democracy is not possible without the existence of at least two parties. What do you think?


How is State Power

Distributed?Identifying the Structure within which

Process Functions Operate


Distribution of Power

Unitary state - central government holds all legitimate power

Federation - power divided between central and regional governments. Rationale as follows:

- Large size

- Prior existence of strong states

- Create unity or accommodate diversity



Confederations - “states delegate some power to a supranational central government but retain primary power” (p. 190)

- Examples are NATO, EU or United Nations

- Require compliance and support of member states

- Promotes compromise



p. 190


How Power is geographically shared between the national and regional

governments?

Confederate System


The Federal System


The Unitary System


What are the Typical Political Institutions that

Occur within most state

governments? More on Identifying the Structure within which

Process Functions Operate


Political Structures

Four Major Structures:

- Legislatures

- Executives

- Administrative systems

- Judiciaries

Distinction between functions of government and the institutional structures involved in the performance of those functions


The LegislatureAbout 90% of states have a legislature (either one or two “houses”), where policy issues are discussed and assessed

Roles of the legislature:

- Enacting legislation

- Representation of the citizenry (whose interests are being represented?)

- Oversight of the executive


Structure of LegislaturesNumber of houses

- Unicameral (one house) in majority of legislatures, normally seen in unitary states with a strong central government, such as China, Costa Rica, Denmark or Israel

- Most states with bicameral legislatures are federations, such as Australia, Germany, India, Mexico and the United States


Structure of Legislatures

Advantages of clear responsibility, speed and lack of duplication (unicameral) over careful deliberation and differing principles of representation (bicameral)

Size of legislatures - Varies enormously, but single or “lower” house normally represents people, proportionate to population. US House has 435 members.


Decline of Legislatures

General decline in power relative to executive and bureaucracies?

Possible “rubber stamp” for executive

Respond to executive initiatives or create their own policies?

No clear, dynamic leadership for public


ExecutivesCarries out system’s policies or laws

Chief Executive may be two or more people, such as President or King and Prime Minister

Roles of Executives

Leadership in policy formation

Symbolic and ceremonial unifying role

Supervises administrative hierarchy

Supervises military and foreign affairs


Structure of Executive

Dual executive with ceremonial leader and head of government

Fused executive most common, combining ceremonial and political roles

Chief executive and executive structure

- hierarchical system of political control

- executive less prone to stalemate and inaction than legislature


Administration

“Machinery and processes through which policies and rules are applied and implemented” (p. 155)

“Bureaucracy is a particular structure and set of processes through which the administration can operate” (p. 155)

Keep records, provide goods, maintain order, provide services (education, health care, roads)

Not always fair or predictable, especially when contrary to traditional practice


Administration

Bureaucracy 1) applies specific rules to each case; therefore the treatment is 2) rational, 3) non-discretionary, 4) predictable and 5) impersonal (Weber 1958)

Many political systems rely on personal contacts and bribes

Choice of either overly rigid and impersonal or based on corruption or favoritism


Administration

Five functions:

Information management

Provision of knowledge

Provision of public goods and services

Regulation and enforcement of public policies

Extraction of resources


The JudiciarySocial contract authorizes states to punish those who violate its rules and laws

Adjudication means to interpret and apply the relevant rules or laws to a given situation

May be means of social control or source of arbitration regarding behavior of system itself

Involves questions of legitimate domain of governmental actors and private actors


The Judiciary

Judiciary is structure composed of courts and personnel that determine whether rules have been transgressed, and if so, whether sanctions ought to be imposed

Often separates criminal, civil or administrative law. May be religion based.

May be independent or dependent on political power to differing degrees


What do the courts do?

Judicial review exists in about half of the worlds democracies

One function of an independent judiciary is to preserve civil rights.

In some states another function may be to police other parts of the government


Debate

Consider the debate on pp.162–163.

Is Judicial Review Democratic?


Separation of Powers

How are the executive and legislative branches of government separated?

Democratic Presidential -- president and legislative branch are separately elected.

Parliamentary -- based on a confidence relationship.

Semi-presidential -- Mixed.


Which is better: Parliamentarism vs.

PresidentialismPresidentialism may result in gridlock

Parliamentarism can be of two types: if the result of proportional elections, may be a crisis waiting to happen as extremist parties gain power. If the result of plurality elections, there will likely be a more stable government.


Forms of Executive-Legislative Relations


Forms of Executive-Legislative Relations

Hybrid systems—both prime minister and legislature, but also have a president (France, Germany and Austria). Balance of power varies.

Council systems—small group shares leadership, responsible for both executive and legislative functions (tribal societies, juntas)

Assembly systems—large group shares power as a legislature (Switzerland and EU)


Which system is being used in the emerging democracies of the

3rd Wave?

“Since many of the current transitional democracies are ethnically and religiously divided, a parliamentary, proportional representation system may be a particularly suitable.” WHY???


Politics and Economics

P o l i c y M a k i n g P h i l o s o p h y


CHAPTER 2 The Foundations of World Regions 49

EUROPE

AUSTRALIA

ASIA

NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICA

Core

Semiperiphery

Periphery

External arena

1800

™

EUROPE

AUSTRALIA

ASIA

NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICA

Core

Semiperiphery

Periphery

External arena

1900

™

EUROPE

AUSTRALIA

ASIA

NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICA

™

Core

Semiperiphery

Periphery

2000

FIGURE 2.15 The world-systemcore, semiperiphery, and peripheryin 1800, 1900, and 2000 Note howthe Dymaxion projection used in thesemaps (see Appendix A) emphasizes therelative proximity of core regions andaccentuates the geographic isolation of theeconomically peripheral regions. WhileEurope and Africa are oriented conven-tionally in the Dymaxion projection (withnorth toward the top of the page), theAmericas, Asia, and Australia are shownat right angles to their conventionalnorth–south orientation. (Source: Mapprojection, Buckminster Fuller Institute andDymaxion Map Design, Santa Barbara, CA. Theword Dymaxion and the Fuller ProjectionDymaxion™ Map design are trademarks of theBuckminster Fuller Institute, Santa Barbara,California, © 1938, 1967, & 1992. All rightsreserved.)

MARSMC02_0131449753.QXP 4/13/04 9:06 AM Page 49

CoreGreat Britain

Semi-PeripheryRussiaChina

Mexico

PeripheryIran

Nigeria


Political-Economic

Framework

Purchasing power parity (PPP) corrects

for differences between economies

p. 218Tuesday, January 24, 12

Factors of Production

Three major factors of production:

1) land - ground plus raw materials on or in ground

2) labor - human productive input

3) capital- nonhuman productive input, such as financial resources, machinery and technology

Some actor (firm or producer) acquires a combination of above to produce a good or service


Who gets to own the Factors of Production?

The answer has created an area of inquiry called political economics. It is a fascinating study, in which theory has produced answers that matter. Millions of people have died fighting over the answer to the question.

Political order depends on the economic system to generate income, goods and services for the survival and prosperity of its citizens


Three Answers to “Who owns the factors of production.”

The three “isms”: capitalism, communism, and socialism

Capitalism is based on Adam Smith’s laissez-faire economics and is based on private ownership of the factors of production.

Communism and socialism are based on the idea that the state must own and control land, labor and capital to serve the best interests of all the population


Socialism vs. Communism

Socialism, a confusing term in practice, tries to balance state involvement and private control to reduce inequalities. In other words, want to achieve Marxist ideals through the machinery of a free democracy.

Communism, another confusing term, holds that freedom of thought and association are denied and adverse criticism of the policy of the central government is condemned and punished.

Both policies are shaped by the Marxist ideal of changing existing society into one in which the means of social production are placed under central control.


What are the different types of

Political Economies?




Three different types of political economies

Market economyCommand economyMixed economy




Three different types of political economies

Market economyCommand economyMixed economy

How are these related to major “isms,” especially capitalism, socialism and communism?


Political-Economic Framework:

Command Economy

Command economy: Total state control

State owns all factors of production

State determines what goods are produced according to state plan, their value, and how they are distributed

Competition is eliminated since the state established payments for every factor

State has dominant role, and surplus value (profit) is accumulated by the state



Market EconomyMarket economy: total private control

Actors have direct, personal control over factors of production and what goods are produced

Actors are motivated to maximize value associated with goods and resources they control

Invisible hand of market determines value and distribution of goods and services

State role and intervention are minimal



Mixed EconomyMixed economy - hybrid compromise

Means of production ownership shared between state and private actors. State usually owns major factors such as transportation or communications

Primarily demand-oriented, but public sector under state control. State intervenes on behalf of national priorities.

Private actors maximize profits, but state taxes to purchase goods or transfer payments to redistribute to certain actors in social order


Problems For Each Ideal-Type Economy


Political-Economic

Framework

5 fundamental questions


Problems For Market Economy

Market economy:

Resource inequality

Competition is ruthless and wide disparity develops in wealth, power and status

Production for profit, not need

Many goods do not meet needs and waster of resources in competition such as advertising

Severe economic cycles

Large swings possible of inflation or depression


Problems For Command Economy

Command Economy:

Limited incentives for efficiency

Due to lack of competition people accept poor quality or unappealing goods

Unresponsive production

Follow central plan, not consumer demands

Overcentralization and inflexibility

Out of touch with individual complexitiesTuesday, January 24, 12

Generally market and capitalist

Switzerland

6th wealthiest (GDP per capita)

Weak central government

Private control, little regulation

Government spending among lowest of all developed countries

1990s saw a rise in welfare spending


Generally mixed and capitalist

South Korea

Government expenditures lowest among developed countries (goods/services)

Government greatly promotes economic development

29th in the world (GDP per capita)

Export-oriented

35th in measure of economic freedom


Generally mixed and socialist

Denmark

3rd among major countries (GDP per capita)

13th ranking in economic freedom

Strong regulation in working conditions and environmental quality

Government provides extensive welfare benefits

High taxes


Generally command and communist

Cuba

Although lessened in recent years, state control of economy, owning means of production

Ranked 149th among the 154 countries in economic freedom

Government commitment to fund education, health care, and control of land and income guarantee equality between genders, race, urban and rural citizens

Ranks in the top 50 countries for quality of life (UN)


CHAPTER 2 The Foundations of World Regions 49

EUROPE

AUSTRALIA

ASIA

NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICA

Core

Semiperiphery

Periphery

External arena

1800

™

EUROPE

AUSTRALIA

ASIA

NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICA

Core

Semiperiphery

Periphery

External arena

1900

™

EUROPE

AUSTRALIA

ASIA

NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICA

™

Core

Semiperiphery

Periphery

2000

FIGURE 2.15 The world-systemcore, semiperiphery, and peripheryin 1800, 1900, and 2000 Note howthe Dymaxion projection used in thesemaps (see Appendix A) emphasizes therelative proximity of core regions andaccentuates the geographic isolation of theeconomically peripheral regions. WhileEurope and Africa are oriented conven-tionally in the Dymaxion projection (withnorth toward the top of the page), theAmericas, Asia, and Australia are shownat right angles to their conventionalnorth–south orientation. (Source: Mapprojection, Buckminster Fuller Institute andDymaxion Map Design, Santa Barbara, CA. Theword Dymaxion and the Fuller ProjectionDymaxion™ Map design are trademarks of theBuckminster Fuller Institute, Santa Barbara,California, © 1938, 1967, & 1992. All rightsreserved.)

MARSMC02_0131449753.QXP 4/13/04 9:06 AM Page 49

CoreGreat Britain

Semi-PeripheryRussiaChina

Mexico

PeripheryIran

Nigeria


Discussion Questions

What is the attraction of command economies to market economies when are they generally inferior in productivity?

What would be the greatest benefits if the state played virtually no role? What would be the problems?

Is capitalism so individualistic that it can’t protect the collective good?


Public Policy= Policy Output

__________And Hopefully__________

Policy Output= Policy Outcome


The state’s hope

The state is hopeful that public outputs produce the intended public outcomes.

There is nothing worse for a politician than when public policy produced unintended, detrimental public outcomes.


Public Policies Extraction of Resources -- money, good, persons, and services -- from the domestic and international environmentsDistribution of Resources -- of money, good and servicesRegulation of Human Behavior -- the use of compulsion and inducement to enforce extractive and distributive compliance or otherwise bring about desired behaviorSymbolic policies -- political speeches, holidays, rites, public monuments and statues, and the like -- used by governments to exhort citizens to desired forms of behavior


Create a Graph

I want you to compare political ideology in Chapter 3 with the different types of states discussed in Chapter 7. There are similarities. Our ideology is tied to what we want from the state we call home. If we are liberal, what type of state do we want? Answer: night watchman state.

What are the qualities of a night watchman state? They should line up with a description of the political ideology of a liberal.


Type of State Public Policy Emphasis Desired Outcomes Corresponding

Political Ideology

Night Watchman State

Police State

Welfare State

Regulatory State


Politics in Britain

The political system


House Of Commons


House Of Lords


Source: http://mori.comTuesday, January 24, 12

http://mori.com

http://mori.com

Collectivist Consensus1945 - 1979

Thatcherism1979 -1990

The Third Way1990 - Present

Major parties all accepted and were committed to full employment, social services and government intervention

Beveridge Report (1942) called for a social insurance program - became known as “womb to tomb” coverage

In the 1970’s, economic stagnation and declining competitiveness of British Industry fueled strife. The Winter of Discontent (1978-79) featured a series of nationwide strikes. Thatcher blamed Britain’s decline on its softness (too many ‘on the dole’) and her new agenda set a retreat from the ‘welfare state’. Cut taxes, reduced social services, privatized sectors of the economy.

Blair’s compromise between the extremes of collectivist consensus and Thatcherism. Some call it “Thatcher-Lite.” A middle road much like Clinton’s.


The British Approach to Institutional Stability

I. Major Assumption

The unstable nature of human society.

The importance of institutional architecture.

II. Three Key Propositions

A. Executive Dominance: no “checks and balances.”

B. Value of a Two Party System.

C. Minimize Interest Group Access.Tuesday, January 24, 12

Britain’s Political Institutions

A. The Labour Party

B. The Conservative Party

C. Third parties: Liberal-Democrats

V. The Electoral System

A. “First past the Post.”

B. By-elections.


The Institutional Approach

How Does Britain Attain These?

1. Architecture: physical layout.

2. Vote of Confidence.

3. Campaign Finance.

4. Nominating System.

5. No Residential Requirement.


Comparing Legislative Committees

United States Britain

Method of Selecting Members Seniority & Service Random

Basis of Organization Policy Area Random

Size Relative Small (50+ Members) Relative Large (120+ members)

Duration Permanent Ad Hoc ("standing" for a single bill)

Powers

Very Great (Issue subpoenas, hold

hearings, summon witnesses, issue reports, etc…)

Very Small

Function/Purpose Draft Legislation for Final Consideration Edit Bills Passed on By Executive


Ideology in Britain: Conservatism

Views Conservatives Share

1. Belief in private property.

2. Role of government is to secure property rights.

3. Human inequality is natural and inevitable. Emphasis on philanthropy.

4. Human nature is aggressive.


Views that Divide Conservatives

Tory Conservatism. (Edmund Burke)

1. Reason alone cannot be trusted.

2. Society is an organic fabric: avoid violence against existing classes.

3. Institutions are evolutionary: presumption is test of time.

4. Law of unanticipated consequences.


Views that Divide Conservatives (2)

Whig Conservatism.

1. Society is individualistic, not a fabric.

2. Rational self-interest is both guide and explanation of behavior.

3. Government should promote free markets and private property.

4. Poverty is the fault of the individual.


Views that United Labour

1. Purpose of Government is to assist the less fortunate.

2. Inequality arises out of particular economic systems; it is not a result of human differences.

3. A strong presumption in favor of government intervention in economy and society.


British Political Ideology: Labour

“Old” Labour

1. Historic commitment to public ownership. (Clause 4.)

2. Social classes are inherently in conflict.

3. Role of government is to aggressively redistribute wealth.

4. Therefore, need for progressive tax system and pro-active state.


British Political Ideology

“New” Labour (Tony Blair).

1. Abandon commitment to public ownership.

2. Redistribution of wealth to be balanced by “business-friendly” and consumption- friendly policies. Inter-class cooperation can replace class conflict.

3. Valid privatizations of Thatcher period should be preserved.

4. Tax system: balance taxation with consumption and investment.


Elections of 1997 and 2001Why Did Labour Win?

1. Conservatism fatigue including scandals: in power since 1979.

2. Exhaustion of neo-liberal paradigm.

3. New Labour (like new Democrats).. appeal to new middle class and younger people.

4. Globalization fears: Labour represents greater social security.


British Elections of 2001 and 2005

Party % Votes # Seats % Votes # Seats Change

Labour 41 412 35 356 -45Conservative 32 166 32 197 +35

Lib-Dem. 18 52 22 62 +10Other 10 29 10 30 +1

2001 2005


Election results


House of Commons

the government gets its way

MPs weigh political reputations

MPs in the governing party have opportunities to influence government

MPs talk about legislation

MPs scrutinize administration of policies

MPs publicizing issues


China


An explosion at a chemical plant in Jilin in 2005 forced the evacuation of tens of thousands and contaminated drinking water supplies intended for millions.


comparative government keynote

Documents

identity largely

recent significant

north america

interest aggregationinterest

important

furthera state

night watchman

command economycommand