comparative assessment of frameworks and standards for the conduct of democratic elections in africa

7/30/2019 Comparative Assessment of Frameworks and Standards for the Conduct of Democratic Elections in Africa

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COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OFFRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDS

FOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATICELECTIONS IN AFRICA


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COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDSFOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN AFRICA

Table of Contents2

Acronyms / Disclaimer

Acknowledgements / Foreword

Executive Summary

1. Introduction

2. Explaining the Different Standards in Africas Sub-regions

2.1. The African Unions Treaty Standards for Democratic Elections

2.1.1TheAfricanCharteronHumanandPeoplesRights(1981) 2.1.2.TheAfricanCharteronDemocracy,ElectionsandGovernance(2012)

2.2 AU Non-Treaty Standards for Democratic Elections

2.3 Regional Frameworks 2.3.1TheEconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates 2.3.2.TheSouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunity 2.3.3.TheEastAfricanCommunity

3. Comparative Assessment of the Different Frameworks for DemocraticElections : the cases of SADC, EAC and ECOWAS 3.1.ElectionManagementBodies 3.2.PoliticalParties 3.3.IndependenceoftheMedia 3.4.CivilSociety

4. Election Observation : A Mechanism for StrengtheningDemocratization Processes in Africa

4.1. Election Observation : Strengths and Weaknesses in theImplementation of Standards Governing Democratic Elections

5. The Implementation of Electoral Standards in SADC,the EAC and ECOWAS : Success Stories

5.1 The Legal Framework 5.1.1OrganisingtheElectoralProcess-Independence oftheElectionManagementBodies 5.1.2.EfciencyandProfessionalismoftheEMB:Impact

ontheIntegrityofElectoralPreparations

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5.2. Examples of Good Practice : Positive African Experiences 5.2.1.MozambiquesSuccessStory:GeneralElectionsof2009

5.2.2.GhanasElectoralExperience:ResponsibleandVolunteer

ActorsforDemocraticElectoralProcesses

5.2.2.1.ThePoliticalPartiesCodeofConduct

5.2.2.2.TheInter-PartyAdvisoryCommittee(IPAC)

5.2.2.3.TheNationalPeaceCouncil

6. The Experiences of Training Centres in Promoting Good ElectoralPractice in Africa

7. Recommendations

7.1. Legal Frameworks

7.2. Civil Society

7.3. Election Management Bodies

7.4. The Electoral Process

7.5. Development Partners

7.6. GIZ

8. GIZ Contribution To Democratic Electoral Processes in Africa

8.1 African Union

8.2 East African Community

8.3 Economic Community of West African States

8.4 Southern African Development Community

9. Conclusion

Bibliography

Current Members of Elections Working Group

Brief - Sector Network Good Governance in Sub-Saharan Africa

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Acronyms

ACDEG :AfricanCharteronDemocracy,ElectionsandGovernanceACHPR :AfricanCharteronHumanandPeoplesRightsAGA :AfricanGovernanceArchitectureAU :AfricanUnionBRIDGE :BuildingResourcesInDemocracy,ElectionsandAssistanceCARLE :CommissionAdministrativedeRvisiondesListesElectoralesCENI :IndependentNationalElectoralCommission(RepublicofGuinea)CMESA :CommonMarketforEasternandSouthernAfrica

CNCA :NationalCouncilofAudiovisualCommunication(CtedIvoire)CODEO :CoalitionofDomesticElectionObserversCSO :CivilSocietyOrganizationDP :DemocraticParty(Kenya)EAC :EastAfricanCommunityEC :ElectoralCommissionECF :SADCElectoralCommissionsForumECONEC :ECOWASNetworkofElectoralCommissionsECOWAS :EconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates

EISA :ElectoralInstituteforSouthernAfricaEMB :ElectionManagementBodyEOM :ElectionObservationMissionESN :SADCElectoralSupportNetworkFPI :IvorianPopularFront(PoliticalPartyFoundedbyFormer

PresidentLaurentGbagbo)GIZ :GesellschaftfrInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GermanAgency

forInternationalCooperation)ICCPR :InternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights

IDEA :InternationalInstituteforDemocracyandElectoralAssistanceIFES :InternationalFoundationforElectoralSystemsIGAD :Inter-GovernmentalAuthorityonDevelopmentIPAC :Inter-PartyAdvisoryCommittee(Ghana)KAIPTC :KoAnnanInternationalPeacekeepingTrainingCenterMATAP :MinistryinchargeofTerritorialAdministrationandPoliticalAffairs

(RepublicofGuinea)

Acronyms4



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Acronyms / Disclaimer 5

Acronyms

Disclaimer

MOU :MemorandumofUnderstandingNEC :NationalElectoralCommissionNEW :NationalElectionWatchPDCI :DemocraticPartyofCotedIvoirePDS :SenegaleseDemocraticPartyPEMMO :PrinciplesofElectionManagement,MonitoringandObservation.PUP :PartyforUnityandProgressRDR :RallyoftheRepublicans(CotedIvoire)

REC :RegionalEconomicCommunitiesRESOCIT :RseaudesObservateursCitoyens-CivilSocietyElectionObservation Mission(Senegal)RTI :IvorianStateTelevisionSADC :SouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunitySADCPF :SADCParliamentaryForumSADC-ESN :CivilSocietyElectoralSupervisionNetworkSEOM :SADCElectionObservationMissionUN :UnitedNations

UNDP :UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgrammeZIF :ZentrumfrInternationaleFriedenseinstze

The authors opinion does not necessarily refect the opinion o theDeutsche Gesellschat r Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ).



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Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements6

WearemostgratefultoMr.IbrahimaAmadouNiangofInternationalIDEAforconductingthestudyandproducingthereport.WearealsothankfultoMr.ObiIhemewhoeditedtherstversionofthe

documentandMr.OumarDiabywhodesignedthenaldocument.

OfspecialmentionisthehugecontributionofMr.BriceBlehiri,aninternattheGIZSupportProjecttotheKoAnnanInternationalPeacekeeping

Training Centre (KAIPTC), who gave the document a nal brush andcoordinatedthedesignprocess.

Theinvaluablemoralandtechnicalsupportofthepresentandpastteamleaders(NanaOdoiandDavidNiiAddy)oftheGIZSupportProjecttotheKoAnnanInternationalPeacekeepingTrainingCentre(KAIPTC)cannotgounmentioned

MembersoftheElectionWorkingGroupwhocommittedsomeefforttothe

studyalsodeserveapatonback.

Last but not least, we are grateful to the leadership of the RegionalIntegrationClusterandindeedtheentireSNGGAfortheirusefulcontributionsandguidanceinnalisingthework.

Kenneth Abotsi

Chairperson, Election Working GroupSector Network Good Governance in Sub-Saharan Africa



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Foreword 7

Foreword


ThereintroductionofmultipartydemocracyinAfricaintheearly1990s,has brought in its wakeaworrying trend of election-related violentconict that threatens democracy, peace, stability and sustainable

humandevelopment.Thefactorsthatpropelsuchviolencearemultifaceted,rangingfromawedelectionstostructuralissuessuchaspoorgovernanceandexclusionarypoliticalpractices,tonamebutafew.

WhiletheAfricanUnionhascommittedmemberstatestodemocracy,ruleof

lawandconstitutionalgovernmentthroughthepassageofvariousinstrumentsatthecontinentallevel,itsregionalgroupingslikeECOWAS,SADCandEAChavealsoestablishedframeworksandguidelinestopromotedemocraticelectionsandpunishMemberStatesthatcontravenethem.Despite thesemeasures,however,recentelection-relateddisturbancesonthecontinenthaveraisedquestionsaboutweaknessesinherentintheirimplementation.

The ElectionWorkingGroup of the Regional Integration Clusterof the GIZSectorNetworkGoodGovernanceinSub-SaharanAfrica,commissionedthis

studytoassessthelinkagesbetweenthecontinentalandregionalnormativeframeworksfortheconductofdemocraticelectionsinAfrica.ThisstudyhasclearlyestablishedthatAfricadoesnotlackthelegalinstrumentstocarryoutsuccessiveelections.Rather,itlackstheadequateinstitutionalarrangementsandleadershipforeffectiveimplementation.

Itismyhopethattheoutcomesofthestudywillnotonlystrengthenthework of the African Union and its regional groupings but also enhanceadvisoryservicesofGIZtothevariousinstitutionsitsupports.Ialsoanticipatethat the recommendations of the studywill enhance synergies betweentheapproachesadoptedbytheAfricanUnionand its regionalblocsinthepromotionofcredibleelectoralprocessesinAfrica.

Philip Kusch

Chairperson, Sector Network Good Governance in Sub-Saharan Africa

June2013


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Executive Summary

This research paper focuses on the level of implementation of theacceptedstandardsfordemocraticelectionsinAfricaandprovidesanoverviewofthedifcultiesthathavehindereddifferentstakeholders

from fully playing their roles in implementing existing regulations toconsolidatedemocraticprocesses.ItalsodepictsthemainchallengesthatelectoralprocessesfaceinAfricaandprovidesrecommendationsonthewaystakeholders, states and organizations (regional and continental) shouldcooperateforbetterresults.

RecentcasesofillegalaccessionstopowersuchasinMaliandGuinea-Bissauin 2012, and the numerous elections-related disputes and violence haveledtoquestionsaboutthelevelofimplementationandtheeffectivenessofstandardsfordemocraticelectionsinAfrica.

AftersigninginternationalinstrumentsunderthebanneroftheUnitedNationstoguaranteehumanandpoliticalrightsprotection,Africancountrieshaveadoptedasetoflegalframeworksaimedatpromotingdemocraticprocesses

withinAfricanUnion(AU)MemberStates.Fromthestandpointofcreatinganenvironmentwhichallowsfreeandfairelectionstohappen,in2007AUMember States have signed the African Charter on Democracy, ElectionsandGovernance(ACDEG).OneoftheCharter'sobjectivesistolayouttheconditionsandstandardsfordemocraticelections,andtoprovideconcretesanctionmechanismstoreprimandviolationsbyMemberStates.Although,therequirednumberofraticationsfortheapplicationoftheACDEG(15)hasbeenreached,alotmoreneedstobeattainedintermsofimplementation.

Regional blocs such as the Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS) have led the way indesigning frameworks for the conduct ofdemocratic elections. Subsequently, the Southern African DevelopmentCommunity(SADC)andtheEastAfricanCommunity(EAC)havealsoadoptedlegalframeworkstoaddresschallengesspecictotheircountries.Inaddition,agreatdealofinvestmenthasbeenmadeintheareaofelectoralassistance,especially incapacity-building forstakeholders andcreatingorpromotingalternativeconictresolutionmechanisms.Forexample,theEAChascomeupwithaForumofElectoralCommissionswhichbringstogethermembersoftheelectoralcommissionsofthememberstatestoshareexperiences,bestpracticesandchallenges.

Executive Summary8



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Executive Summary 9

ToaddressthedeeplyrootedpoliticalcausesofconictsandinsecurityinWestAfrica,ECOWASMemberStatessignedin2001theProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance, an instrument that is legally bindingas itproduces treatystandards.ECOWASalsoplaysanimportantroleinelectoralassistanceastheProtocol on Democracy and Good Governance species the conditions underwhichaMemberStatecanrequestassistancefromECOWAS.

Inthesamevein,SADCcountries,throughtheElectoralInstituteforSouthernAfrica

(EISA)andtheSADCElectoralCommissionsForum(SADC-ECF),arepromotingthePrinciplesofElectionManagement,MonitoringandObservation(PEMMO)(2003)andthePrinciplesandGuidelinesGoverningDemocraticElections(2004).

However,despitetheexistenceoftheseframeworksthatpromotetherespectof the accepted standards for democratic elections, maintaining democraticprocessesremainsasignicantchallengeinAfrica.Consequently,implementingstandardsfordemocraticelectionsimpliestheneedforawidesharingoftheexpertiseintheeldofelectionsthroughoutthewholecontinent.

Suchanobjectiveisbeingprogressivelyreachedbyregionalorganizationswiththehelpofdevelopmentpartners,throughcapacity-buildingprogrammesandexperience sharing. The Forum of ECOWAS National Electoral Commissions(ECONEC),SADC-ECFandtheEACForumofNationalElectoralCommissionshaveplayedanimportantroleininformingelectionmanagementbodies(EMBs)ontheirmissionsandresponsibilitiesaswellasinsharingbestandworstelectoralexperiences.

Development Partners like GIZ have also made signicant contributions toenhancingelectoralprocessesinAfricabysupportingstakeholdersandfacilitatingprocesses,bothatthecontinentalandregionallevels.Moreover,trainingcentreslike theKoAnnan InternationalPeacekeepingTrainingCentre(KAIPTC),havecontributedtobuildingthecapacityofelectionobserverscapacitybyequippingthemwiththetoolstoeffectivelycarryouttheirmandate.AttheendtheauthorrecommendswaysinwhichGIZcanworkwiththeAfricanUnion,ECOWAS,SADCandtheEACtohelpstrengtheningelectoralprocessesinAfrica.



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From1960to1990,Africancountrieshadtraditionallyusedone-partysystemsinwhichpowerwascentralisedthroughtheadministrativeinstrumentsofthestatelikethepolice,army,schools,hospitals,aswellasgovernments'

absolute control over citizens fundamental human rights. These single-partystateshadthestrongbackingofthemilitaryandnancialsupportoftheirformercolonialpowers,especiallyintheformerFrenchcolonies.

However, although since 1990 almost all African countries adoptedmulti-party

systems,experiencehasshownthattherealityofpoliticsdiffersfromthedesireddemocratic state. In Cte dIvoire, the introduction of the concept of Ivoiritor Ivorian-ness hindered the participation ofAlassane Ouattara in the 1995elections.1Similarly,formerNigerianpresidentOlusegunObasanjotriedhardtoamendtheNigerianConstitutiontoallowhimtoserveathirdtermalthoughtheconstitutionrestrictedpresidentialtenuretotwoterms.

Modifying the law in this way in order to further personal interests over thepublic's,andotherillegalwaysofobtainingormaintainingpower,haveraisedthequestionofhowpracticalandeffectivetheframeworksandstandardsofdemocraticelectionsinAfricaare?Indeed,allAfricancountrieshaveunitedunderthebanneroftheAfricanUniontopromotedemocracy,governanceandpublicparticipationinaccordancewiththeUnitedNationsprinciples.TheAfricanCharteronHumanandPeoplesRights(1981),inspiredbytheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights(1948),advocatesforperiodicandgenuineelections2.Consequently,countriesthathaveratiedithaveagreedonthestandardsrelatingtodemocraticelectionsandhavecommittedthemselvestonationally promotingperiodicelections,genuine

elections,universalsuffrageandsecrecyofthevote.

Furthermore, to consolidate democratic electoral processes worldwide, the UNinitiated the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), whichpromotestherightofallcitizenstoparticipateinpublicaffairs.Inotherwords,itallowscitizenstochoosetheirrepresentativesortobechosenasrepresentativesthroughdemocraticelections.

1 The concept refers to the state of being a true Ivorian. This xenophobic term manifested itself at many levelsduring the Ivorian crisis and was seen by many observers as the root cause of the countrys political crises.

2 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), Article 21.


1. Introduction

Introduction10


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Introduction 11


Article17 gives clear informationon the standards to follow for free and fairelections. It is necessary to understand that in the perspective of enhancingdemocraticpractice,goodgovernanceandpublicparticipation,theAUhasadoptedseveraltreatiesorconventionsthatpromotedemocraticelectionsinAfrica.

TheACDEGemanatesfromthelong-standingconcernofAUMemberStatesaboutunconstitutionalchangesofgovernmentwhichleadtopoliticalinstability,violenceandinsecurityinAfrica.TheCharterslegitimacyderivesfromtheAUConstitutiveAct-alsocalledtheLomDeclaration-thatwassignedin2000,committingMemberStates to participatory democracy, constitutionalism, and rule of law.3 Directlyaddressingtheissueofdemocraticelections,theACDEGdepictsthevariousthreatstodemocracyandconstitutionalorderandprovidespotentialsolutionstodeterorreversesuchactions.

Inthesamevein,ECOWASMemberStatesandotherregionalgroupshavedevelopedframeworkstopromotetherespectofthestandardsfordemocraticelectionsattheregionallevel,takingintoconsiderationtheirspecicelectoralexperiences.

Hence,totacklethedeeplyrootedpoliticalcausesofconictsandinsecurityinWestAfrica,in2001ECOWASMemberStatessignedaProtocolonDemocracyandGood Governancewhich created bindingsub-regional standards for conducting

To facilitate the implementation of a tradition of democratic changes ofgovernmentsinAfrica,AfricanUnionMemberStatesadoptedtheDeclarationofPrinciplesgoverning Democratic Elections inAfrica (2002) and the African

Charter onDemocracy, Elections and Governance (ACDEG 2007), whichmoreexplicitlyoutlinetheconditionsandstandardsfordemocraticelectionsinAfrica.Article3oftheACDEGsetstheconditionsfordemocraticelectionsasfollows:

ArepresentativegovernmentAclearseparationofpowersGenderEquality

PeriodicelectionsPluralismFairnessinmanagementofpublicaffairs

3 AU Constitutive Act (2000), Articles 3 and 4.


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democraticelections.AninterestingfeatureoftheProtocol laysinthe factthat itpromotesconstitutionalconvergenceprinciples.Theseinclude:

4 Protocol on Democracy, Elections and Good Governance (2001) , Article 15 Treaty for the Establishment of the East African Community (1999), Article 6

Introduction12


Moreover,Article2oftheECOWASProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernancestatesthatnosubstantialmodicationshallbemadetotheelectorallawsinthe

lastsix (6)monthsbeforetheelections,exceptwiththeconsentof thepoliticalactors.Thisprovisiongoesfurtherthanarticle23oftheACDEGandhasamoreoperationalandpracticalimpact.InthecaseoftheSenegalesepresidentialelectionsofFebruary26th2010,theSenegaleseoppositioninvokedArticle2oftheProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernancetocontestPresidentWadesdesiretopostponetheelections.

SimilartothearrangementthatbroughtWestAfricanstatesthroughtheEconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates(ECOWAS)in1978,SouthernAfricancountries

alsosignedtheTreatyestablishingtheSouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunity(SADC)in1992.

Morespecically,onthe subjectofelections, thepre-eminent instrument istheSADCPrinciplesandGuidelinesGoverningDemocraticElections(2004).Article6oftheTreatyestablishingtheEastAfricanCommunityreferstotheAUprinciplesongoodgovernanceingeneral.ThroughArticle6,EACMemberStatesconrmedtheiradherencetotheprinciplesofdemocracy,theruleoflawandthepromotionofhumanandpeoplesrightsinaccordancewiththeprovisionsoftheAfricanCharteronHumanandPeoplesRights. 5

ItisimportanttoknowthatthelegalframeworksthatprotectelectoralstandardsarenotenoughtoconsolidatedemocraticprocessesinAfrica.Indeed,experiencehas shownthat theyhave tobeaccompaniedby instruments,mechanisms andguidelinesthatshowwhatmeasuresoughttobetakenforelectionstobeconductedfreelyandfairly.

Obtainingpowerthroughfree,fairandtransparentelections.Zerotoleranceforpowerobtainedormaintainedbyunconstitutionalmeans.Popularparticipationindecision-making4.


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A person with disability casting his ballot in Burkina Faso / Kenneth Abotsi

Introduction 13



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Introduction14


The Republic of BENIN BURKINA FASO The Republic of CABO VERDE The Republic ofCOTE DIVOIRE

The Republic of GAMBIA The Republic ofGHANA The Republic of GUNINEE The Republic of GUINEE BISSAU

The Republic of LIBERIA The Republic of MALI The Republic of NIGER The Federal Republic ofNIGERIA

The Republic of SENEGAL The Republic of SIERRA LEONE The Republic of TOGO

The figure above shows the current member states of the ECOWAS


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A female voter casting her ballot in Burkina Faso / Kenneth Abotsi

Introduction 15



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Introduction16


The Principles for Election Management, Monitoring and Evaluation (PEMMO),adoptedbytheSADCMemberStates,isaverygoodexamplethatclearlyoutlinesthe responsibilities and the features of all stakeholders for elections to be free

andfair.TheseguidelineshaveaspecicfocusontherolesexpectedoftheEMBs,politicalparties,civilsocietyorganizationsandthemedia.

Inadditiontothedifferentframeworksandguidelinesthataremeanttosupportdemocratic process in Africa, election observation missions are considerablyreliedupontoappraisethequalityofelectionsonthebasisoftheinternational,continental and regional standards for democratic elections. The importance ofelectionobservationmissionsdoesnotonly lie intheway theyassesselectoralprocesses,butalsointheircontributiontoproposingrecommendationsontheway

electoralprocessesshouldbeimproved,basedonfactsthatwerecollectedandontheexperiencesofothercountries.

Unfortunately, reported cases of recent political violence and unconstitutionalchangesingovernmentslikeZimbabwe,CtedIvoire,Mali,andGuineaBissauhaverevealed a limited implementation of the standards for democratic elections inAfrica,thoughinternationalandregionalframeworkshighlyprotectthem.

Itisthereforenecessarytoseekthefactorsthatlimittheeffectiveimplementationofthe standardsfordemocraticelections intheorganizationand the conductofelections atnational levels. The presence ofaneffectiveandwell-drafted legalframework, the independence and the professionalism of the EMB, the qualityoftheciviceducationprogrammes,thewilloftheincumbentgovernmenttoup-holdruleoflawandtheroleofinternationalactorswhoseinterestsmayover-ridenational interests. Equally important, isthe commitment ofpolitical parties to apeacefulelectoralprocessareveryimportantparametersthatoughttobelookedattondpracticalsolutionstothechallengesthatelectionsfaceinAfrica.

Fortunately,thesuccessofGhana,Mozambique,SenegalandKenyainorganizingdemocraticelectionshasprovidedgoodexamplesofeffectivestrategiesandtoolstopreventpotentialconictsandsettleelectoraldisputes.

ThecoreofthisstudywillpresentthestandardsandframeworksondemocraticelectioninAfrica,theirstrengthsandweaknesseswhenputinpracticefollowedbyconcreteexamplesofcaseswhereelectionsinAfricahavebeensuccessfultosupportourrecommendationsforqualitativeelectoralprocessesinAfrica.


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Voters checking their names at a Polling Centre in Togo / Kenneth Abotsi

Introduction 17



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Explaining the Different Standards in Africas Sub-regions18

It isnecessary to understandthe level atwhichstandards for democraticelections have been adopted as well as the type of instruments thatguaranteetheirrespect.Indeed,thevariouslevelsofstandardsderivefrom

universal,continentalandregionalinstruments.UniversalinstrumentsarethosethathavebeenadoptedwithintheUnitedNationswherealmostallstatesarerepresented.Consequently,fromtheseinstrumentsderiveavarietyofstandards

thathavealargesupportattheuniversallevel.However, continental and regional instruments are legal instruments thathave been proposed, compiled and adopted within continental (AU, EuropeanCouncil)orregionalorganizations(ECOWAS,EAC,SADC).Continentalandregionalinstrumentsallabidebytheuniversalinstrumentsandareameanstoenforcingandimplementingtheuniversalstandardsinspecicgeographicalcontexts.Duetotheirgeographicalproximity,somecountriesinsub-regionalAfricahavecreateddevelopment communities inwhichthey sharemeansand tools to corroborate

thecontinentaleffortfortheconsolidationoftheruleoflaw,democraticelectionsand participatorydecision-making processes. The Economic Community ofWestAfricanStates(ECOWAS),theSouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunity(SADC)andtheEasternAfricanCommunity(EAC)havealldevelopedframeworksthataimtofostertherespectfortheuniversalandregionalstandardsfordemocraticelections.Nonetheless, a challenge that ought to be acknowledged - although betterillustratedintherecommendationsectionofthisreport-isthattheseorganisationsarenotadequatelyintegrated.Inshort,ahealthiercooperationbetweenregionalorganisationsisneededfortheinterestofadequatedemocraticelections.

Anotherimportantdistinctionconcernsthedifferenttypesofstandards.Indeed,bothattheinternationalandregionallevel,standardsfordemocraticelectionsderive from two types that respectively have their specicities: the treatystandardsandthenon-treatystandards.

Treatystandards are standards thatare contained ina treaty. A treaty isaninternationalagreementbetweenstatesataninternationalorregional level,inawrittenform,andgovernedbyinternationallaw.AccordingtotheVienna

ConventionontheLawofTreaties(1969),whenastatehassignedatreaty,ithasvoluntarilyexpresseditswilltobeboundbythattreatyandmusttherefore,respectitsprovisions.

2. Explaining the Different

Standards in Africas Sub-regions



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Explaining the Different Standards in Africas Sub-regions 19

Onceastatehasratiedatreaty,itisobligedtorespectallthestandardsthatderive from it. However, ratication of a given treaty is not compulsory, but isdependentuponnationallawsandguidelinesforratication.Non-treatystandards

aresometimescalledsoftlawinstruments.Themainfactordistinguishingnon-treatystandards fromtreatystandardsisthat therst typeislegally bindingasopposedtothelatter.


AU member states

South Africa, Algeria, Angola,

Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso,Burundi, Cameroon,

Cabo Verde, Comoros,

Cte d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Egypt,

Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana,

Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Equatorial

Guinea, Haiti, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia,

Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali,

Mauritius, Mauritania, Mozambique,

Namibia, Niger, Nigeria,

Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic,

Central African Republic,

Democratic Republic of the Congo,

Republic of Congo, Rwanda,

Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal,

Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia,

Sudan, South Sudan, Swaziland,

Tanzania, Chad, Togo,

Tunisia, Uganda,

Zambia, Zimbabwe


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Explaining the Different Standards in Africas Sub-regions20


Adopted in 1981 and ratied by all 53 member states, the AfricanCharteronHuman and Peoples Rights (ACHPR) sets the standardsgoverningdemocraticelections.Article13(1)oftheCharterstatesthat

everycitizenshallhavetherighttoparticipatefreelyinthegovernmentof his country, either directly or through freely chosen representatives inaccordancewiththelawsprovisions.Article13(2)alsoassertseverycitizenshallhavetherightofequalaccesstothepublicserviceofhiscountry.Thisfundamentalarticleissimilartoarticle21oftheUnitedNationsUniversalDeclaration on Human Rights (1948) and article 25 of the InternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights(1966),whichafrmthesamerights.TherelevanceofArticle13oftheAfricanCharterisinthewayitpresentsthe

2.1.1. The African Charter on Human and PeoplesRights (1981)

The African Union was established on July 9th 2002 to replace theOrganizationofAfricanUnity(OAU).Almost10yearslater,sincethe16thOrdinaryAssemblyoftheAUonAfricanSharedValuestheDepartmentof

Political Affairs of the African UnionCommission (AUC) isgiven themandatetodevelopaPan-AfricanGovernanceArchitecture(AGA)toprovidetheprocessand mechanism of enhancing policy dialogue, convergence, coherence andharmonizationamongstAUOrgansonAfricanSharedValues.TherationaleforAGAisnottocreateanewinstitution,ratherstrengtheningandcoordinatingtheexistingnormsandinstitutionswithaformalmandateongovernanceandhumanrightsthroughaplatformandsecretariat.

As such the AGA is the overall political and institutional framework for thepromotion of democracy, governance and human rights in Africa. Thus, AGAencompassesallpolicypronouncementsandtreatiesadoptedbytheAUinregardtoupholdingdemocraticpractice,goodgovernanceandpublicparticipation.With

reference to elections these are the AfricanCharteronHuman and PeoplesRights,theAfricanCharterofDemocracy,ElectionsandGovernanceandtheOAU/AUDeclarationonPrinciplesGoverningDemocraticElectionsinAfrica.

2.1. The African Unions Treaty Standardsfor Democratic Elections


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Explaining the Different Standards in Africas Sub-regions 21

TheAfricanCharteronDemocracy,ElectionsandGovernance(ACDEG)recallsthecompulsorynatureofatreaty,which,byessence,becomesbindingwhensignedandratiedbyacountry.TheChartercameinto

force on15February 2012with the ratication by the requisite numberofmemberstates(15).Asatdate,17countrieshaveratiedtheCharter(Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroun, Chad, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea Bissau,Guinea, Lesotho,Mauritania, Nigeria,Niger, Rwanda, South Africa, SierraLeone,TogoandZambia)8All17raticationshavebeendepositedand41signatorieshavebeenobtained.

TheACDEGemanatesfromthelong-standingapprehensionofAUMemberStatesaboutunconstitutionalchangesofgovernment,leadingtopoliticalinstability,violenceandinsecurityinAfrica.TheCharter'slegitimacycomesfromtheAUConstitutiveAct,alsocalledtheLomDeclaration,whichwassigned in 2000 and commitsMember States toparticipatorydemocracy,constitutionalism,andtheruleoflaw9.

2.1.2. The African Charter on Democracy, Electionsand Governance (2012)

6 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), Article 257 European Commission Compendium of Election Standards, 2nd edition , Page 198 Election related disputes and political violence, strengthening the rule of the African Union in Preventing

and Resolving Conict. Report of the Panel of the Wise, International Peace Institute, July 2010, Page 349 AU Constitutive Act (2000), Articles 3 and 4


generalconditionsforconductingademocraticelection.ItisworthnotingthatthemajorfocusofArticle13oftheAfricanCharteristheprincipleofparticipation.Indeed,itgrantseverycitizentherighttoparticipatefreelyinthedecision-making

processesoftheircountryaccordingtotheprovisionsofthenationallaw.Therighttoparticipation,denedastherighttotakepartintheconductofpublicaffairs,chooseorbechosenasarepresentative6,ishighlyprotectedbytheAfricanCharter.AlthoughtheAUpromotesparticipationthroughthisCharter,thepursuitofthisinpractice isentirely dependentonnational laws7.ThismeansthatthelevelofprotectionoftherighttoparticipationisnotharmonizedintheAfricancommunity.TheAfricanCharteronHumanandPeoplesRightsdoesnotaddressthematterofelectionsindepth,asthiswasnotitssolepurpose.ItisaregionalinstrumentthatevokestherightsprotectedbytheinternationalinstrumentsoftheUN.However,

inordertospecifythecontentofwhatademocraticelectionshouldlooklikeandharmonizethestandardsusedtoassessthequalityofelections,in2007theAfricanUnionadoptedtheAfricanCharteronDemocracy,ElectionsandGovernance.


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Explaining the Different Standards in Africa's Sub-regions22


Legislationthatallowsquickandthoroughsettlementofelectoraldisputes. Equitableandfreeaccesstomedia. Acodeofconductgoverningtheactivityofpoliticalpartiesprior,duringandaftertheelectiontoensurethattheyallrespectlegalprovisionsgoverningtheprocess(seetheDeclarationofOuagadougouinGuinea's2010presidentialelection).Thiscodemustbe,atalltimes,legallybinding.

TheobjectiveoftheAfricanCharteronDemocracy,ElectionsandGovernanceistopromoteadherencebyeachMemberStatetotheuniversalvaluesandprinciplesofdemocracy.TheACDEGurgesMemberStatestotakeawiderangeofmeasures

topromote democracywithin theAfricanUnion. Directlyaddressing the issueof democratic elections, the ACDEG outlines the various threats to democracyandconstitutionalorderandprovidespotentialsolutionstodeterorreversesuchactions.Article3presentsseveralpreconditionsforfosteringdemocraticelections.Indeed,modern democracies are characterized by representative governmentsdue to political pluralism,which leads different citizens into competing duringperiodicelections.Inordertoprotectthepoliticalrightsofthecitizens,statesmustensurethatthereisaneffectiveseparationofpowersandcreateanenvironmentinwhichthereisatransparentmanagementofpublicaffairs.

TheAfricanCharteronDemocracy,ElectionsandGovernancedoesnotonlygiveanoverviewoftheconditionsfordemocraticelection,italsodenesdemocraticelections and species the standards that are used to judge the quality of anelection.Tobedemocratic,electionsmustberegular,free,fairandtransparent.ThesestandardsarefurtherspeciedintheDeclarationonthePrinciplesGoverningDemocratic elections (see the AUs non-treaty standards, the Declaration ofPrinciplesGoverningDemocraticElections2002).

Indeed, the African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance goesbeyondthepoliticalcommitmentthatledtotheadoptionoftheDeclarationofPrinciplesGoverningDemocraticElections(2002).Itisabindingandoperationaltool stipulating the conditions that will allow the fostering of universal andregionalstandardsfordemocraticelections.Tothisend,countrieshavecommittedthemselvestoadopting:


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Explaining the Different Standards in Africa's Sub-regions 23


10

African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance (2007), Article 1411 African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance (2007), Article 1412 Edward, R. McMahon, The African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance :A Positive Step On A LongPath, Open Society Institute, May 2007

Interventionbymercenariestoremovedemocratically-electedgovernments Thereplacementofdemocratically-electedgovernmentsbyarmedrebelsanddissidents Therefusalofanincumbenttosurrenderpowerafterafree,fairandregularelection.

Article 23also includesanadditional denition ofunconstitutional changes ofgovernment such as any amendment or revision of the Constitution or legalinstruments.Suchaprovisionhasinspiredtheadoptionofframeworksthatcanadequatelypromoteregular,freeandfairelections.

However, the ACDEG lacks clarity on some major points such as the sanctionson the perpetrators of illegal changesofgovernment.According to the Charter,when the AU Peace and Security Council has established that there has beenan unconstitutional change of government, the offending government will be

suspendedasanAUmember.ThereisthenthepossibilityoftheAUtoimposesanctionsonthatgovernmentandtheMemberStatesthatsupportsit.However,thetypesofsanctionsarenotspecied.TheMemberStateswilldecideonhowtofacechallengestodemocraticgovernanceaccordingtotheirpoliticalinterests.

Toenforceandpromotetheeffectivenessoftheprinciplesfordemocraticelections,the African Charter onDemocracy, Elections and Governance (ACDEG), hasmadeprovisionsforcaseswhereastatewouldviolatetheCharter.Internally,statesmust

putinplacelegalprovisionsthatdealwiththosewhoillegallyremovelegitimateandlegallyestablishedgovernments10.Continentally,statesmustcooperateincasesofunconstitutionalchangesofgovernment,inaccordancewiththelaw11.Article23iscriticalasitspeciesillegalmeansofaccessingormaintainingpowerconstituteanunconstitutionalchangeofgovernmentanddeneswhatismeantbyillegalmeans.12TheACDEGtakesintoaccounttheAfrica'sparticularitiesandArticle23includesmilitarycoups,denedas:


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The Declaration on the Principles Governing Democratic Elections inAfricawasadoptedin2002bytheAfricanUnion,toaddressspecicallytherightsandobligationsofstakeholders,andaddressestheconditions

andstandardsforconductingdemocraticelections,asopposedtotheAfricanCharteronHumanandPeoplesRights(1981),whichprotectshumanrightsingeneral.Moreover,itdrawstheattentionofAUMemberStatestothefactthatdemocraticelectionsareanimportantpartofconictprevention,management

andresolution.TheDeclarationonthePrinciplesGoverningDemocraticElectionshasbeenveryimportantandledtotheadoptionoftheACDEG,whichattemptstoconsolidateeffortstopromoteharmonizedstandardsfordemocraticelectionsinAfrica.AccordingtothisDeclaration,electionsmustbeconductedfreelyandfairly.Butwhatdofreeandfairelectionsimply?

Tobedemocratic,electionshavetobeconductedunderdemocraticconstitutionsandcomplywithsupportivelegalinstruments.Thiscanonlybeguaranteedbyaclearandeffectiveseparationofpowersthatensuresthejudiciary'sindependence,whichwillplayitsrolethroughouttheprocess,fromvoterregistrationtopublishingthenalresultsoftheelection.Moreover,someelectionssuchastheRepublicofGuineas2010presidentialelection,haveshownthatthequalityofelectoralinstitutionsgreatlyaffectsthecredibilityoftheprocess.TheEuropeanUnions(EU)ObservationMissionrecommendedthatEMBmembersandotheractorsmustbetrainedinordertofullyplaytheirroleinlegitimisingtheelection.TheDeclarationforesaw the need to build stakeholder capacity, specicallyunder the sectionPrinciples of Democratic Elections, where it is stipulated that the elections

shouldbeconductedbyimpartial,all-inclusivecompetentaccountableelectoralinstitutions staffed by well-trained personnel and equipped with adequatelogistics.SuchaneffortshallbesupportedbytheSecretariat(whatSecretariat?)throughaDemocraticandElectoralAssistanceUnit.

Nevertheless, though theDeclaration exhaustively addresses theprinciples andstandardsfordemocraticelections,itwasadeclarationofprinciple,-atypeofsoftlawinstrument-principlesonwhichtheMemberStatesagreeandpromotetogether in the community. However, unlike a treaty, which is governed by

internationallaw,thisDeclarationisnotcompulsory.YetitplayedaveryimportantroleinpromotingdemocraticelectionsinAfrica.ItrevealedthedevelopmentofnewwaysofenforcingandassessingthenatureofelectionsandinspiredtheACDEG.

2.2. AU Non-Treaty Standardsfor Democratic Elections


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13 Protocol on Democracy and Good Governance Supplementary to the Protocol Relating to the Mechanism for ConictPrevention, Management, Resolution, Peacekeeping and Security (2001), Article 1

TheEconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates(ECOWAS)wasestablishedinMay1975topromotetrade,self-relianceandtopromotepoliticalcooperation.ArevisedTreatysignedin1993strengthensthewilloftheMemberStatesto

cooperateinthepoliticalsphere.Regardingdemocraticelections,thefundamentalinstrument is the Protocol relating to the Mechanism for Conict Prevention,Management,Resolution,PeacekeepingandSecurity(2001)andSupplementary

ProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance.Inaddition,in2008,theMemberStates adopted the ECOWAS Conict Prevention FrameworkMember State. Itspurpose is to achieve the objectives of Democracy and Political Governanceandtocreatebenchmarkstoassessprogressintheirpromotion.Toaddressthedeeply-rootedpoliticalcausesofconictandinsecurityinWestAfrica,in2001theECOWASMemberStatessignedaProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance,aninstrumentwithelementsoftreatystandards,asitisbinding.Article1containsalistofprinciplesthataredeclaredconstitutionalandaresharedbyallMemberStates.13

Thisarticleisveryimportant,asitclearlyshowsthattheintentionoftheMemberStatesistoproducerespectedpracticesofdemocracyintheregion.Statestendtoinvokethepre-eminenceoftheirnationallawwhentheydonotwanttoabidebyaprovisioncontainedinatreaty.Consequently,astatecanrelyonitsconstitutiontoadoptapositionthatisnotallowedbyanECOWAStreaty.Thus,declaringthatsomeprinciplesareconstitutionalandsharedbyallMemberStatesmeansthatontheonehand,allMemberStateswillincludethemintheirconstitutionandontheotherhand,theprincipleswillbeharmonized,operationalandimplemented

inallMemberStates.Thisleadstohavingaconsolidatedandcommonframeworkprotecting shared standards in a community that aims to reach constitutionalconvergence.SomeprinciplesreferredtoinArticle1are:

Theaccesstopowerthroughfree,fairandtransparentelectionsZerotoleranceforpowerobtainedormaintainedbyunconstitutionalmeansPopularparticipationindecision-making


2.3. Regional Frameworks

2.3.1. The Economic Community of West African States


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Topreventthemilitaryfrominterferinginpolitics,theProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernanceincludedthenecessityforthearmedforcestobeapoliticalandtobeunderthecommandofalegallyconstitutedpoliticalauthority.14Noserving

memberofthearmedforcesmayseektorunforelectivepoliticalpositions.SuchaprovisionisofacapitalinterestandshouldinspiretheAUanditsmemberstatessothatitwillbeaharmonizedconstitutionalprinciple.Asatoolpromotingtheclearseparationbetweenthecivilandthemilitaryandpreventingmilitarycoups,itshouldbereadaptedattheAUlevelandinthelegislationofthedifferentregionalorganisations.

AnotherinnovationoftheECOWASProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernanceisthelevelofprotectionassuredtooppositionparties.Indeed,Article1stipulates

thatthefreedomoftheoppositionshallbeguaranteed.DeclaringthisprincipleconstitutionalimpliesthatallMemberStatesmustrespectitandsuchaprovision,whenlinkedtotheWestAfricancontext,isanimportantstepinfosteringpoliticalpluralismandghtingtheoppressionoftheopposition.Furthermore,theECOWASframeworkgivesimpetustotheAfricanUnionseffortinpreventinganddeterringamendments of the electoral lawwithin a set time elections. Article 2 of theSupplementary Protocol onDemocracyandGoodGovernance (2001) states,nosubstantialmodicationshallbemadetotheelectorallawsinthelastsix(6)monthsbeforetheelections,exceptwiththeconsentofamajorityofpoliticalactors.15

It is a very positive step in implementing and enforcing the international andregional instruments that were all signed by ECOWAS states, guaranteeing theeffectiveness of the principles and standards governing democratic elections.ECOWAShasgonefurtherthantheAU,asthelatterdoesnotstateaspecictimeframeduringwhichnochangetotheelectorallawcanbemade.Itisapracticalexample of regional implementation of principles that are generally agreed oncontinentallyandinternationally.TheSenegaleseoppositionpartiesquotedthese

principlesduringthe2012pre-electionperiod,whentherulingpartyatthetime,thePartiDmocratiqueSngalais(PDS)attemptedtopostponethepresidentialelectionswithouttheconsentofpoliticalactors.




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Ecowas protocol on democracy and good governance provides clear election guidelines



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Theinformationcollectedbythefact-ndingmissionandtheeldworkaccomplishedbyanyexploratorymissionwillfacilitatethepreparationoftheElectionObservationMission(EOM).

Collectingalltextsgoverningtheelectionsconcerned; Gatheringallinformationontheconditionsunderwhichtheelectionsshall beconducted; Collectingallpertinentinformationrelatingtothecontestingcandidates orpoliticalparties; Meetingallcandidates,politicalpartyleaders,governmentauthorities andothercompetentbodies.

However,inspeciccasespoliticalcircumstancesmakechangestotheelectorallawsnecessarywiththeconsentofamajorityofpoliticalactors.16Onceagain,inSenegal,theoppositionandtherulingpartyagreedtochangethedayoftheparliamentary

electionwhichwas supposed to takeplace inmid-June, given that the politicalcalendarwouldnot givethemenoughtimetoprepare.Politicaldialogue isalsogiveneminenceintheECOWASProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance,whichhasbeenveryproductiveinGhanain(2000,2004,and200, inSenegal in2012andintheRepublicofGuineain2010.Article3 isaclearillustrationofECOWASwilltousepoliticaldialoguetoreinforcethecondenceofallthestakeholdersintheelectoralprocess.Itstates,thebodiesresponsiblefororganizingtheelectionsshallbeindependentorneutralandshallhavethecondenceofallthepoliticalactors.Whennecessary,appropriatenationalconsultationsshallbeorganizedto

determinethenatureandstructureofthebodies.TheelectoralprocessstalledintheRepublicofGuineamainlybecausetheoppositioncontestedthecompositionoftheIndependentNationalElectoralCommission(CENI).

ECOWASplaysadecisiveroleinelectoralassistanceinWestAfrica.ItsmandateinthatsphereisclearlyorganizedbytheProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance.Articles 12 to 18explain the conditions underwhichelectoralassistance shall beprovidedbyECOWAStoaMemberState.AttherequestofanyMemberState,ECOWASmayprovideassistanceintheconductofanyelection.ThedecisionistakenbytheExecutiveSecretary.AselectionsinaMemberStateapproach,theExecutiveSecretarymaydispatchafact-ndingmissionwhichcanbefollowedbyanexploratorymission.Theexploratorymissionaimsat:

16 ECOWAS Protocol on Democracy and Good Governance, Article 2


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17 SADC Treaty (1992), Articles 3 and 4.18 Page 3, EISA, Elections in the SADC Region , EISA, South Africa, 2006, page 3

The Southern African Development Community (SADC) also aims topromote and consolidate sub-regional development and democracy. ItworkstogetherwithkeycomprisesofkeyinstitutionssuchastheSADC

ElectoralCommissionsForum(ECF),theElectoralInstituteofSouthernAfrica(EISA),theSADCElectoralSupportNetwork(ESN)andtheSADCParliamentaryForum (SADCPF). Together, these institutions are committed to support thegrowthanddeepeningofdemocracyinthesub-region.Amongotheractivities,electionobserversaresenttomonitorandobserveelectionsintheregionand

trainingisprovidedforelectionpersonnel.

However, despite the numerous frameworks protecting the standards fordemocraticelectionsintheSADCregion,theintegrityoftheelectoralprocessesintheregionremainsamajorissue.TheSADCTreatyof1992enumeratesgeneralprinciplesaboutdemocracyandtheprotectionofhumanrights.Countrieshaveengagedtopromotetheprinciplesofdemocracy,ruleoflawandtofostertheconsolidationofdemocratic,effectiveandlegitimate institutions.17However,experienceintheregionandbeyondhasshownthatdeepeningdemocracy

entailsmorethanholdingperiodicelectionsandcreatinginstitutionsinchargeof organising and controlling them. It also involves developing a generallyaccepted set of values that ensures fair electoral practices predicated onrepresentation, accountability, inclusiveness, transparency, gender equality,toleranceand respect for diversity,whichSADC countries have agreed on.18

Moreover,guaranteesforpeacefulandsecureelectoralprocessesintheregionhavetobedevelopedtopreventallformsofthreatsthatcouldunderminetheintegrityoftheprocess.

2.3.2. The Southern African Development Community


TheElectionObservationMissionshallarriveintheMemberStateconcernedatleastforty-eight hoursbefore the elections and shall remain in the country during theelections.TheMissionshallremaininthecountrythroughouttheelectionperiodand

until theelectionresultsareannounced.TheMissionshallalsosubmita reporttotheExecutiveSecretarywhowillforwardit,togetherwithhisownobservations,ifnecessary,totheMediationandSecurityCouncil.Thelattermakesrecommendationstothecountryconcernedand/ortoallMemberStates,andtakesmeasureswherenecessary,asstatedinarticle18oftheProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance.


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The gure above illustrates assumed free and fair electionsthat have taken place in the two African regions.

SADC Year ECOWAS Year

South Africa

Mozambique

Malawi

Mauritius

Tanzania

Zambia

April 22, 2009

October 28, 2009

May 19, 2009

September 19, 2008

October 31, 2010

September 20, 2011

Senegal

Ghana

Sierra Leone

Niger

Guinea

March 25, 2012

December 10, 2012

November 17, 2012

March 12, 2011

June 27, 2010

EACPartnerStateshavecommitteditselftothepromotionofdemocraticelectionsbyadoptingacomprehensiveProtocolonGoodGovernance.19WhileArticle2(a)states the promotion and adherence to the universal values and principles ofdemocracy and respect for human rights as one of its core objectives,Article4 (1) specically mentions the holding of regular, transparent, free and fairelectionsas itsforemostprincipleguidingtheapplicationandimplementationoftheProtocol.


19 Draft of EAC principles for election observation, monitoring and evaluation

Inthatperspective,theSADCcountriessignedtheProtocolonPolitics,DefenceandSecurityCooperationin2001.OneoftheProtocolsobjectiveswastoencouragethedevelopmentofdemocraticinstitutionsandpracticeswithintheterritoriesofMember

StatesandstimulatetheobservanceofuniversalhumanrightsasprovidedforintheUN,AUandotherSADCinstruments.Regardingelections,thepre-eminentinstrumentistheSADCPrinciplesandGuidelinesGoverningDemocraticElections(2004).

2.3.3. The East African Community

LikeECOWASandSADC,countriesinEastAfricasharingcommonvaluesand

customscreatedtheEastAfricanCommunity(EAC)in1999.Withalong-termgoalofcreatinganEastAfricanFederation,EACMemberStatescooperatetoformstrongpoliticallinks.TheTreatyfortheEstablishmentoftheEastAfricanCommunitywassignedin1999andenteredintoforceinJuly2000,followingitsratication,andwasinauguratedinJanuary2001.


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31Explaining the Different Standards in Africa's Sub-regions


Article7ofthesameProtocolwhichisdevotedtoDemocracyandDemocratizationProcessesenjoins PartnerStates to commit themselves to the principle that theexerciseofpublicauthorityemanatesfromthewillofthepeoplethroughregular,

transparent,freeandfairelections.ItalsocallsonPartnerStatestoundertaketocooperateinpromotingdemocracy,itsprocessesandinculcatethecultureofdemocracyandgoodgovernanceacrossallsectorsofsociety.Moreimportantly,Article7(3)mentionsthatthepromotionandinstitutionalizationofdemocracy,democratizationprocessesandgoodgovernanceshallbeby:

a)Establishing Independent Electoral Management Bodies that are adequately fundedfromtheConsolidatedFund;b)Developingatransparentmechanismfortheappointmentofmembersofthe

ElectoralManagementBodiesbasedonmerit,genderequityandprofessionalism;c) Developing policies and mechanisms for harmonized regional benchmarks forconductingregular,transparent,free,fairandcredibleelections in linewith internationallyacceptedstandards;d)Developing mechanisms to facilitate democratic elections, political transitions andpeacefultransferofpowerwithinaspeciedtimeframebetweenconclusion ofelectionsandassumptionofofce;e)Establishingaregionalmechanismforelectionobservationandevaluation;f) Ensuringthatelectionpetitionsaredisposedofwithineighteenmonths,during whichperiodthecourtsoflawshallbefacilitatedtohandlethepetitions;g)Enactinglawsthatregulatetheestablishmentofpoliticalpartiesthatarenational incharacter,internallydemocratic,withclearideologies,visionsandmissions, devoidofallformsofdiscrimination;h)Developingpoliciesandlawsthatregulatefundingofpoliticalparties;i) EnsuringthatCandidatesforelectivepostsaredemocraticallyelectedthrough regular,transparent,freeandfairelections,andareaccountabletothepeople;j) Institutingmechanismsforensuringparliamentaryaccountabilityandtransparency

k)Establishing measures to ensure political parties are accountable through leadershipcodes,atalllevelsofgovernance;l) Enactingorreviewinglawsandpoliciesthatfacilitaterepresentationofwomen, youth, persons with disabilities and other special interest groups to contest electoralandpoliticalleadershippositions;m)Adheringtotheprincipleofdecentralizationanddevolutionofpoweratalllevels inthegovernancesystems;n)Establishingandstrengtheninglocalcommitteesofgoodgovernance;o)Creating anenablingenvironmentfor the exerciseof freedomofexpression,

associationandassembly,afreeandindependentmedia, robust civilsociety andastrongprivatesector;


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20 Treaty for the Establishment of the East African Community (1999), Article 621 Principles for Election Observation, Monitoring and Evaluation



p) StrengtheningtheEastAfricanCommunityForumof ElectoralCommissions to exchangeexpertiseandshareelectoralbestpractices;q)Promotingciviceducationforthepopulationtoenhancedemocraticpractices

andprocesses;andr) Enacting electoral laws that allow citizens including those living abroad to participateinelectoralprocesses.

East AfricanStatesare alsocommitted topromotingdemocraticelections throughArticle6oftheTreatyestablishingtheEastAfricanCommunity.ThisArticlereferstotheAUPrinciplesonGoodGovernanceingeneralandcommitsEACMemberStatestotheprinciplesofdemocracy,theruleoflawandthepromotionofhumanandpeoplesrightsinaccordancewiththeprovisionsoftheAfricanCharteronHumanandPeoples

Rights.20

Subsequenttothesecommitments,theEAChasdeployedelectionobservationmissionseitherindependentlyorjointlywiththeCommonMarketforEasternandSouthernAfrica(COMESA)andtheIntergovernmentalAuthorityonDevelopment(IGAD)withthe longtermobjectiveofstrengtheningelectoralanddemocraticprocessesin theregion.ReportsofEOmissionsareconsideredbytheCouncilandfollow-upsaremadetomemberstatesconductingelectionstoimplementtherecommendations.

TheEACCouncilhasalsoestablishedtheEACForumofNationalElectoralCommissionswiththemainobjectiveofenhancingharmonizationofdemocratizationprocessesandshareperspectives,challengesandbestpracticesintheconductoffree,fairandcredibleelectionsintheEACregion.Italsohastheaimoffacilitatingpeerlearningandinformationexchangewhileentrenchingthecultureofdemocracyintheregion.Apolicyframeworkdetailingthemandate,scopeandroleofEACElectoralCommissionsForum,its institutionalframeworkandstructureandthetriterelationshipbetweentheForum,theEACandtheNationalElectoralCommissionshasalsobeenputinplace.

The EAC has also adopted its Principles for Election Observation, Monitoring andEvaluation.21 The principles give clear guidelines on the structure, methodology,timeframesandreportingbackbytheEACElectionObserverMissions.Theyalsoprovideguidelinesforelectionobservationandthecodeofconductforelectionobserversandprovideaprovideasystematizedframeworkfororganizinganddeployingdifferentformsofobservermissionsandoutlinestheprinciples,scopeandmethodologyfortheEACElectionObserverMissions.


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Polling ofcials sealing a ballot box at a polling station in Cape Verde / Kenneth Abotsi

33


Explaining the Different Standards in Africa's Sub-regions


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34


Comparative Assessment of the Different Frameworks for Democratic Elections : the casesof SADC, EAC and ECOWAS

3.1. Election Management Bodies

TherecentcasesofCtedIvoireandtheRepublicofGuineahaverevealedthe limited independence of Election Management Bodies in Africa.Indeed, unclear mandates and inadequate resources are a common

featureoftheEMBsthroughoutthewholeAfricancontinent.Moreover,the

non-transparentmanner inwhich EMBmembers are recruited has a verybadimpactonthelegitimacyoftheelectoralprocess.Consequently,ECOWASMemberStates,throughtheProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance,promotes the neutrality and the independence of the EMB, which needsthe condence of political actors.22 Unlike the ECOWAS framework, whichonly generally states the features of an independent EMB, SADC and theEACgofarther,givingpracticalguidelinestofostertheemergenceandtheconsolidationofindependentEMBsintheirpoliticalregions.

22 ECOWAS Protocol on Democracy and Good Governance, Article 4

A

frican countries have agreed on and committed to promoting,through legal frameworks, standards for democratic elections asgenerally accepted principles of political governance. Such efforts

havebeen reiterated inAfricasdifferentdevelopmentcommunitiessuchastheECOWAS,SADCorEAC,whichhaveadoptedseveral treatyor non-treatyinstruments.However,experiencehasshownthatelectoralstandardshavetobeaccompaniedbyinstruments,mechanismsandguidelinesthataimatshowingwhatmeasuresoughttobetakenforelectionstobefreeandfair.ThePrinciplesforElectionManagement,MonitoringandEvaluation(PEMMO),adoptedbySADCMemberStates,isaverygoodexampleshowingtheresponsibilitiesofallstakeholdersforelectionstobefreeandfair.

3. Comparative Assessment

of the Different Frameworksfor Democratic Elections : thecases of SADC, EAC and ECOWAS


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35Comparative Assessment of the Different Frameworks for Democratic Elections :the cases of SADC, EAC and ECOWAS


3.2. Political Parties

Theconceptofdemocracyistightlylinkedtotheperiodicityoftheelections

andthecitizensrighttoparticipate,inotherwords,tovoteortobevotedfor.Inmoderndemocracies,especiallyintheWest,participationof

politicalpartieshasbeenseenasawaytopromotetheparticipationofcitizensinthepoliticallifebyperiodicallydelegating,theirsovereigntytothepoliticalpartieswhocompeteforit.Unfortunately,multi-partydemocraciesarestilllackinginsomepartsofthecontinentwhereasinotherparts,thoughithasformallybeenadopted, thehegemonyofthe rulingpartyundermines thelegitimacyofpoliticalcompetition.IntheSADCregion,despitetheeffortsthathavebeenmadetopromotedemocraticelectoralprocesses,somecountries

likeAngolaorSwazilandhavestillnotexperiencedmulti-partydemocracy.

23 http://www.eisa.org.za/EISA/publications/pemmo.htm

Indeed,thePEMMO,adoptedin2003,addressesthequestionsoftheEMBstructureandrecruitmentofitsmembers.ItwasadoptedwiththecollaborationofmorethanonehundredelectoralstakeholdersfromSADC.Theseparticipantscamefromall

fourteenSADCcountriesandrepresentedEMBsandleadingcivilsocietyorganizations(CSOs)forwhomelectionobservationisacoreactivity.23Thisparticipatorydocumentprovidesguidelinestopromotetheindependenceofelectoralcommissions.Theseguidelinesare:

The EAC Member States, by working on a Draft on EAC Principles for ElectionObservation,Monitoring and Evaluation, are following the path of SADC, whichadoptedthePEMMO.ThedraftonthePrinciplesforElectionObservation,MonitoringandEvaluationissimilartothePEMMOinsofarastheysharethesameprovisions

onthequestionsoftheEMBsstructureandrecruitmentofitsmembers.Article123oftheEACdocumentevengoesfurther,stipulatingthattherecruitmentoftheEMBmembersmustbedoneonagendersensitivebasis.

Appointingindependentpeopleknownwithinthesocietyfortheirintegrity EMBsmustbepermanentorganswithpermanentmemberstoensure theindependenceandthecontinuityoftheEMB ThebudgethastobedecidedintheNationalAssemblyorParliamentrather thaninaministry EMBsmustbeaccountabletotheNationalAssembly


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Comparative Assessment of the Different Frameworks for Democratic Elections :the cases of SADC, EAC and ECOWAS

24 Political parties in Africa, Challenges for Sustained multi-party Democracy, Stockholm, International IDEA, 2007,Page 72 to 76

TheseprovisionsofthePEMMOcanbefoundintheEACDraftonthePrinciplesforElectionObservation,MonitoringandEvaluation.TheprovisionsontheregistrationofpoliticalpartiesaresimilarforEACandSADC.Topromotetheparticipationofwomen,SADCsprovisionsaremoredevelopedastheyprovidethatbeforecontestinganelection,politicalpartiesarerequiredtoensureequalgenderrepresentationandatleast30%ofcandidatesarewomen,inlinewiththeSADCDeclarationonGenderandDevelopment.Consequently, statesarebound to respect genderbalance in elections,which isanunconditionalcriterionforfreeelections.However,theEACMemberStateshavebeeninnovativeinaddressingtheissueofmarginalizedgroups.Itisaveryimportantstepinpromotingdemocraticprocesses,aselectionsmustbeinclusiveofallcitizens.TheProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernanceadoptedbyECOWASMemberStates,doesnotexpresslydealwiththequestionofpoliticalpartyregistration.However,itcontainsgeneralprovisionsontherightsofthepoliticalpartiesandtheirfreedomtocarryout

theiractivitiesfreely.OneimportantprovisionoftheProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernanceisthatitguaranteesthefreedomoftheopposition.SuchaprovisionoughttobeentrenchedinthewholeAfricanCommunityandmadeaconstitutionalprinciplethatishighlyprotectedatthenationallevel.Unfortunately,beyondthetoolsthatareadoptedtoprotectandpromotethefreedomofthepoliticalparties,liesthequestionofastateswilltoabidebythem.Thepre-electoralperiodinSenegalwasverytenseasduringthecampaign,therulingpartyusedthepoliceforcestointimidateandreprimandtheoppositionanditsleaders.Thankstotheeffortsofcivilsocietyinpreventingelectoralviolence,alongwiththemediationofECOWASandtheAfricanUnion,Senegalwasable

toconductanelectionthatwas,accordingtoalltheEOMs,free,fairandtransparent.

InZimbabwe,althoughprogresswasmadeinthe1980s,thecountryregressedinthe1990s,andbecameadefactoone-partysystem.Anotherchallengetomulti-partydemocracy inAfrica is the emergence of the dominant party syndrome

whichentrenchesthehegemonyoftherulingparty,asinSouthAfricaNamibia,andothercountries.24Consequently,toopenuppoliticalcompetitionintheSADCregion,thePEMMOurgesMemberStatestoadoptframeworksthatguaranteetherightofpoliticalpartiestoregisterforelections.Inthatregard,thecountriesmustcreateconditionswhere:

Partieshaveaspecictimetoregister Thequalicationsanddisqualicationsforregistrationareclearlyspelledout

Criteriaforregistrationareunambiguousandincludeappealmechanisms Politicalpartiesarerequiredtosignanelectoralcodeofconductupon registration


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37



25 International Crisis Group, Cote divoire : Scuriser le processus lectoral, Rapport n158, 5 Mai 201026 In Senegal, during the 2012 Presidential Election, several journalists have been victims of physical intimidations

and attacks from the police forces while they were reporting.

3.3. Independence of the Media

The independenceof themedia is a considerable challengewhen it comes toelectoralprocesses,giventheunequaltreatmentofcandidatesandpoliticalparties.InCtedIvoire,thequestionofthemedia'spartisanshipwasraisedduringthe2010presidentialelection.TheoppositiondeploredtheactivesupportthattheIvorianStateTelevision(RTI)wasgivingtotherulingpartybybroadcastingprogrammesinfavorofPresidentGbagbo,andtheRTI'spartisanshiphadbeenraisedlongbeforethen.Indeed,theLinasMarcoussisAgreementsignedinJanuary2003urgedthegovernmentinchargeofnationalreconciliationtoensuretheneutralityandthe

impartialityofthepublicservice.25

Thequestionoftheimpartialityofthemediaisdeeperasthepressfacesphysicalintimidation,26despitetheexistenceofregulatorybodiesforthemedia.Article1oftheProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernancestatesthatthefreedomofthepressshallbeguaranteedforallECOWASMemberStates.Indeed,beingawareofthecrucialroleexpectedofanindependentpressintheconductoffreeandfairelections,MemberStateshaveagreedontheobligationtoguaranteethisfreedom.ThelattershallbemadeaconstitutionalprincipleinalltheECOWAScountries,givingitvalueandpreventingtheprobabilityofastateinvokinganationallawtoviolatetheECOWASprovision.

However, EACand SADC guidelines givemore indicationson theway statesshould contribute to respecting the freedomof the press. The Principles onElection Monitoring, Management and Observation (PEMMO) provides thatConstitutionsshallguaranteethefreedomofthepress.SuchaprovisionissimilartoArticle1oftheECOWASProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance,astheybothadvocatefortheinclusionofthatguaranteeinnationalconstitutions.Sucheffortsaremeanttotackletheissueofthemonopolyofthepublicorstatemediaby the ruling partyaswellas thefact that thestatemedia is rarely

accountable to the public. Consequently, the PEMMO, aswell as EACs DraftPrinciplesforElectionObservation,advocateinfavourof:

Anindependentmediacommission Subjectingthemediascoverageofelectionstoacodeofconduct,designed topromotefairreporting.


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Inaddition,toemphasizetheindependenceofthemedia,theAfricanUnionoughttopromote the adoptionof legislation strictly forbidding, ingeneraland in thespeciccontextofelections:

Politicalpolarizationofthemedia. Mediapromotionofethnicityandpower. Governmentorpoliticalpartiesoverusingthelawsforbiddingsectarianism, sedition,defamation. Thepreventionofcivilsocietyfromparticipateinmediamonitoringasin Ugandain2006,Nigeriain2007andSenegal201,2wherecivilsocietygroups focusedonthemonitoringoftheworkofthemedia.

3.4. Civil Society

Often pictured as the core supporters of civic education, civil societygroupshaveoverthepastyears,takenupmorecentralrolesinelectoralprocesses by organizing EOMs and by designing programmemes that

aremeanttopreventandmanageelectoralviolence.IntheSADCregion,thePEMMO,whichisafundamentalinstrumentforensuringfreeandfairelections,wasadoptedwiththecontributionofcivilsocietyorganizations.IntheECOWASregion,civilsocietyisalsoplayingaverycriticalroleinfosteringdemocraticelections. The Coalition of Domestic Election Observers (CODEO) in Ghana,NationalElectionWatch(NEW)inSierraLeoneandtheRseaudesObservateursCitoyens(RESOCIT)inSenegal,inadditiontotheworkofcivilsocietygroupsintheRepublicofGuinea,areexamplesofsuccessfulinitiativesofthecivilsocietyinpromotingfreeandfairelections.Unfortunately,thereareseveralchallenges

underminingtheactionofcivilsocietyorganizations.Theseinclude:

Inadequatecivicandvotereducationprogrammes,bothinterms offrequencyandcontent Over-relianceofcivilsocietyactivitiesondonorfunding Limitedaccessofruralvoterstocivicandvotereducationprogrammes. AfundamentaldifferencebetweentheECOWASprovisions(Article8 oftheProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance)andthePEMMO

isthatthelatteradvocatesforEMBstohavevoterseducationprogrammes whileECOWASreliesoncivilsocietytopromoteciviceducation.


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EMBsshouldhavebudgetstoimplementconsistentandqualitativecivic

andvoterseducationprogrammes Thestatesshould,intheirbudget,provideabudgetforciviceducation programmemes Regionalfundingshouldbeplannedandawardedtocivilsociety organizationstopromotecivicandvotereducation,especiallyforwomen andpeoplelivinginruralareas. AninnovationoftheEastAfricanCommunityliesintheimportanceitgives totheeducationofpeoplelivingwithdisabilities.TheEACsframeworkfor electionsdrawsspecialattentiontotheproblemsfacedbypeopleliving

withdisabilities.

ThePEMMOandtheEACDraftPrinciplesprovidethat:

A key civil societyin the ECOWAS region

The West Africa Civil SocietyInstitute(WACSI)remainsanactivecivil institution that promotes the

capacities of civil society groupsin the ECOWAS region. WACSI wascreatedbytheOpenSocietyInitiativeforWestAfrica(OSIWA)in2005.

The West Africa Civil Society Institute

The gure above illustrates examples of key regional civil society groups

Strengthen capacities of civilsociety groups in Southern Africa

Established in 2005, The SouthernAfrica Trust (SAT) provides supporttovariouscivil societyorganisationsin the southern region of Africa.It also plays an important role infosteringdemocraticprinciplesintheregionthrough institutional capacitybuilding.


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Voters checking their names at a Polling Centre in Togo / Kenneth Abotsi

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Election Observation : A Mechanism for Strengthening Democratization Processes in Africa


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Election Observation : A Mechanism for Strengthening Democratization Processes in Africa

4. Election Observation :

A Mechanism for StrengtheningDemocratization Processes in Africa

Electionobservationconsistsofgatheringinformationontheorganizationandtheconductofanelectionandassessingthequalityoftheelectionbasedontheinformationcollected.

With the numerouscases inwhichelections have led to political disputes orviolence, the African Union, through its Electoral Assistance Unit, endeavoursto promote the respectofthe standardsfor democratic elections inAfrica. Inline with this, regional organizations such as ECOWAS, SADC and EAC, havecontinuously deployed election observationmissions that evaluate theextenttowhichelectoral standards, guaranteedwithin AUs general framework, arerespected during elections in their Member States. Fortunately, the differentEOMsdeployedbyregionalorganizationsallrefertotheAUsframeworkwhenitcomestothestandardsusedtoassessthequalityofanelection.Thoughelection

observationmissionsusethesamestandards,theyhavecriticaldifferencesinthewaytheyarestructuredandhaveapositiveimpactontheeffectivenessofelections.Notonlydoelectionobservationmissionsassessthelegitimacyofanelection, theyalsoactasdeterrenttoelectoralfraudandrigging.Despite theexistenceofstandardsondemocraticelections,thewaytheyarerespectedorimplementedcandifferfromacountrytoanother.

4.1. Election Observation : Strengths andWeaknesses in the Implementation ofStandards Governing Democratic Elections

The role of election observation does not only lay in reporting theirregularities ofanelectoral process.Electionobservation isaway todepict the bestand theworstelectoralpractices and henceproposes

recommendations to improve electoral processes,based on collected facts

and other countries experiences. Case studies capturing experiences fromSADC,EACandECOWASwillbecitedtoelaborate.


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A polling station in Sierra Leone / Kenneth Abotsi

The Implementation of Electoral Standards in SADC, the EAC and ECOWAS : Success Stories42



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43The Implementation of Electoral Standards in SADC, the EAC and ECOWAS : Success Stories

5. The Implementation of

Electoral Standards in SADC, theEAC and ECOWAS : Success Stories

DespitethechallengesAfricancountriesfacewithholdingregular,freeandfairdemocraticelections,theregionalorganizationsSADC,theEACandECOWAShaveallhadsuccesses,theelementsofwhichareoutlined

below.

5.1. The Legal Framework

Itisnotenoughfornationstoadoptinternationalinstrumentspromotingtherespectofthestandardsondemocraticelections.Theymustshowcommitmenttotheseprinciplesbycapturingandcustomisingtheprinciplesespousedin

theseinternationalinstrumentsthroughelaboratenationalelectorallawsaswellasputtinginplacecredibleandresponsibleelectoraladministrations,trusted,and

respectedandaccompaniedbyallstakeholders.

WithinECOWAS,experiencehasshownthattheambiguityofthelegalframeworkhas, unfortunately, intensied electoral disputes,which happened during theRepublic ofGuineas2010presidential election. Indeed, threeversions of theelectoralcodewerepromulgatedintheintervaloffourmonths.Thisambiguityoftheelectorallawgeneratedpre-electoraldisputesbetweenthedifferentparties,astheydidnotagreeontheversionofthecodethatwasapplicable.Duringtherstroundoftheelection,thenalversionoftheelectoralcodehadnotyet

beenpromulgated.Consequently,arstroundofelectionstookplacewithoutaconsensual,guidingandbindingelectoralcode.Thenalversionoftheelectoralcodewaspromulgatedbetweentheannouncementandpublicationoftherstroundofresultsandthestartofthesecondround.Thisprovidedanewchallengeforaweakelectoraladministration.Someprovisionsoftheelectoralcodehadalimitinpracticethoughtheyrespectedthestandardsondemocraticelectionsastheywerecontrarytosomeofthedecisionsthatweretakenbytheelectoraladministrationandthatalreadyorganizedtheelectoralprocess.InSADC,standardsfordemocraticelectionsstillneedtobeenforced,assomeimportantcomponentsofademocraticprocesssuchastheindependenceofEMBsandmediaimpartialityneedtobeimproved.


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Ambiguity of electorallaws and processes mustbe reduced while mediaindependence must be

ensured.



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Apre-eminentfeatureofacountryselectoraladministrationistheEMB.TheEMBorganizes,conductsandsupervisestheelectoralprocessfromthe pre-election period to the post-election phase. From registering

votersorpolitical parties, the countingorthepublishing results, the EMB ispresentatallstagesoftheelectoralprocess.Insomecountries,theEMBissaidtobeautonomous,suchasinSenegalandinothers,itissaidtobeindependent,asinGhanaandtheRepublicofGuinea.Consequently,awell-organizedandcoordinatedelectiondependsonthequalityoftheEMB.SomeofthefeaturesfundamentalfortheEMBtohavethetrustofthevariousstakeholdersinvolvedintheelectoralprocessarethattheEMBandkeyelectionofcialsmustbefreefromgovernmentcontrolandthattheprocessmustbeconductedindependently,impartiallyandtransparentlybytheEMB.

Although African countries have signed the ACDEG and other regionalinstruments,electionsinthesub-regionshaveshownlimitedimplementation

andrespectofthestandardsfordemocraticelections.IntheSADCregion,theTanzanianGeneralElectionsof2010haveunveiledthepracticallimitsofthestandards related to the independence of the EMB27. Indeed, the NationalElectionCommissionwasperceivedasbiasedinfavouroftherulingparty.ThesourceofsuchacontroversywasinTanzaniasconstitutionitself.AccordingtotheConstitution,thePresidenthastherighttoappointgovernmentofcials.Consequently, the interpretation that was given by the opposition to thisprovisionisthatthemembersoftheNationalElectoralCommission(NEC)areaccountabletothePresident,eventhoughtheyhavesecurityoftenure.This

does not respect the guidelines contained in the PEMMO document whichadvisesthatthemembersoftheEMBbechosenfromamongstindependentpersonalitieswhoseimpartialityisknowninthecountry.

Moreover,theEMBmembersoughttobe,accordingtothePEMMO,accountableto theNational Assembly and not to the President, as the political partiescontestingfortheTanzanian2010generalelectionalleged.ItmustbenotedthatthischallengeisnotlimitedtoSADCalone.ECOWASstatesarealsofacingthequestionoftheEMBsindependence.

5.1.1. Organising the Electoral Process -Independence of the Election Management Bodies

27 SADC Election Observation Mission to Tanzania, General elections (2010), Preliminary Report.



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Electoral Commission ought to exercise its full independence

Electo

ral

Commiss

ion



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TheTheindependenceoftheEMBhasanimpactonthecredibilityofthewholeelectoralprocess,aswasillustratedbythecaseoftheRepublicofGuinea.Additionally,thelevelofprofessionalismandthe

efciencyoftheprocesswillplayanimportantroleintheorganizationofelectionsthatrespectthestandardsondemocraticelections.

The SADC Election Observation Mission (SEOM) to Tanzania during the2010generalelectionsnotedthattheindividualsinchargeofconductingandsupervisingtheelectoralprocesswerenotadequatelytrained.Their

lackofprofessionalismandinadequatetrainingjeopardizedtheprocess,especiallyinthedistributionofelectoralmaterials.Thepreliminaryreportof the SEOMdeplored the insufcient distribution of ballot papers andthedistributionofinaccurateballotpapersinsomeconstituencies.ThiscompromisedtheimplementationoftherighttoparticipationguaranteedbytheAfricanUnionthroughtheACHPRandtheACDEGandjeopardizedtheregularityof theelectoralprocess.IntheECOWASsub-region,therecentPresidentialElectionintheRepublicofGuineaisasignicantexampleoftheconsequencesofanEMBthatlackscredibility.Initsreportonthe2010

presidentialelection,theMinistryinchargeofTerritorialAdministration

5.1.2. Efciency and Professionalism of the EMB :Impact on the Integrity of Electoral Preparations



IntheRepublicofGuineaslastpresidentialelectionin2010,theIndependentNationalElectoralCommission(CENI)wasvehementlycriticizedfornotactingindependentlyand transparently. Although the law granted both nancial and administrativeindependenceoftheEMB,inpracticetheywereaccusedoftakingdirectivesfrom

therulingjunta.Thisengenderedmistrustandmarredtheelectoralprocess.Indeed,themajorissuewasnotthestructureoftheEMBbuttherecruitmentofitsmembers.OverthetwentyvemembersoftheCENI,politicalpartiesappointedtwenty.AlongwiththequestionofthepolarizationoftheEMB,anotherproblemwasthefactthattwentyoftheEMBmembershadbeenappointedbeforethepoliticaltransition,whenLansanaContwaspresident.ThepoliticalpartiesconsideredthatthemembersofContsparty,thePartyforUnityandProgress(PUP),wereover-representedintheEMB.TheperceptionofEMBspartisanshipwasevenmorepronouncedandcriticized

whenmembersofthePUPjoinedCellouDaleinDiallo,thecandidatedefeatedbythepresident,AlphaCond,inthesecondroundofelections.


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28 ECOWAS Handbook on Election Observation.29 For more information on this election, report to EUs EOM report (Guinea 2010)30 The CARLE (Commission Administrative de Rvision des ListeElectorales) was in charge of the registrations

and the updates on the voters lists.31 www.idea.int/elections/bridge_course.cfm

and PoliticalAffairs (MATAP) noted that insome constituencies, the voters listwasdifferentfromthevotersregister.Thisaffectedtheintegrityoftheelectoralpreparations,whichisacriticaltransparencycriterionforobservers.28

ThelackofprofessionalismandthenumerousirregularitiesthatwerenoticedintheorganizationofthepollsbytheCENIledtheSupremeCourttocancel900,000votesduringtherstroundoftheelection.29Thechallengeofadministeringandprofessionallyconductinganefcientprocesscouldbelookedatfromabroaderperspective.MajorchallengesofthepresidentialelectionintheRepublicofGuineainadditiontothedeciencyoftheEMBwere:

Alackofrigourandseriousnessintheselectionofthemembersofthe commissioninchargeoftheregistrationsandtheupdatesonthevoterslists, theCommissionAdministrativedeRvisiondesListeElectorales(CARLE)30. Ineffectiveanddecientcapacityoftheelectoraladministrators,whocouldnot effectivelyconducttheprocess. Alackofskilled,well-trainedresourcepersonswhowereawareoftheprocess intheremoteareas. Inadequateandweaktrainingofthepollingstationofcers. Inadequateandbadchoicesintherecruitmentofthetrainers.

TheAfricanUnionrecentlyorganizedaBuildingResourcesInDemocracy,ElectionsandAssistance(BRIDGE)programmemefortheheadsofelectoralcommissionsinAfricatobuildtheirelectionmanagementcapacity.ThegoaloftheBRIDGEprogrammeistopromoteandsupportdemocracyandgoodgovernancethroughmulti-stakeholderlearning, dialogue and networking.31 Such training should be promoted by theAfricanUnionandregionalgroupstocontinentallydevelopcompetitive,awareand

well-preparedelectoraladministrationsthatwillenforcethestandardsofdemocraticelections.Badelectoraladministrationleadsinevitablytoabadelectoralprocess.

The standards for democratic elections are agreeduponbothat the internationallevelthroughtheUNandregionallythroughtheAUandsub-regionalorganizations.TheprinciplesandguidelinesforfreeandfairelectionshavebeendevelopedwithinthewholeAfrican community through treaties or non-treaty instruments such as


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theACDEG,ACHPR,thePEMMO,theProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance,andsoon.However,themainissuethatAfricansocietiesarefacingistheeffectiveimplementationofthestandardsondemocraticelectionsatthenationallevel.The

natureandtherelationshipsbetweenthevariousstakeholderswillhaveaninuentialimpactonthequalityoftheelectoralprocess.

Politicalpartiesandcivilsocietyhaveanindubitableroletoplayinthesuccessoftheoverallprocess.InTanzania's2010generalelections,politicalpartiesaskedtheNationalElectoralCommissiontonancethedeploymentoftheiragen

comparative assessment of frameworks and standards for the conduct of democratic elections in africa

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