Communicative Communicative Tasks and the Tasks and the

Language Language CurriculumCurriculum

Jason Hung-chi ChaoJason Hung-chi Chao((趙鴻基趙鴻基 ))

IntroductionIntroduction

In task-based language teaching (TBLT), In task-based language teaching (TBLT), syllabus content and instructional syllabus content and instructional processes are selected with reference to processes are selected with reference to the communicative tasks which learners the communicative tasks which learners (either actually or potentially) need to (either actually or potentially) need to engage in outside the classroom and also engage in outside the classroom and also with reference to theoretical and with reference to theoretical and empirical insights into those social and empirical insights into those social and psycholinguistic processes which psycholinguistic processes which facilitate language acquisition.facilitate language acquisition.

Features of TBLTFeatures of TBLT

1.1. An emphasis on learning to communicate An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target languagethrough interaction in the target language

2.2. The introduction of authentic texts into the The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situationlearning situation

3.3. The provision of opportunities for learners to The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language, but also on the focus, not only on language, but also on the learning process itselflearning process itself

4.4. An enhancement of the learner’s own personal An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learningto classroom learning

5.5. An attempt to link classroom language learning An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroomwith language activation outside the classroom

The Conceptual BasisThe Conceptual Basis While teacher education programs taught trainees tWhile teacher education programs taught trainees t

o plan, implement, and evaluate their programs acco plan, implement, and evaluate their programs according to “rational” model which begins with objeording to “rational” model which begins with objectives and moves through tasks to evaluation (Tyler, ctives and moves through tasks to evaluation (Tyler, 1949), the reality was that once they began practicin1949), the reality was that once they began practicing, teachers tended to focus on pedagogic tasksg, teachers tended to focus on pedagogic tasks

Task-based learning’s close relationship with expeTask-based learning’s close relationship with experiential learning: Learning is thus seen as a cyclical riential learning: Learning is thus seen as a cyclical process integrating immediate experience, reflectioprocess integrating immediate experience, reflection, abstract conceptualization and action (Kohonen, n, abstract conceptualization and action (Kohonen, in press)in press)

Definitions of TasksDefinitions of Tasks Long (1985a) suggests that a task is nothing more or leLong (1985a) suggests that a task is nothing more or le

ss than the things people do in everyday lifess than the things people do in everyday life The Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics suggeThe Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics sugge

sts that a task is any activity or action carried out as thsts that a task is any activity or action carried out as the result of processing or understanding languagee result of processing or understanding language

Breen (1987) suggests that a task is any structured lanBreen (1987) suggests that a task is any structured language learning endeavour which has a particular objeguage learning endeavour which has a particular objective, appropriate content, a specified working procective, appropriate content, a specified working procedure, and a range of outcomes for those who undertadure, and a range of outcomes for those who undertake that taskke that task

Nunan suggests that tasks can be conceptualized in teNunan suggests that tasks can be conceptualized in terms of the curricular goals they are intended to serve, rms of the curricular goals they are intended to serve, the input data which forms the point of departure for the input data which forms the point of departure for the task, and the activities or procedures which the lethe task, and the activities or procedures which the learner undertake in the completion of the taskarner undertake in the completion of the task

The Curricular BasisThe Curricular Basis Traditionally, selection of classroom activities was Traditionally, selection of classroom activities was

driven by curriculum goals specified in phonologidriven by curriculum goals specified in phonological, morphosyntactic, and lexical termscal, morphosyntactic, and lexical terms

In a task-based curriculum, two different routes in In a task-based curriculum, two different routes in decision-making process:decision-making process:1. based on the rehearsal rationale1. based on the rehearsal rationale2. based on the psycholinguistic rational2. based on the psycholinguistic rational

Ideally, task selection should occur with reference Ideally, task selection should occur with reference both to target task rationale and psycholinguistic both to target task rationale and psycholinguistic principlesprinciples

Conceptually, TBLT has been influenced by develConceptually, TBLT has been influenced by developments in mainstream education as well as by mopments in mainstream education as well as by major conceptual shifts in our understanding of the ajor conceptual shifts in our understanding of the nature of language and language learningnature of language and language learning

The Empirical BasisThe Empirical Basis

One of the strengths of TBLT is that the One of the strengths of TBLT is that the conceptual basis is supported by a strong conceptual basis is supported by a strong empirical traditionempirical tradition

Tasks can be conceptualized in terms of the Tasks can be conceptualized in terms of the key elements:key elements:

- goals- goals

- input data- input data

- activities/procedures- activities/procedures

- roles- roles

- settings- settings

GoalsGoals Typical goal statements:Typical goal statements:

1. To develop the skills in academic study1. To develop the skills in academic study2. To obtain a promotion from unskilled worker to site superviso2. To obtain a promotion from unskilled worker to site supervisorr3. To communicate socially in the target language3. To communicate socially in the target language4. To develop the survival skills necessary to obtain goods and se4. To develop the survival skills necessary to obtain goods and servicesrvices5. To read the literature of the target culture5. To read the literature of the target culture

Brindley (1984): Brindley (1984): - programs in which the goals were explicit and reflected the- programs in which the goals were explicit and reflected the

communicative needs of the learners had greater face validity tcommunicative needs of the learners had greater face validity than han

those in which the goals were either unstated, inexplicit, or whthose in which the goals were either unstated, inexplicit, or which did ich did

not reflect learners’ goalsnot reflect learners’ goals

Input DataInput Data Key question: What factors are implicated in the difficulty of aural and written tasKey question: What factors are implicated in the difficulty of aural and written tas

ks?ks? Listening comprehension:Listening comprehension:

- factors found by Brown and Yule (1983):- factors found by Brown and Yule (1983): 1. the number of elements in the text and the ease and difficulty of distinguishin1. the number of elements in the text and the ease and difficulty of distinguishing g

between thembetween them 2. the text type2. the text type

- factors found by Anderson and Lynch (1988)- factors found by Anderson and Lynch (1988) 1. the way the information is organized1. the way the information is organized 2. he familiarity of the topic2. he familiarity of the topic 3. the explicitness and sufficiency of the information3. the explicitness and sufficiency of the information 4. the type of referring expressions4. the type of referring expressions 5. the text type5. the text type Reading comprehension:Reading comprehension:

- Nunan (1984): - Nunan (1984): 1. logical relationships of the type marked by conjunctions were more 1. logical relationships of the type marked by conjunctions were more difficult than referential and lexical relationshipsdifficult than referential and lexical relationships 2. content familiarity was more significant than grammatical complexity in 2. content familiarity was more significant than grammatical complexity in determining the difficulty or reading determining the difficulty or reading

Activities/ProceduresActivities/Procedures Key question: What tasks seem to be most helpful in facilitating second laKey question: What tasks seem to be most helpful in facilitating second la

nguage acquisition?nguage acquisition? Long (1981):Long (1981):

- two-way tasks stimulated significantly more modified interactions than o- two-way tasks stimulated significantly more modified interactions than one-ne-

way tasksway tasks Doughty and Pica (1986):Doughty and Pica (1986):

- required information-exchange tasks generated significantly more modif- required information-exchange tasks generated significantly more modified ied

interaction than tasks in which the exchange of information was optionainteraction than tasks in which the exchange of information was optionall

Berwick (1988, in press):Berwick (1988, in press):- the different functional purposes stimulated different morphosyntactic - the different functional purposes stimulated different morphosyntactic

realizationsrealizations Nunan:Nunan:

- the different task types stimulated very different interactional patterns- the different task types stimulated very different interactional patterns- with lower-intermediate to intermediate learners, the relatively closed ta- with lower-intermediate to intermediate learners, the relatively closed tasks sks

stimulate more modified interaction than relatively open tasksstimulate more modified interaction than relatively open tasks

Teacher/Learner RolesTeacher/Learner Roles Bruton and Samuda (1980):Bruton and Samuda (1980):

- learners are capable of correcting each other - learners are capable of correcting each other successfullysuccessfully Porter (1986):Porter (1986):

- learners produce more talk with other learners than - learners produce more talk with other learners than with native-speaker partners, and learners do not learn with native-speaker partners, and learners do not learn each other’s errorseach other’s errors Gass and Varonis (1985):Gass and Varonis (1985):

- there were advantages, when conducting groupwork, to p- there were advantages, when conducting groupwork, to pairing airing

learners of different proficiency levels as well as from difflearners of different proficiency levels as well as from different erent

language backgroundslanguage backgrounds

SettingSetting Long, Adams, and Castanos (1976):Long, Adams, and Castanos (1976):

- small-group tasks prompt students to use a - small-group tasks prompt students to use a greater range of language, functions than greater range of language, functions than teacher-fronted tasksteacher-fronted tasks Montagomery and Eisenstein (1985):Montagomery and Eisenstein (1985):

- supplementing classroom tasks with - supplementing classroom tasks with community-based experiences resulted in community-based experiences resulted in significantly increased language gainssignificantly increased language gains

Future Directions: Extending the Future Directions: Extending the Research AgendaResearch Agenda

Two recent investigations:Two recent investigations:1. Berwick (1988; in press):1. Berwick (1988; in press): - research: explored differences at the level of lexicogrammar attributable - research: explored differences at the level of lexicogrammar attributable

to different taskto different task - result: task type is an important determinant of lexicogrammatical - result: task type is an important determinant of lexicogrammatical exponentsexponents

- significance: exemplifies the value of research programs into task-based - significance: exemplifies the value of research programs into task-based language teaching and learninglanguage teaching and learning

2. Duffy (in press):2. Duffy (in press): - study: carried out a longitudinal case of a single learner, investigating the - study: carried out a longitudinal case of a single learner, investigating the

extent to which performance on different types of tasks yield different extent to which performance on different types of tasks yield different types of information on the subject’s interlanguagetypes of information on the subject’s interlanguage

- result: while there was some evidence of task-related variability, the - result: while there was some evidence of task-related variability, the subject’s performance from one date-collection period to the next also subject’s performance from one date-collection period to the next also exhibited variabilityexhibited variability

- significance: represents a departure from the cross-sectional research - significance: represents a departure from the cross-sectional research which has typified the field since its inception which has typified the field since its inception

Questions for discussion Questions for discussion

1.1. What would you do to help students What would you do to help students improve their listening improve their listening comprehension?comprehension?

2.2. How to make everyone participate How to make everyone participate in a group discussion actively?in a group discussion actively?

3.3. If you are going to teach for 3 If you are going to teach for 3 hours, will you teach for 3 hours in hours, will you teach for 3 hours in a day, or will you divide the 3 hours a day, or will you divide the 3 hours to teach in different days?to teach in different days?

ReferenceReference

Nunan, D (1991). Communicative Tasks Nunan, D (1991). Communicative Tasks and the and the

Language Curriculum, TESOL Quarterly, Language Curriculum, TESOL Quarterly, 25(2), 25(2),

279-295.279-295.