COMMUNICATION

Definition:

Communication is a process where people (communicator) sending stimulus in purpose to change or to make behavior of other people.( Hovland, Janis & Kelley : 1953 )

Communication is a process sending information, idea, emotion, ability, etc. By using symbols such as words, pictures, numbers, etc. ( Berelson dan Stainer : 1964 )

COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The communication process is the steps we take in order to achieve a successful communication.

Robert Kreitner defined, “Communication process is a chain made up of identifiable links. The chain includes sender, encoding, message, receiver, decoding, and feedback.

Characteristics of communication process:

It is a continuous process. Pre-requisite of communication is a message. This message must be conveyed through some medium to the recipient. It is essential that this message must be understood by the recipient in same terms as intended

by the sender. He must respond within a time frame. It is a two way process and is incomplete without a feedback from the recipient to the sender

on how well the message is understood by him.

Components of communication process   :

Context - Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. This context may be physical, social, chronological or cultural. Every communication proceeds with context. The sender chooses the message to communicate within a context.

Sender / Encoder - Sender / Encoder is a person who sends the message. A sender makes use of symbols (words or graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and produce the required response.

Sender may be an individual or a group or an organization. The views, background, approach, skills, competencies, and knowledge of the sender have a great impact on the message. The verbal and non verbal symbols chosen are essential in ascertaining interpretation of the message by the recipient in the same terms as intended by the sender.

Message - Message is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate. It can be verbal or non – verbal or in some other symbolic form(eg:art).

It is a sign that elicits the response of recipient. Communication process begins with deciding about the message to be conveyed. It must be ensured that the main objective of the message is clear.

Medium - Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the message. The three main communication channels are auditory,visual & kinaesthetic.The sender must choose an appropriate medium for transmitting the message, else the message might not be conveyed to the desired recipients.

The choice of appropriate medium of communication is essential for making the message effective and correctly interpreted by the recipient. This choice of communication medium varies depending upon the features of communication.

For instance - Written medium is chosen when a message has to be conveyed to a small group of people, while an oral medium is chosen when spontaneous feedback is required from the recipient as misunderstandings are cleared then and there.

Recipient / Decoder - Recipient / Decoder is a person for whom the message is intended / aimed / targeted. The degree to which the decoder understands the message is dependent upon various factors such as knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of encoder on decoder.

Feedback - Feedback is the main component of communication process as it permits the sender to analyze the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or non-verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take written form also in form of memos, reports, etc.

Factors influencing the communication process

Development

Language & communication skills develop through various stages Infant/toddlers - rely on nonverbal communication Children - may use pictures as an adjunct to verbal language to communicate Adolescents/adults - rely on verbal language  Older adults- may use visual communication methods for hearing impaired, or aural

communication for visually impaired

Gender

Males & females communicate differently Males use communication to establish independence & negotiate status w/in a group Females use communication to seek confirmation, minimize differences & establish or

reinforce intimacy The same communication may be interpreted differently by a man & a woman

Sociocultural Characteristics

Culture, education, economic level can influence communication Body language, eye contact, and touch are influenced by cultural beliefs about appropriate

communication behaviour. Education level may affect the extent of their vocabulary or their ability to access written

communication Many people use the internet or e-mail to communicate but not everyone can afford a computer

or have access to one

Values and Perceptions

Each person has unique personality traits, values, and life experiences, each will perceive and interpret messages and experiences differently

It is important for the nurse to be aware of a client's values and to validate or correct perceptions to avoid creating barriers in the nurse-client relationship

Personal Space

The distance people prefer in interactions with others. Middle-class North Americans use definite distances in various interpersonal relationships,

along with specific voice tones and body language. 1. Intimate: touching - 1.5 feet 2. Personal: 1.5 -4 feet3. Social: 4-12 feet 4. Public 12-15 feet

Territoriality

Space and things considered as belonging to the individuals self Ex: pt in a hospital often consider their territory as bounded by curtains around the bed unit or

the walls of a private room Nurses need to obtain permission from clients to remove, rearrange, or borrow objects in their

hospital area

Roles and Relationships

Roles & relationships between sender & receiver affect the content and responses in the communication process.

Choice of words, sentence structure, message content and channel, body language, and tone of voice vary considerably from role to role.

The specific relationship between communicators is significant (the nurse who meets a pt for the first time communicates differently from the nurse who has previously developed a relationship with that pt)

Environment

People usually communicate most effectively in a comfortable environment Temperature extremes, excessive noise, and a poorly ventilated environment can all interfere

with communication Environmental distraction can impair and distort communication

Congruence

Verbal & nonverbal aspects of the message match  This helps the client to more readily trust the nurse Helps prevent miscommunication

Interpersonal Attitudes

Attitudes convey beliefs, thoughts, and feelings about people and events  Attitudes are communicated convincingly and rapidly to others Attitudes such as caring, warmth, respect, and acceptance facilitate communication Lack of interest, and coldness inhibit communication

Importance in Nursing Practice

Abstract

Good communication between nurses and patients is essential for the successful outcome of individualized nursing care of each patient. To achieve this, however, nurses must understand and help their patients, demonstrating courtesy, kindness and sincerity. Also they should devote time to the patient to communicate with the necessary confidentiality, and must not forget that this communication includes persons who surround the sick person, which is why the language of communication should be understood by all those involved in it. Good communication also is not only based on the physical abilities of nurses, but also on education and experience.

COMMUNICATION WITH INDIVIDUAL & IN GROUP

Individual communication is one-on-one interaction with another. Individual communication allows for continuous feedback based on each person’s input. The communication that takes place between two individuals is very specific to each other’s responses.

Since the flow of communication is continuous, individuals have a better understanding of each others thoughts and opinions and can respond directly back to each other. 

Group communication is contact between more than two people in a group. Group communication is more than one person communicating to a group; it is many people interacting together. Group communication relies on prior understanding of the group objectives and the group's culture.

Group Communications (GC) is an informal method in which information is distributed among team members.  GC is a collective effort of developing concepts, generating ideas and developing a collaborative atmosphere for project planning and implementation.

The difference between group communication and individual communication is that group communication is often related to a unified voice within the group.

For example, a team of writers for a popular television show must all agree on what should and should not be included in the script; therefore, the final draft must be approved by all members before their audiences are able to review the finished product, thus creating a "groupthink" mentality. In essence, group communications is a union between multiple members that facilitates one group's mentality, one group thought and one voice. Individual communications (IC) is the act of communicating an idea or concept without the accompaniment of other team members to collaborate with. Each idea generated is solely that of the individual in which case it is up to the individual to implement a strategy to accomplish his/her goal or main objective.

Strategies to Promote Individual & Group Communication

Effective communication in the workplace helps all staffers stay apprised about what's going on with the company and where they stand with individual and group project completion. In addition to developing a company-wide communications policy for how individuals and departments collaborate and share information, other one-on-one and group initiatives can also help ensure messages are getting through loud and clear.

Staff Meetings

Hold regular staff meetings, particularly for individual departments or individual department teams. Ensure everyone has an opportunity to contribute and deliver project reports and updates as part of the process. Distribute an agenda before each meeting and send out a meeting summary or minutes after the gathering.

Employee Briefings

Conduct regular employee briefings where you disseminate information about things that are going on in the company. This helps employees understand how their daily responsibilities become part of the bigger picture in terms of long-term corporate strategy and planning. It also reduces the potential for unfounded gossip.

Electronic Communication

Use a company intranet, email, text messaging and voice mail system in such a way that staffers are able to easily connect with each other and share information. State your policies for writing and distributing memos, copying others on emails and forwarding pertinent information to other individuals and departments. This will help streamline electronic communication so it is effective rather than overwhelming.

Communication Boards

Put up good old-fashioned bulletin boards where departments and individuals can post notices, memos and announcements. Use visual workflow charts as well to help keep staff members apprised of projects, upcoming deadlines and individual and departmental responsibilities.

One-on-One Meetings

Hold one-on-one meetings with staffers to engage them, assess progress, troubleshoot, seek input and give feedback. Often brief, personal exchanges are more effective and time-efficient than large gatherings. Encourage other forms of small group communication, such as dividing departments into smaller work groups that communicate directly with one another, and then assign a spokesperson to convey pertinent information to others as needed. Provide coaching and mentoring opportunities, as well as conflict-resolution training for your employees.

Employee Groups

Employee groups comprised of representatives of various departments in an organization can help a multi-level company communicate more effectively. For example, a community service committee may meet, discuss ideas for community support initiatives, then convey thoughts and ideas back to their own departments for feedback. At a subsequent meeting, collective ideas are discussed and vetted. Cross-disciplinary and cross-department interaction can be a creative engine for project innovation and problem solving.

The Dynamics of CommunicationCommunication between two people consists of transmitting and receiving. If both parties are performing both tasks effectively, there is good communication. This sounds very simple and obvious. In reality, it is difficult for most people to achieve. Communication is even difficult when concerned only with intellectual or cognitive content ─ explaining an idea or a theory, giving directions or instructions, delivering a message. Problems of vocabulary, colloquial expressions, semantic difficulties complicate transmitting. This makes reception more difficult. Even assuming efficient transmission, many people do not listen carefully enough to be efficient receivers anyway.

When people are personally involved, clear two-way communication is even more difficult because feelings and emotions are present. Most serious communication difficulties are due to feelings. Yet in personal interactions, feelings are the most important aspect of the communication. When people become deeply involved in a democratic relationship, communicating freely is very difficult.

Most of us need help in communicating effectively. Communication training is best accomplished in groups. Communication skills learned in groups may immediately be applied to two-party relationships.

Levels of CommunicationTo understand better the complexities of communication, let us look at the various levels on which

communication may take place. There are at least four such levels.

1. Content - the factual material, the basic words themselves, or what one is talking about.

2. Feelings - I may be talking about how to build a sailboat, a painting, or anything. If the subject is very important, I will very likely be experiencing some feelings - enthusiasm, pleasure, disgust, or whatever - as I’m transmitting. The feelings are a vital and important and I may not feel very important if these feelings are ignored or misunderstood. 

3. Feelings about feelings - I may be talking about boat building, and feeling very enthusiastic, but I may also be embarrassed or ashamed of my enthusiasm. Or I may be angry with you, but also feel guilty or fearful about my anger. Feelings about feelings are an important aspect of communication and can create many problems in communication.

4. The fourth level pertains to the motivation involved, or what the transmitter is seeking. Why is s/he transmitting this message? What is the purpose, the reason, for her telling me this? What does the transmitter want, what is s/he up to, or seeking from me? I may be discussing boat building with you in an effort to impress you with my knowledge, or because I want to sell you something, or in an effort to get you to help me, or simply because you are my friend, and I want to share my pleasure with you.

Communication Skills

Transmission - Everyone needs other people with whom to share themselves, their thoughts, ideas, feelings, experiences, problems, and needs. In order to share, they must transmit; everyone is a transmitter of some sort, good, bad, or indifferent. Efficient transmitters can share themselves, especially feelings, with other people freely and without static, distortion, or interference. Clear transmission facilitates clear reception. 

Transmission is not sufficient when: • transmitters are not aware of the messages they are sending, 

• two or more different, and conflicting, messages are being sent, 

• messages are transmitted in some code, or language which receivers do not understand, 

• when real messages are disguised, expressed indirectly or hidden within messages, or 

• transmitters communicate too much information. 

Reception - Clear reception of another's transmission occurs when the receiver can restate the full message to the transmitter's satisfaction. In radio communication the receiver will often respond with the phrase, "I read you loud and clear." Actually, this may or may not be the case. Transmitters may think their message clear, but they may not be communicating at all. They may be dealing with two different messages. This is true of much interpersonal communication, especially communicating feelings. The greatest difficulty is usually in the original reception.

A basic rule of communication is that it is not accomplished until checked out or confirmed. Most confirm critical messages; few bother to do this in ordinary communication. Confirming messages is

relatively simple, if we make the effort. Good reception requires:

concentrated effort and attention. listening or thinking with the speaker instead of about them or about other things. Getting away with preoccupation

Difficulties of reception:Receivers may complicate matters with their own problems.

They may ignore, or be afraid of feelings to the point that they can only recognize or respond to content.

they may be so concerned with making the right response or not letting themselves be manipulated, that they only attend to the transmitter's motives.

Many individuals are poor receivers because they don’t receive others’ transmissions at all levels.

The preoccupation with content and motives prevents their getting very close to other people because this preoccupation prevents them from making contact with others' feelings.Clear reception is difficult when people are transmitting messages in a variety of modes, clarity of communication is lost.

Facilitation - When interpersonal communication between two people occurs in a third party’s presence, that third party can exert a strong influence as a help or hindrance. Third parties can be "facilitators" and assist both the transmitter and receiver to achieve clearer communication. They can stop the communication especially when there is a conflict. They can divert or distract the communication.

for example, by changing the subject or by taking over the transmitter's role. Or they can restrict their role to spectator and hinder the communication; a passive audience may add to the frustration, anxiety, or embarrassment of awkward communication.

Facilitators can be an invaluable, help facilitate communication between individuals and among groups.The facilitator function is shared by all members in fully functioning groups. 

Interpersonal Dynamics

"Interpersonal dynamics" refers to the way in which a person's body language, facial expression and other nonverbal mannerisms support a verbal message in one-on-one, or interpersonal, communication.

Key Topics of Interpersonal Dynamics

1. Transactional Analysis (TA)

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSISASSERTIVENESSCONFLICT MANAGEMENT

TA is a method of understanding behavior in interpersonal dynamics, for determining how people interact.When we interact, behavior can be: Passive - Use self-limiting qualifying expressions without stating their position / needs Aggressive - State their position / needs while violating the rights of others using “you-

messages” and absolutes Assertive - State their position / needs without violating the rights of others.Performance is

greater with this behavior.

Types of transactions:

Complementary Transactions - Occur when the sender of the message gets the intended response from the receiver. Generally result in more effective communication

Crossed Transactions - Occur when the sender of a message does not get the expected response from the receiver.These result in surprise, disappointment, and hurt feelings for the sender of the message

Ulterior Transactions - Occur when the words seem to be coming from one ego state, but in reality the words or behaviors are coming from another.Sometimes when people don’t know what they want or how to ask for it in a direct way, they resort to ulterior transactions.Best to avoid ulterior transactions because they tend to waste time

2. Assertiveness The process of expressing thoughts and feelings while asking for what one wants in an

appropriate way Is becoming more global Generally the most productive behavior Usually the most effective method of getting what you want while not taking advantage of

others Being assertive can create a win-win situation

3. Conflict management

Communications problems or conflicts arise for three primary reasons:

We fail to make our expectations known to other parties We fail to find out the expectations of other parties We assume that the other parties have the same expectations that we have

Conflict Management Styles

Forcing Conflict Style: User attempts to resolve conflict by using aggressive behavior

Avoiding Conflict Style: User attempts to passively ignore the conflict rather than resolve it

Accommodating Conflict Style:

User attempts to resolve conflict by passively giving in to the other party

Compromising Conflict Style:

User attempts to resolve the conflict through assertive give-and-take concessions

Collaborating Conflict Style: User assertively attempts to jointly resolve the conflict with the best solution agreeable to all parties. The problem-solving style

Group dynamics

Group dynamics is a system of behaviours and psychological processes occurring within a social group (intragroup dynamics), or between social groups (intergroup dynamics). The study of group dynamics can be useful in understanding decision-making behaviour, tracking the spread of diseases in society, creating effective therapy techniques, and following the emergence and popularity of new ideas and technologies.

Intragroup dynamics (also referred to as in-group, within-group, or commonly just ‘group dynamics’) are the underlying processes that give rise to a set of norms, roles, relations, and common goals that characterize a particular social group.

Examples of groups include religious, political, military, and environmental groups, sports teams, work groups, and therapy groups. Amongst the members of a group, there is a state of interdependence, through which the behaviours, attitudes, opinions, and experiences of each member are collectively influenced by the other group members. .

The dynamics of a particular group depend on how one defines the boundaries of the group. 

Intergroup dynamics refers to the behavioral and psychological relationship between two or more groups. This includes perceptions, attitudes, opinions, and behaviors towards one’s own group, as well as those towards another group.

In some cases, intergroup dynamics is prosocial, positive, and beneficial (for example, when multiple research teams work together to accomplish a task or goal).

In other cases, intergroup dynamics can create conflict. For example, Fischer & Ferlie found initially positive dynamics between a clinical institution and its external authorities dramatically changed to a 'hot' and intractable conflict when authorities interfered with its embedded clinical model.

Eric Berne's Transactional Analysis theory

Transactional Analysis is one of the most accessible theories of modern psychology. Transactional Analysis was founded by Eric Berne, and the famous 'parent adult child' theory is still being developed today. Transactional Analysis has wide applications in clinical, therapeutic, organizational and personal development, encompassing communications, management, personality, relationships and behaviour. Whether you're in business, a parent, a social worker or interested in personal development, Eric Berne's Transactional Analysis theories, and those of his followers, will enrich your dealings with people, and your understanding of yourself.

Early transactional analysis theory and model

In the 1950's Eric Berne began to develop his theories of Transactional Analysis. He said that verbal communication, particularly face to face, is at the centre of human social relationships and psychoanalysis.

His starting-point was that when two people encounter each other, one of them will speak to the other. This he called the Transaction Stimulus. The reaction from the other person he called the Transaction Response.

The person sending the Stimulus is called the Agent. The person who responds is called the Respondent.

Transactional Analysis became the method of examining the transaction wherein: 'I do something to you, and you do something back'.

Berne also said that each person is made up of three alter ego states:a. Parentb. Adultc. Child

These terms have different definitions than in normal language.

Parent - This is our ingrained voice of authority, absorbed conditioning, learning and attitudes from when we were young. We were conditioned by our real parents, teachers, older people, next door neighbours, aunts and uncles. Our Parent is made up of a huge number of hidden and overt recorded playbacks. Typically embodied by phrases and attitudes starting with 'how to', 'under no circumstances', 'always' and 'never forget', 'don't lie, cheat, steal', etc, etc. Our parent is formed by external events and influences upon us as we grow through early childhood. We can change it, but this is easier said than done.

Child - Our internal reaction and feelings to external events form the 'Child'. This is the seeing, hearing, feeling, and emotional body of data within each of us. When anger or despair dominates reason, the Child is in control. Like our Parent we can change it, but it is no easier.

Adult - Our 'Adult' is our ability to think and determine action for ourselves, based on received data. The adult in us begins to form at around ten months old, and is the means by which we keep our Parent and Child under control. If we are to change our Parent or Child we must do so through our adult.

In other words:

Parent is our 'Taught' concept of life

Adult is our 'Thought' concept of life

Child is our 'Felt' concept of life

At the core of Berne's theory is the rule that effective transactions (ie successful communications) must be complementary. They must go back from the receiving ego state to the sending ego state. For example, if the stimulus is Parent to Child, the response must be Child to Parent, or the transaction is 'crossed', and there will be a problem between sender and receiver.

If a crossed transaction occurs, there is an ineffective communication. Worse still either or both parties will be upset. In order for the relationship to continue smoothly the agent or the respondent must rescue the situation with a complementary transaction.

Here are some simple clues as to the ego state sending the signal. You will be able to see these clearly in others, and in yourself:

Parent

Physical - angry or impatient body-language and expressions, finger-pointing, patronising gestures,

Verbal - always, never, for once and for all, judgmental words, critical words, patronising language, posturing language.

Child

Physical - emotionally sad expressions, despair, temper tantrums, whining voice, rolling eyes, shrugging shoulders, teasing, delight, laughter, speaking behind hand, raising hand to speak, squirming and giggling.

Verbal - baby talk, I wish, I dunno, I want, I'm gonna, I don't care, oh no, not again, things never go right for me, worst day of my life, bigger, biggest, best, many superlatives, words to impress.

Adult

Physical - attentive, interested, straight-forward, tilted head, non-threatening and non-threatened.

Verbal - why, what, how, who, where and when, how much, in what way, comparative expressions, reasoned statements, true, false, probably, possibly, I think, I realise, I see, I believe, in my opinion.

And remember, when you are trying to identify ego states: words are only part of the story.

To analyse a transaction you need to see and feel what is being said as well.

Only 7% of meaning is in the words spoken.

38% of meaning is paralinguistic (the way that the words are said).

55% is in facial expression.

There is no general rule as to the effectiveness of any ego state in any given situation (some people get results by being dictatorial (Parent to Child), or by having temper tantrums, (Child to Parent), but for a balanced approach to life, Adult to Adult is generally recommended.

Transactional Analysis is effectively a language within a language; a language of true meaning, feeling and motive. It can help you in every situation, firstly through being able to understand more clearly what is going on, and secondly, by virtue of this knowledge, we give ourselves choices of what ego states to adopt, which signals to send, and where to send them. This enables us to make the most of all our communications and therefore create, develop and maintain better relationships.

 Modern transactional analysis theory

Transactional Analysis is a theory which operates as each of the following:

a theory of personality a model of communication a study of repetitive patterns of behaviour

Transactional Analysis developed significantly beyond these Berne's early theories, by Berne himself until his death in 1970, and since then by his followers and many current writers and experts.

Significantly, the original three Parent Adult Child components were sub-divided to form a new seven element model, principally during the 1980's by Wagner, Joines and Mountain. This established Controlling and Nurturing aspects of the Parent mode, each with positive and negative aspects, and the Adapted and Free aspects of the Child mode, again each with positive an negative aspects, which essentially gives us the model to which most TA practitioners refer today:

parent

Parent is now commonly represented as a circle with four quadrants:

Nurturing - Nurturing (positive) and Spoiling (negative).

Controlling - Structuring (positive) and Critical (negative).

Adult remains as a single entity, representing an 'accounting' function or mode, which can draw on the resources of both Parent and Child.

Child

Child is now commonly represented as circle with four quadrants:

Adapted - Co-operative (positive) and Compliant/Resistant (negative).

Free - Spontaneous (positive) and Immature (negative).

Where previously Transactional Analysis suggested that effective communications were complementary (response echoing the path of the stimulus), and better still complementary adult to adult, the modern interpretation suggests that effective communications and relationships are based on complementary transactions to and from positive quadrants, and also, still, adult to adult. Stimulii and responses can come from any (or some) of these seven ego states, to any or some of the respondent's seven ego states.

REFFERENCES:

Berlo, D. K. (1960). The process of communication. New York, New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

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communication-process/25815/ http://www.ericberne.com/transactional-analysis/

http://benchmarkinstitute.org/t_by_t/communication/dynamics.htm