Common Common Denominators Denominators of Fire of Fire Behavior on Behavior on Tragedy and Tragedy and Near-miss Near-miss Wildland Fires.Wildland Fires.

PMS 407 June 1996PMS 407 June 1996Thirtymile Fire 2001Thirtymile Fire 2001

Fatality SiteFatality Site

IntroductionIntroductionFighting large wildland fires is often compared to a military Fighting large wildland fires is often compared to a military operation. Each involves such things as: an organization operation. Each involves such things as: an organization with a general at the head, massive movements of personnel with a general at the head, massive movements of personnel and equipment; tactical aerial support, and long periods of and equipment; tactical aerial support, and long periods of combat and stress until the enemy is finally conquered. Yet, combat and stress until the enemy is finally conquered. Yet, there is one major difference between a military operation there is one major difference between a military operation and firefighting strategy: In fighting fires we always figure and firefighting strategy: In fighting fires we always figure that no firefighters will die, whereas in a military operation that no firefighters will die, whereas in a military operation there is always a calculated risk of death of soldiers. In spite there is always a calculated risk of death of soldiers. In spite of this philosophy, many people have lost their lives on of this philosophy, many people have lost their lives on wildland fires in the United States.wildland fires in the United States.

Between 1926 and 1990 over 400 Between 1926 and 1990 over 400 died of fire-induced injuries on died of fire-induced injuries on 100 fires100 fires

Blackwater Fire 1937 in Wyoming 15 deadBlackwater Fire 1937 in Wyoming 15 dead Rattlesnake Fire 1953 in California 15 deadRattlesnake Fire 1953 in California 15 dead Griffith Park Fire 1933 California 25 dead Griffith Park Fire 1933 California 25 dead

and 128 injuredand 128 injured Dude Fire 1990 Arizona 6 dead 5 injuredDude Fire 1990 Arizona 6 dead 5 injured

Some Common Denominators Some Common Denominators IdentifiedIdentified It is possible to It is possible to

identify some common identify some common denominators of fire denominators of fire behavior both in the behavior both in the fatal fires and in the fatal fires and in the near-miss fires.near-miss fires.

Rob Browning’s and Richard

Tyler’s Markers South Canyon Fire 1994

4 Major Common Denominators4 Major Common Denominators

Wildland Wildland Firefighters’ Firefighters’ MonumentMonument

Boise, IDBoise, ID

1. Most incidents happen on 1. Most incidents happen on small fires or on isolated sections small fires or on isolated sections of large fires.of large fires.

Storm King Mountain, Outside of Grand Junction Colorado.

South Canyon Fire 1994:

14 fatalities

2. Flare-ups generally occur in 2. Flare-ups generally occur in deceptively light fuels, such as deceptively light fuels, such as grass and light brush.grass and light brush.

3. Most fires are innocent in 3. Most fires are innocent in appearance before unexpected appearance before unexpected shifts in wind direction and/or shifts in wind direction and/or speed result in flare-ups. speed result in flare-ups. Sometimes tragedies occur in the Sometimes tragedies occur in the mop-up stage.mop-up stage.

4. Fires respond to large- and 4. Fires respond to large- and small-scale topographic small-scale topographic conditions, running uphill conditions, running uphill surprising fast in chimneys, surprising fast in chimneys, gullies, and on steep slopes.gullies, and on steep slopes.

Thirtymile fatality site

Storm King Mt.

South Canyon Fire 1994

Be Alert. Watch Out For-Be Alert. Watch Out For-

Light FuelsLight Fuels Wind ShiftsWind Shifts Steep Slopes and ChimneysSteep Slopes and Chimneys

Many firefighters are surprised to Many firefighters are surprised to learn that tragedy and near-miss learn that tragedy and near-miss incidents occur in light fuels, on incidents occur in light fuels, on small fires or on isolated sections small fires or on isolated sections of large fires, and that fire of large fires, and that fire behavior is relatively quiet just behavior is relatively quiet just before the incident.before the incident.

A common assumption is the A common assumption is the high-intensity crown fire in high-intensity crown fire in timber or heavy brush traps and timber or heavy brush traps and kills firefighters. Yet, with rare kills firefighters. Yet, with rare exceptions, most tragedy fires are exceptions, most tragedy fires are innocent-appearing, burning in innocent-appearing, burning in light fuels, just before the flare-light fuels, just before the flare-ups.ups.

Learning from past tragedy Learning from past tragedy and near miss fires increases and near miss fires increases firefighter’s survival skills.firefighter’s survival skills.

Remember that all fires differ Remember that all fires differ and that the change of one factor and that the change of one factor can result in an entirely different can result in an entirely different picture from another similar fire.picture from another similar fire.

It is important that the firefighter It is important that the firefighter be alert and sensitive to the be alert and sensitive to the environmental conditions in environmental conditions in which a sudden change in fire which a sudden change in fire behavior may occur. A good behavior may occur. A good size-upsize-up will help each firefighter will help each firefighter assess each incident.assess each incident.

Size-up ConsiderationsSize-up Considerations

Fuel CharacteristicsFuel Characteristics

Weather ConditionsWeather Conditions

Topographic FeaturesTopographic Features

Fire BehaviorFire Behavior

Operational PeriodOperational Period

Area of ResponsibilityArea of Responsibility

LCESLCES

Environmental FactorsEnvironmental Factors

Fuel CharacteristicsFuel Characteristics– Fire intensity changes much more quickly in Fire intensity changes much more quickly in

light fuels than in heavy fuels. The light fuels light fuels than in heavy fuels. The light fuels are more responsive to changes in atmospheric are more responsive to changes in atmospheric conditions.conditions.

Environmental FactorsEnvironmental Factors

Weather ConditionsWeather Conditions– Wind is the most significant weather factor Wind is the most significant weather factor

contributing to erratic fire behavior or “flare-contributing to erratic fire behavior or “flare-ups.”ups.”

– Remember the importance of cold fronts, foehn Remember the importance of cold fronts, foehn winds, and thunderstorms.winds, and thunderstorms.

Environmental FactorsEnvironmental Factors

Topographic FeaturesTopographic Features– Aspect (affects type of fuels and exposure to Aspect (affects type of fuels and exposure to

sunlight and curing)sunlight and curing)– Slope (greater convection, preheating of fuels, Slope (greater convection, preheating of fuels,

flame closer to fuels, position on slope, and flame closer to fuels, position on slope, and rolling material) Rate of spread doubles at 30% rolling material) Rate of spread doubles at 30% slope and again at 55% slopesslope and again at 55% slopes

– Terrain (box canyons, chimneys and narrow Terrain (box canyons, chimneys and narrow canyons)canyons)

AircraftAircraft

Helicopters or air tankers can Helicopters or air tankers can adversely affect fire behavior in adversely affect fire behavior in certain situations. The blasts of air certain situations. The blasts of air from low-flying aircraft have been from low-flying aircraft have been known to cause flare-ups.known to cause flare-ups.

Carbon MonoxideCarbon MonoxideThis deadly gas is both This deadly gas is both colorless and odorless!colorless and odorless!

Even low-level carbon monoxide Even low-level carbon monoxide poisoning can impair alertness, poisoning can impair alertness, judgment, vision and the ability to judgment, vision and the ability to move quickly. The effect of carbon move quickly. The effect of carbon monoxide is cumulative.monoxide is cumulative.

Wildland/Urban Interface Wildland/Urban Interface FactorsFactors

Fires that occur in the intermix of Fires that occur in the intermix of wildland fuels and structures wildland fuels and structures complicate the firefighting job when complicate the firefighting job when protecting life and property. protecting life and property. Firefighter safety must not be Firefighter safety must not be compromised when fighting urban compromised when fighting urban interface fires.interface fires.

Hazardous Hazardous MaterialsMaterials

Haz-mat disposal has been detected Haz-mat disposal has been detected in wildland areas. Haz-mats are an in wildland areas. Haz-mats are an environmental factor that can cause environmental factor that can cause danger to the firefighter.danger to the firefighter.

Internal FactorsInternal Factors

Keep CalmKeep Calm Think ClearlyThink Clearly Act DecisivelyAct Decisively Physical Physical

ConditionCondition FatigueFatigue NutritionNutrition

The internal state of the The internal state of the firefighter is important in staying firefighter is important in staying safe and making correct decisions safe and making correct decisions under pressure. Even well-under pressure. Even well-trained firefighters may ignore trained firefighters may ignore environmental signals of a environmental signals of a dangerous situation, then react dangerous situation, then react fatally once they do become fatally once they do become aware of the danger.aware of the danger.

A firefighter’s physical condition A firefighter’s physical condition affects awareness of the affects awareness of the

environmental factors. A environmental factors. A firefighter may be tired,firefighter may be tired,with senses dulled by a with senses dulled by a

long, fatiguing shift orlong, fatiguing shift or an extended fireline an extended fireline

assignment.assignment.

Each circumstance has the Each circumstance has the potential for creating a tragedy. potential for creating a tragedy. Often, human behavior is the Often, human behavior is the determining factor. The determining factor. The firefighter who remains calm firefighter who remains calm when the wind direction changes when the wind direction changes and moves into the safety zone and moves into the safety zone will survive.will survive.

Trying to outrun a fire or other Trying to outrun a fire or other panic reactions may cause tragic panic reactions may cause tragic results.results.

It pays to be alert and aware of It pays to be alert and aware of any signal to a sudden change in any signal to a sudden change in fire behavior. The firefighter fire behavior. The firefighter who is on the lookout for who is on the lookout for possible trouble can change a possible trouble can change a potentially tragedy or near-miss potentially tragedy or near-miss situation to a safe firefighting situation to a safe firefighting experience.experience.

Four Common DenominatorsFour Common Denominators

1.1. Most incidents happen on small fires or on Most incidents happen on small fires or on isolated sections of large firesisolated sections of large fires

2.2. Flare-ups generally occur in deceptively light Flare-ups generally occur in deceptively light fuels, such as grass and light brush.fuels, such as grass and light brush.

3.3. Most fires are innocent in appearance before Most fires are innocent in appearance before unexpected shifts in wind direction and/or speed unexpected shifts in wind direction and/or speed result in flare-ups. Sometimes tragedies occur in result in flare-ups. Sometimes tragedies occur in the mop-up stage.the mop-up stage.

4.4. Fires respond to large- and small-scale Fires respond to large- and small-scale topographic conditions, running uphill surprising topographic conditions, running uphill surprising fast in chimneys, gullies, and on steep slopes.fast in chimneys, gullies, and on steep slopes.