commercial agreement

7/27/2019 commercial agreement

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CONTENT

Introduction.........................................................................................................................4Commercial Agreements.....................................................................................................5

Features of commercial agreements....................................................................................6

Elements of commercial agreements...................................................................................7

Types of commercial agreements........................................................................................9

Drafting of commercial agreements...................................................................................11

Case study...........................................................................................................................12

Bibliography........................................................................................................................16


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INTRODUCTION

By definition, commercial contracts represent a combination of commercial and legal factors.

For businesses and organizations, the key requirement is to ensure that the legal arrangements

allow the full commercial benefits to be realized.In the day-to-day course of business,

regardless of the size of your operation, it is fundamental to regulate and document your

business relationships.

To do this, yourcommercial contracts with suppliers, customers, distributors and agents must

be drafted in a way which properly protects your business interests.

Weak or non-existent commercial contracts make a business unstable. Sound legal advice is

therefore essential when drafting these documents to prevent your business from entering into

one-sided agreements and avoid time-consuming and financially dangerous repercussions in

the event of breaches of contract, or if the matter needs to be taken to court.It is important to

make sure that all of your business contracts are drawn up professionally and are legal

watertight, as it is essential that both parties understand the terms included and are aware of

their rights and responsibilities afforded by the contract. Poorly worded contract terms could

have serious implications for both parties and their stakeholders.

Aims and objectives:

The researcher aims to find out the meaning of commercial agreements, its features and

various types. She also aims to find out the process of drafting a commercial agreement and

the advantages of commercial agreement.

Methodology

The researcher adopted non-doctrinal method of research. She has made intensive and

extensive use of published sources.

Sources of data:

Books Journals Internet
http://www.netlawman.co.in/bizdoclist/business-documents-india.phphttp://www.netlawman.co.in/bizdoclist/business-documents-india.phphttp://www.netlawman.co.in/bizdoclist/business-documents-india.phphttp://www.netlawman.co.in/bizdoclist/business-documents-india.phphttp://www.netlawman.co.in/bizdoclist/business-documents-india.phphttp://www.netlawman.co.in/bizdoclist/business-documents-india.php


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COMMERCIAL AGREEMENTS

A commercial agreement is a contract typically between two business entities. It states its

terms in plain language but includes warranties and boilerplate that have usually been

reviewed by a business attorney in advance. This type of agreement can ordinarily be one of

the standardized forms that are used over and over again with suppliers and business

customers in the ordinary course of operations.1

Business-to-business transactions have a different legal character than business-to-consumer

sales. There are fewer default legal protections built into business-to-business transactions

that are designed to protect uninformed or uneducated parties, or will allow such parties to

escape from a properly executed deal. The law assumes that the average business is aware of

its legal obligations and will rely on the specific terms of a contract to resolve disputes.

The negotiated terms of a commercial agreement are particularly important. Basic contract

law will look to the written terms of the agreement to identify the intentions of the parties,

and will not consider outside circumstances unless there is a claim of fraud. Businesses are

expected to know how to protect their interests, and part of that responsibility is to understand

what constitutes a valid and enforceable commercial agreement.

Since commercial agreements are used between business parties, plain language instead of

legal jargon should be used when preparing the contract. The first part of

an agreement usually requires the most work. It should identify the parties, define any

unusual terms, and detail the substance of the transaction with specificity, such as the product

or service being sold, dates, times, delivery, and price. Contract law requires all parties to

clearly understand the basis of the bargain, and using clear language in a contract that is used

for ordinary business purposes will help meet this requirement.

The second part of the contract should include terms that address nonperformance. This

section might contain some boilerplate from an attorney and would be standard from contract

to contract. Warranties, indemnification, termination, and liquidated damages clauses would

typically be included here. This boilerplate is sometimes provided on the back of the contract

form for convenience.

1http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-commercial-agreement.htm
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A place for signatures should be included on the bottom of the form. An authorized

representative from each business should sign the contract. It is important to verify that the

person signing the commercial agreement is authorized to do so by the contracting company.

An unauthorized signer will invalidate the transaction and may precipitate an unrecoverable

loss.

MAIN FEATURES OF COMMERCIAL AGREEMENTS

During the term of the Agreement one is not entitled to appoint any other agent, distributor,franchisee or any other person for the purpose of seeking Commercial Benefits from the

Invention. In return, other party is under an obligation to use our reasonable endeavours to

find Commercial Benefits from the Invention. [one cannot negotiate with other people in

good faith unless one has this commitment. If one dont make reasonable efforts to find a

market for your idea then the agreement would end.]

As ones representative a person or a group of persons will be involved in all negotiationswith respect to seeking Commercial Benefits from the Invention. [ We cant help you

properly and fulfil our obligations unless we have all the facts]

The Agreement contains certain obligations upon you to assist us with the promotion of theInvention and to protect the intellectual property rights in the Invention. [We need to know

that you will support us with explanations and demonstrations if they are needed and that you

will remain in a position to assign or licence your intellectual property during the agreement,

for example by keeping patents valid. In extreme circumstances you give us the authority to

act on your behalf if failure to do so would be imprudent]

The term of the agreement is for an initial term of 3 years which is extended until the end ofthe last of any Contracts entered into during the Term of the Agreement. [It can take a long-

time to get inventions to market. Two years is not unusual and there may be several separatecontracts during the life of the Invention]

We are entitled to one third commission or equity (unless otherwise agreed) in respect of anyContracts entered into with respect to the Invention. The precise details of the circumstances

in which we are entitled to Commission are contained in the full agreement and you should

read them carefully. [Our initial evaluation processes for Inventors are highly subsidised so

they can be available to the maximum number. Our financial structure is arranged so that the

successful inventions pay for this. We believe that this percentage is still highly competitive

when compared with alternatives]


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You will remain ultimately responsible for obligations to third parties in respect of theInvention and will cover us for any liabilities which we incur if you fail to follow these

obligations.[ The Invention always remains your property until you sell it and you remain

responsible for any claims that you make about it. For example that you really do own the

Invention. Proving that it works or that it will be valuable is not the same thing, that risk may

be passed to the purchaser of the idea]2

You make certain warranties to us for example that you own the intellectual property rights inthe Invention, that you are not aware of any reasons why the Invention may not be exploited

with respect to licences, registrations etc, and you have not entered into any agreements with

any third party with respect to Commercial Benefits relating to the Inventions nor are you in

any negotiations to do so. If any of these are untrue you should let us know prior to signing

the Agreement.[ Obviously any of these things would make any commercial negotiations

pointless and leave us open to costs if we deliberately mislead people and if we are

deliberately misinformed we may seek to recover our costs]

Whilst we will use reasonable endeavours to seek Commercial Benefits from the Inventionfor you, we cannot, for obvious reasons, guarantee whether or not any such Commercial

Benefits will be obtained.[ It is in our joint interests that the Invention succeeds, but we cant

make other people sign agreements. It may also happen for example that the Invention is

overtaken by a better product on the market]

ELEMENTS OF COMMERCIAL AGREEMENTS

Parties: The names and addresses of all the contracting parties should be clearly stated. Definitions and Interpretations: Explanations of the specific meaning of any terms defined

in the contract.

Payment Provisions: Outlines the exact price to be paid for the goods or services providedand the date or dates for payment to be made should be clearly set out.

Description of Good or Services: A specific description of the goods or services that will beprovided under the contract, including the level of service if the contract is for services.

Term of contract: Specifies the length of the contract. Timescale: The specific timescale for the project should be noted including any deadlines

that have to be met.

2http://ezinearticles.com/?Key-Characteristics-of-a-Commercial-Lease-Agreement&id=5999978
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Limitation of liability: For example, 'Neither party shall have any liability to the other partyfor a claim of loss of profits.

Termination provisions: Sets out the circumstances under which the parties can terminatethe contract.

Change of Control: The procedures for change of ownership/controlling interest etc. Forexample if the first party transfers a controlling interest to a competitor of the other party.

Dispute Resolution: Sets out the procedures in the event of the parties having a dispute. Confidentiality: There should be confidentiality clauses drafted in the contract which

identify the information being protected and the circumstances in which it can be used or

disclosed.

Intellectual Property Rights: States who owns such rights to products provided under thecontract.

Warranties: It is common for the party providing goods or services under a contract toprovide certain warranties in relation to the delivery of the goods or services.

Indemnity: Indemnity clauses are an express obligation to compensate the indemnified partyby making a money payment for some defined loss or damage.

Force Majeure: This clause should cover situations where performance of the contract isimpossible through no fault of either party. For example, if there is a natural disaster or civil

unrest.

Applicable law: There should be a clause indicating which law governs the contract. Forexample, 'This Agreement shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of

India'.3

3http://www.scholarsden.org/list-of-abstracts/management-research-abstracts/346-commercial-contracts-and-

agreements.html
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TYPES OF COMMERCIAL CONTRACTS

1. LEASES:Leasing is a common form of commercial agreement. Leases are nothing more than

agreements to rent property, equipment or services over a certain period of time for a

determined amount of money. Leases offer the property owners the security of continued

payments for the lease term. Businesses agreeing to a lease know what monies are necessary

to meet the lease obligations without concern of increased costs or changes in the agreement

before the end of the lease.

Commercial lease agreements also offer other advantages. Lease payments and lease revenue

involve tax provisions amenable to both lease parties. Also, leases can allow commercial

interests to make arrangements to sub lease to other parties for additional revenue streams.4

The two types of leases are real property leases and equipment leases. Real property leases,

sometimes called commercial leases, involve renting buildings, land or other space. Among

the considerations for a commercial lease are defining the premises, defining how you can

use the leased space, whether you or the landlord pays for alterations and improvements (and

what you are allowed to change) and all monetary issues. An equipment lease might involve

anything from renting a copier to a fleet of construction equipment.

2. SALES-RELATED CONTRACTS:A bill of sale legally transfers the title of property and is most commonly used for items such

as cars and boats. An agreement for the sale of goods provides specific information about the

goods or services being sold. A purchase order details the exact goods or services being

purchased. Warranties are legal guarantees about goods or services sold. When a business

sells good to a buyer paying in installments, a security agreement gives the business the right

to repossess the goods if the buyer doesn't make payments.

3. EMPLOYMENT-RELATED CONTRACTS:Commercial employment agreements come in different forms. Some employees will have a

contract agreement detailing salary, responsibilities and benefits. Negotiated terms with

4http://www.ehow.com/list_6693459_types-commercial-agreements.html
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groups of workers (for example, a union) can lead to a collective bargaining agreement.

Commercial employment agreements can detail the terms and conditions an employer can use

to discharge unsatisfactory workers or reduce the workforce if certain financial goals are not

achieved.5

Businesses may have contracts with their employees, such as an employment agreement,

employment separation agreement, employee noncompete agreement or confidentiality

agreement. For non-employees providing services, a business may have an independent

contractor agreement or consulting agreement.

Commercial employment agreements also spell out what benefits the employer provides with

the costs and conditions. The employment agreement may include the employee handbookwith the rules and regulations for the workplace, disciplinary procedures and methods for

handling grievances.

4. GENERAL BUSINESS CONTRACTSContracts are available for almost any type of business arrangement. For example, someone

who buys a franchise will enter into a franchise agreement with the home office. Businesses

that decide to work together or pool resources on a project will have a partnership agreement

or joint-venture agreement. With an indemnity agreement, one party agrees to protect the

other party against specified future claims or losses. When doing business, the general rule to

remember is, if something is not in writing, it's usually not legally enforceable. 6

5. VENDOR AGREEMENTS:Commercial vendor agreements can be contracts for prices, open purchase orders for sales or

specific terms and conditions for delivery and quality assurances. Commercial vendor

agreements may be sole-source provider agreements, so businesses do not have to bid or

negotiate constantly for prices and availability. The vendor benefits with an agreement

knowing a certain volume of product will be purchased over a give time. Commercial vendor

agreements will also state the terms and conditions both the commercial interest and vendor

may activate to terminate the agreement.

5http://www.ehow.com/list_6693459_types-commercial-agreements.html

6http://smallbusiness.chron.com/kinds-business-contracts-21269.html
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DRAFTING OF A COMMERCIAL AGREEMENT

The first thing to do is to outline the agreement; including the most importantprovisions of the contract. This consists of what you expect from the deal, the due

dates, quantities to be delivered, pricing issues and pre-conditions for the agreement.

Once this is complete, you have to revise the list to include the wants of the other

side. This way you will be able to frame the agreement to meet your terms.

A sound commercial agreement is one that has clear and ordinary words usedthroughout rather than legal jargon. This removes the chances of misunderstandings

occurring from either side.

The first paragraph of the commercial agreement should recite and describe eachparty and the date of execution. Ensure that the signature lines at the end of theagreement well describe the parties involved in the agreement. There should also be

space for the definition of important terms.

The subject matter or substance of the commercial agreement comes next in linewhere you must accurately address what is being sold; describe its price and payment

time, delivery date and mode of delivery and the expected term of the agreement if

this is to be a long term association. Never rely on unwritten promises; make sure

everything related to the deal is on paper. Next, include provisions that protect you if the other side does not meet its obligations

or if you fail to meet yours. This should include appropriate warranties and

representations, provisions for insurance and indemnification and in some cases,

liquidated damages and cancellation clauses. And if the commercial agreement is for

a defined term, there should be a termination clause where either party can terminate

the agreement before the actual end date of the agreement.

Go through the agreement and if you find any unclear or ambiguous terms ortechnical terms, add its definitions at the start of the contract.

Ensure the contract is signed only by those who are authorised to do so. Though you may cover all aspects of the commercial agreement while drafting, it is

important to have it reviewed by an experienced solicitor.

Once the contract is signed, make sure that it is filed safely and is reviewed regularly.


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CASE STUDY

Asstt. CIT, Rg. 4(1) Vs. Claridges Investments and Finances (P) Ltd.Business disallowance under Section 14A--Expenditure incurred against exempt

income Interest on borrowed fund having no nexus with earning of dividend income--

Assessee-company was dealing in securities in stock exchanges and for keeping margin

money it borrowed certain sums and along with that fund and now fund was kept for business

purposes. It had death in purchase of units in mutual funds and shares and from which

dividend income was received. The revenue authorities disallowed interest expenditure under

Section 14A on ad hoc basis against dividend income under Section 10(33). Held: Not rightly

so. Dividend income was arose out of trading activities and being incidental income provision

of Section 14A was not applicable and as such interest expenditure could not eb disallowed

under Section 14A.

Assessee had required substantial funds to deal in securities in the Stock Exchanges, which

was met from the borrowed funds in addition to own funds. During the year under

consideration, the total turnover of the company in shares was Rs. 9,218 crores. According to

the requirements of the stock exchange, the company had to keep margin money of 20 per

cent of its turnover. Therefore, the company had to utilize borrowed funds for payment of this

huge margin money to the stock exchange. When borrowed funds were utilized for day-to-

day running of the business, there could not be any justification for disallowance of interest.

Secondly, the AO as also the CIT(A) have simply assumed that all the shares had been

purchased out of borrowed funds. One cannot accept that merely because the payments were

made from the overdraft account it entailed utilization of borrowed funds as distinguished

from the assessee's own funds. The burden of proof as respects utilization of borrowed funds,

for the purposes of the provisions of Section 14A, is on revenue. [Para 20] As a matter of

legal proposition also it is not possible to accept that even in the case of a dealer/broker in

shares as distinguished from an investor in shares the borrowed funds utilized for acquisition

of shares should be related to earning of dividends. Where the shareholding is on trading

account or on behalf of a third party the interest expenditure cannot be said to have been

incurred for earning of dividend. There is force in the contention that the dividend income in

the case of the present assessee has been to a large extent merely incidental income for which

no borrowing was made. The legal position in this regard is not altered by the provisions of


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Section 14A that apply only when there is expenditure in relation to an exempt income. [Para

20] As a matter of legal proposition also it is not possible to accept that even in the case of a

dealer/broker in shares as distinguished from an investor in shares the borrowed funds

utilized for acquisition of shares should be related to earning of dividends. Where the

shareholding is on trading account or on behalf of a third party the interest expenditure

cannot be said to have been incurred for earning of dividend. There is force in the contention

that the dividend income in the case of the present assessee has been to a large extent merely

incidental income for which no borrowing was made. The legal position in this regard is not

altered by the provisions of Section 14A that apply only when there is expenditure in relation

to an exempt income. These provisions do not create any legal fiction to deem any

expenditure as expenditure incurred in relation to exempt income. [Para 21] In view of the

discussion in the foregoing paragraphs the CIT(A) erred in upholding the disallowance of Rs.

1,17,82,179 under Section 14A. The AO is directed to delete this disallowance. [Para 22]

Classic Motors Ltd. Vs. Maruti Udyog Ltd.7Contract Act, 1872 - Section 23--Franchise agreement--Contract opposed to public policy--

Tests of--plaintiffs dealership cancelled by Maruti Udyog--Nature of transaction--

Commercial--Powers of both the parties regarding cancellation of--No duress on the plaintiff

or agreement was free and not vitiated by any coercion--Agreement cannot be held invalid.

Section 39--Dealership agreement--Cancellation of--Applicability of--Powers to cancel

dealership agreement--plaintiff breached the terms of contract--Sought stay of cancellation

of--Stayed vacated--Various rounds of litigation--SLPs to Supreme Court-- Remanded to trial

Court--Provisions of Section 39 of the Act not applicable to facts and circumstances of the

present case--Contract legally and validly terminated.

Contract/agreement--Specific performance of--Injunction--Determination of--Relief of

compensation against determination of--Agreement cancelled--Nature

of agreement permanent and indeterminable or determinable enforceable or not--Injunction

against determination of--No specific performance permissible--No declaration and

injunction could be granted to plaintiff--Suit dismissed.

Private Agreement--Private law--Termination of agreement between the parties--Clause of

"without assigning any reason--Agreement cancelled--Challenged in civil suit--

Commercial transactions--Free will--Applicability--Restrictions on parties--Effect of--

7http://www.manupatrafast.in/pers/Personalized.aspx
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Agreement not intended to be permanent or held to be perpetual unless intended or specified

construction of agreement--Effect of--Termination is valid without cause in common law.

Waiver--Dealership agreement--Cancellation of--Powers of--Both parties to cancel the

contract--Show cause notice issued to cancel contract--Action plan issued--plaintiff invested

huge amount--Pleaded in view of investments--Show cause notice deemed to have been

waived--Sought injunction by approaching to Supreme Court in SLP--Injunction granted and

told to treat as dealer by the respondent--Not to be deemed to be an act of waiver.

Constitution of India 1950 - Article 12--Authority--Maruti Udyog Ltd. --Defined--Dealership

contract--Private/ commercial contract--Cancellation of--Action plan issued--plaintiff

invested huge amount in business in pursuance of action plan--Economic duress and

uhconscionability pleaded by plaintiff--Availability of plea--In private contract and against

cancellation of--Pleas not available--Transaction purely commercial between private parties.

Jai Balaji Industries Ltd. and Anr. and Ajay Kumar Tantia Vs. The Union of India (UOI) and

Ors.

CommercialTender/bidsCompetitive biddingJudicial ReviewWhether action of the

tendering authority unreasonable, arbitrary and discriminatory - Held, judicial review is

permissible in a commercial contract matter against the State and its instrumentality and the

plea of unreasonableness, irrationality and discrimination is not enough, the plea of fraud,

corruption or bad faith is sine qua non as reasonableness may differ from man to man,

institution to institution but the fraud and corruption depends upon the act of the authority or

institution like in a contractual matter In the instant case, there was no pleading of fraud,

corruption or bad faith against any particular officer of either Respondent-State or the

Respondents-GMDA Mere assertion or a vague or bald statement allegation is not

sufficient, it has to be demonstrated and proved There was nothing on records that with an

intention to eliminate the Petitioner-Company the Respondent-GMDA included the terms

impugned in the bid documents Therefore, action of the official Respondents not

unreasonable, irrational and for bad faith

CommercialNotice inviting tenders - Applicability of the provisions of Competition Act

Whether the terms included in the bid documents illegal and contrary to the provisions of

Section 3 and 4 of the competition Act Held, the primarily purpose of the Competition law

is to avoid/restrict those situations where the activities of one individual firm or a Cartel

between two partiesIn the instant case, dominant market is a market of DI pipe and neither

the Respondent-GMDA nor the State Respondents have any dominant position in the relevant


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market being they are neither producing nor buying DI Pipes for business; rather they are

only purchasers/consumersCompetition law is enacted to protect the right of the consumers

and the consumers have no role to play in the relevant market of the DI pipes, particularly

when the competition is between the producer of the relevant products in the market Thus,

the terms as alleged not illegal and contrary to the provision of Competition Act

CivilAlternative remedyHeld, it is within the jurisdiction of the High Court to grant, in

appropriate case, relief under Article 226 - Therefore, it is the High Court who has to decide

whether it will exercise its discretion for granting relief sought for or it would send back the

matter to the statutory authority like CCI, an expert body with whom all the power vests to

decide the issue like the issue involved in the case - Rule requiring exhaustion of statutory

remedies before the grant of writ had nothing to do with the jurisdiction of the Court it was a

rule of policy, convenience and discretion rather than a rule of law. Despite the existence of

an alternative remedy, it is within the jurisdiction of and discretion of the High Court to grant,

in an appropriate case

Civil - Necessary and proper party in a proceeding Determination thereofHeld, law on

the subject is well settled which says that a necessary party is one without whom no order can

be made effectively; a proper party is one in who absence an effective order can be made but

whose presence is necessary for a complete and final decision on the question involved in the

proceeding - In the instant case also, admittedly, there was an agreementbetween the Union

of India and JICA as well as GMDA regarding the project in question for which NIT was

issued Petition not maintainable on the ground of Non-impalement of JICA as a party -

Writ petition being devoid of merit dismissed


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BILIOGRAPHY

WEBSITES:

http://www.dwt.co.uk/commercial/commercial-agreement.html http://www.scholarsden.org/list-of-abstracts/management-research-abstracts/346-

commercial-contracts-and-agreements.html

http://www.pauldavid.co.nz/publications/construingcommercialcontracts.asp http://smallbusiness.chron.com/elements-business-contract-786.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-commercial-agreement.htm

BOOKS:

Drafting and negotiating commercial agreements by Mark Anderson and Victor Warner The managers guide to understanding commercial contract negotiation by Frank Adoranti Drafting commercial agreement by Richard Christou
http://www.dwt.co.uk/commercial/commercial-agreement.htmlhttp://www.scholarsden.org/list-of-abstracts/management-research-abstracts/346-commercial-contracts-and-agreements.htmlhttp://www.scholarsden.org/list-of-abstracts/management-research-abstracts/346-commercial-contracts-and-agreements.htmlhttp://www.pauldavid.co.nz/publications/construingcommercialcontracts.asphttp://smallbusiness.chron.com/elements-business-contract-786.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contracthttp://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-commercial-agreement.htmhttp://www.amazon.co.uk/s/ref=ntt_athr_dp_sr_1/275-4350575-4024315?_encoding=UTF8&field-author=Mark%20Anderson&search-alias=books-uk&sort=relevancerankhttp://www.amazon.co.uk/s/ref=ntt_athr_dp_sr_2/275-4350575-4024315?_encoding=UTF8&field-author=Victor%20Warner&search-alias=books-uk&sort=relevancerankhttp://www.amazon.co.uk/Frank-Adoranti/e/B001KIB7ZS/ref=ntt_athr_dp_pel_1http://www.amazon.co.uk/Frank-Adoranti/e/B001KIB7ZS/ref=ntt_athr_dp_pel_1http://www.amazon.co.uk/s/ref=ntt_athr_dp_sr_2/275-4350575-4024315?_encoding=UTF8&field-author=Victor%20Warner&search-alias=books-uk&sort=relevancerankhttp://www.amazon.co.uk/s/ref=ntt_athr_dp_sr_1/275-4350575-4024315?_encoding=UTF8&field-author=Mark%20Anderson&search-alias=books-uk&sort=relevancerankhttp://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-commercial-agreement.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contracthttp://smallbusiness.chron.com/elements-business-contract-786.htmlhttp://www.pauldavid.co.nz/publications/construingcommercialcontracts.asphttp://www.scholarsden.org/list-of-abstracts/management-research-abstracts/346-commercial-contracts-and-agreements.htmlhttp://www.scholarsden.org/list-of-abstracts/management-research-abstracts/346-commercial-contracts-and-agreements.htmlhttp://www.dwt.co.uk/commercial/commercial-agreement.html

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