college inequality, college test preparation, private tutoring, and shadow education system in china...
TRANSCRIPT
College Test Prepara.on and Shadow Educa.on System in China and India
Roy Y. Chan Ph.D. student Boston College Lynch School of Educa.on [email protected] April 15, 2014
Outline • Research Ques+ons • Literature Review – Overview – Defini+on of Key Terms – Academic Achievement
• Shadow Educa+on Expansion – Pros and Cons
• Examples of Shadow Educa+on • Dataset • Implica+ons • Recommenda+ons for Policymakers and Planners
• Further Research • Q & A
Ques.on of the Day Which two countries have the highest rates of “private tutoring par.cipa.on” in
the world? *HINT: They’re not in Asia!
J
GREECE and TURKEY!!!
Research Ques.ons • 1) What are the key factors that drive the demand for private tutoring in China and India? – How big is the shadow educa+on industry in China and India?
– Does shadow educa+on work in terms of enhancing students’ knowledge, grades, or test scores?
• 2) How does shadow educa.on serve maintain and demonstrate social status or pres.ge in China and India? – Does college test prepara+on pay off in terms of higher examina+on scores and likelihood of admissions into pres+gious universi+es in China and India?
– In what ways do family background (e.g., income, class) and test prepara+on have consequences for aSending an elite higher educa+on ins+tu+on in China and India?
Literature Review Overview
• Shadow educa+on has become a global phenomenon in the 21st century (Bray, 2009; Mori & Baker, 2010; Aurini et al., 2013).
• Driven by the intensifica+on of globaliza+on as a result to marke+za+on in the educa+on sector.
• A “hidden” form of priva+za+on. • Expected to be a $102.8 billion USD industry by 2018 (Global Industry Analysts, Inc., 2012).
• Parents will con+nue to pay for shadow educa+on ac+vi+es as long as examina+on serves as a gatekeeper to higher educa+on ins+tu+ons
Literature Review Defini.on of Key Terms
• Private supplementary tutoring: outside tutoring service offered by the private sector and paid for by families designed to improve student’s chances of successfully moving through the alloca+on process (Stevenson & Baker, 1992).
• Shadow educa9on: private supplementary tutoring that mimics and closely parallels curriculum in mainstream educa+on, and offer homework support or test prepara+on (Bray, 2009).
• Cram schools: learning centers or ins+tutes that prepare students for beSer examina+on performance (Bray, 2007).
Literature Review Effects of private tutoring on academic achievement
• UNESCO’s most recent 2013/2014 EFA Global Monitoring Report states that “private tutoring, if unchecked or uncontrolled, can be detriment to learning outcomes, especially for the poorest students who are unable to afford it” (p. 271).
• Past studies on the effec+veness of private tutoring on student academic achievement is ofen inconclusive. – For example, some studies report a posi+ve impact of private tutoring in Japan (Stevenson & Baker, 1992), Taiwan (Liu, 2012), Kenya (Buchmann, 2002), but other studies, however, found nega+ve impacts on achievement in Korea (Lee, Kim, & Yoon, 2004) Singapore (Cheo & Quah, 2005), and Nepal (Thapa, 2011).
Literature Review Shadow educa.on and pres.ge-‐oriented views
• Students’ pres+ge-‐oriented views affects parental spending on shadow educa+on, and that shadow educa+on par+cipa+on serves not just a func+onal purpose but also a symbolic purpose (e.g., to aSend pres+gious universi+es) (Lee & Shouse, 2011; Baker & LeTende, 2005; Stevenson & Baker, 1992).
• Karen (2002) suggests that familial background affect the students’ aSendance at pres+gious higher educa+on ins+tu+on.
• Guppy (1997) conclude that high school graduates from low-‐resourced families are less likely to aSend highly selec+ve universi+es than affluent families
Why Shadow Educa.on Has Expanded? • 1) Compe++ve high-‐stakes entrance examina+ons • 2) Intense compe++on to compete with other students in the classroom
• 3) Parents believe formal schooling (e.g., instruc+on and curriculum) is inadequate
• 4) Teachers do not teach examina+on skills in schools • 5) Friends are enrolling in private tutoring, so students enroll (i.e., fear of not par+cipa+ng)
• 6) Pressure to aSend pres+gious universi+es • 7) High cultural value (e.g., Chinese parents value educa+on) • 8) The rise of stra+fied educa+on systems • 9) Desire to study overseas (e.g., United States, UK, Australia) • 10) Planned-‐based economic to a market-‐driven economy
Shadow Educa.on – Pros/Cons on the Private Tutoring Industries Advantages
• Assists low-‐performing students work at their own pace (e.g., increase students self-‐esteem and sense of achievement)
• Lessons are ofen individualized to student needs/demands
• Provide decent income to tutors • Students gain human capital
which can contribute to economic development
• Student gain confidence and mo+va+on to take high-‐stakes examina+ons
Disadvantages • Very Expensive • Exacerbates social and
geographical inequali+es • Widen inequali+es in college
access and readiness • Increase pressure for students to
perform well in examina+ons • Decrease students’ engagement
and concentra+on in classroom • Damage students’ independent
leaning abili+es • Restricts students’ leisure +me • Distorts teaching and learning • Place economic pressure on
households, especially rural ci+es
So the question arises: Does shadow education work
in terms of enhancing students’ knowledge, grades,
or test scores?
LET’S LOOK AT SOME DATA!! (:
CHINA: Private tutoring on academic achievement
CHINA: Urban students PAY more for private tutoring than rural students
INDIA: Wealthy families PAY more for tutoring than poor families
INDIA: Urban students receive more private tutoring than rural students
PARENT INCOME and PRIVATE TUTORING SPENDING
PRIVATE TUTORING SPENDING AND PRESTIEGE ORIENTED VIEWS
CHINA: Examples of Shadow Educa.on
• Over 20 million students have studied in New Oriental
• Offers SAT, ACT, GRE, TOEFL prep courses • Consults students on study abroad • 70% of Chinese students in the U.S. and Canada took an English class in New Oriental
• Face-‐to-‐Face and Online tutoring is available
INDIA: Examples of Shadow Educa.on
UNITED STATES: Examples of Shadow educa.on
Implica.ons • The expansion of shadow educa+on in China and India has both posi+ve and nega+ve implica+ons in theory and in prac+ce.
• Private tutoring plays a posi+ve role in raising student learning outcomes outside of the mainstream educa+on system.
• However, private tutoring can place lower-‐class students at greater disadvantage on college entrance examina+on achievement and their desire to aSend an elite higher educa+on ins+tu+ons in China and India.
• Private tutoring exacerbates social inequali+es in educa+onal opportunity in China and India.
Recommenda.ons for Policymakers and Planners
• Tighten regula+on and control between schools and tutoring ins+tu+ons.
• Finance tutoring programs in rural ci+es as a flexible means of educa+ng disadvantaged adolescents.
• Implement policies aimed at reducing the growing parent expenditure on private tutoring. – Fund afer-‐school programs; Start English-‐language television programs aimed at developing students’ examina+on skills so that private tutoring does not replace mainstream curriculum and instruc+on.
– Create management policies that requires teachers to cover the whole curriculum so that private tutoring does not displace classroom teaching
Further Research • The effects of private tutoring on student academic achievement in China and India (e.g., using casual research designs)
• The impact of private tutoring on students’ well-‐being (e.g., student sa+sfac+on levels, health status, labor-‐market outcomes)
• Examine how social-‐psychological and non-‐cogni+ve factors influence behavior norms suppor+ve of the shadow educa+on industry
• Inves+gate the ins+tu+onaliza+on of shadow educa+on within China and India – the extent to which it has become “infused with value” (Selznick, 1957).
Recommended Books
Ques.ons? Comments? *NOTE: This Powerpoint is available for download at: hNp://www.rychan.com