RunningHead:Co-Colonizing

Co-Colonizing:

TheEcologicalImpactsofSettlerColonialisminthe

AmericanSupercontinent

NicolásCruz

SeattleUniversity

March2018

BiologySeniorSynthesis

Advisor:MarkJordan,Ph.D

Co-Colonizing 2

Abstract

EnvironmentalhistoriansandecologistshavelongsoughttodocumentthechangestothenaturalecosystemsoftheAmericassincecolonizationbyEuropeansbeginninginthe15thcentury.Theyhavedevelopedtheoriesforunderstandinghowecosystemshavebeenaltered,throughintroductionofnonnativespeciesorhumanintervention.Thishasledtothestudyofinvasivespecies,themechanicsofinvasion,andtheimpactsofbiotichomogenization.ThispaperseekstocontextualizetheecologicaldegradationwithinthecoincidingstructureandhistoricaldevelopmentofsettlercolonialismaswellasinvestigatethewaysthatthecolonizationoftheAmericashasimpacteditsbiomesandtheIndigenouspeoplesthatinhabitthemaswellasbegintotheorizeadecolonialethicbywhichtoguideecologicalstudy.ItdrawsfromboththeemergingfieldsofinvasionecologyandconservationbiologyaswellasonthetransdisciplinaryworkofIndigenousandnon-Indigenousscholarsofsettlercolonialstudies,anthropology,andhistorytoenvisionanecologyofinvasionthatconsiderstheecologicalandsocioculturalaspectsofcolonizationandIndigenoussovereignty.

Co-Colonizing 3

Acknowledgements

Thispaperhasbeenaveritablesynthesisofthemanyconceptsand

frameworksIhavelearnedinmytimeasastudentofbothsociologyandbiologyat

SeattleUniversity.Myappreciationgoestomyseniorresearchadvisor,MarkJordan,

fortakingabigunwieldyideaanddistillingitdowntoamorecohesivecontribution

toecology,andforhavingtheuniquechallengeoflettingsociologyintothefieldof

biology.IwouldliketothankSabinaNeems,JodiO’Brien,andRachelLuft,whoeach

hadaconnectedpartingettingthemostinfluentialreadinginmyhandsatatime

thatIneededitmost.AbigthankyougoestoThomasPool,forsparkingtheideaof

thisproject.IamunendinglygratefulforChristinaRoberts,whomadeconnections

formeacrossthedisciplinesandforgivingmehopeintheworkweeachhavetodo.

IwouldalsoliketothankMonicaChanandmyfamilyfortheemotionalandeditorial

supportthatkeptthisprojectgoingwhenitseemedtoomuchtotakeon.Andof

course,Ithankallwhowillreadthisandallthosefriendsandclassmateswho

listenedtomeexplainthisprojectasitwasbeingwritten.

Co-Colonizing 4

“The people have a right to their land but the land also has a right to its people." -Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz,

An Indigenous People’s History of the United States

Figure1-Douglasfir-dominatedforestoverrunwithEnglishIvy.FromCaliforniaInvasivePlantCouncil.

Introduction

The English ivy had overgrown its gardens, overflowed and drowned out theunderstoryoftheforestsoftheDoo,the“Inside.”It’slushgreenvinessprawledacrossthedampsoil,blockingoutthelightreachingthegroundbeneaththecanopyofcedar,maple,andfir.Attheirtrunks,theivyreacheditsrelentlessvines,grippingtightlytothegiantswhosepresencesignifiedtheincompletenessoftheirproject:toreignabovetheforestintowhichtheyhadcrawled.Belowthemgrewthetinysaplingsthatstoodastestamentofanotherprojectjustbeginning, ThecontinentstodayknownastheAmericashaveundergonesignificantand

relativelysuddenecologicalchangewithinthelast500years.Specifically,these

changeshavecoincidedwiththepoliticalandculturalchangesthataccompanied

colonizationoftheNorthandSouthAmericancontinentbyfirstEuropeansandlater

Americansettlers.Amonghistoriansandanthropologists,thesechangeshavebeen

widelydiscussedastheyrelatetotheeffectonIndigenouscommunitiesand

Co-Colonizing 5

culturesacrossthecontinent.Withinthescientificcommunity,however,muchof

theattentionhasbeenfocusedonhabitatdegradation,resourceoverexploitation,

andinvasivespeciesandtheireffectonnativeecosystemsintowhichEuropeanand

Americansettlersintroducedthem.

Environmentalhistorianshavetracedthechangestoboththebioticand

abioticcomponentsofAmericanecosystemsunderdifferentlanduseregimes,

particularlythoseemployedbyIndigenouscommunitiesandEuropeansettlers

(Cronon,2003).Theyhavedocumentedthebroadchangestoecosystems,from

disruptionofforestsuccessionthroughdeforestationrelatedtoagriculturaland

industrialdevelopmenttotheintroductionofinvasivespecies,bothintentionaland

unintentional(Cooketal.,2006)(Halverson,2010)(Trigger,2008).Thishistorical

analysishasalsoprovidedsomecomplicatedinsightintotheconstantlychanging

natureofecosystemsandthewaysthatIndigenouscommunitiesdidinfactalter

andinteractwiththeirnaturalenvironment(Cronon,2003).

Manyscholarsofenvironmentalhistoryhavearguedagainstasimplisticand

nostalgicviewofecosystemstasisandpristineconditionpre-contactwithEuropean

settlers(Cronon,2003)(Fulleretal.,2016).Instead,theyargueforadynamic

understandingofhowecosystemsconstantlyshiftintheirbioticandabiotic

componentsandhowhumans,likeallspecies,havealwaysinteractedwiththeir

environmentsinanintentionalway.Cronon(2003)andothersremindusthatwhat

maybedifferentisthewaysinwhichhumanpopulationsandculturesconceptualize

andchoosetointeractwiththeecosystemstowhichtheybelong.

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Conservationbiologistsandecologistsmeanwhilehavedevelopedtheirown

wayofunderstandingoneofthemajorcomponentsofpost-contactchangesto

nativeecosystemswiththeriseofnativespeciesrestorationandparticularlythe

fieldofinvasionecology.FirstdescribedbyCharlesEltoninhis1958TheEcologyof

Invasions,invasionecologysoughttosystematicallystudytheprocessofinvasionby

introducedspeciesaswellasdocumentandindeedwarnoftheirpotentialharmsto

nativeecosystems.Sincehisinitialwork,manyecologistshaverespondedeitherto

hiscalltostudyinvasivespeciesorhavedisputedhisclaims.Somehavearguedthat

judgingintroducedspeciestobe“invasive”amountstoxenophobicnativism(Davis

etal.,2011)whileothersgofurthertoarguethatinvasivespeciesarebeneficialto

theecosystemstheydisrupt.Manyecologistsrejectbothoftheseclaims(Simberloff,

2011)(Alyokhin,2011)(Lockwoodetal.,2011)(Lerdau&Wickham,2011).

Anothermajorpointofcontentionwithinthefieldofinvasionecology,along

withmanyotherfieldsofnaturalscience,isthepoliticizationofthediscipline,with

someauthorsarguingthatinvasionecologyhasdissociatedfrommainstream

ecologywithitsdistinctionbetweennativespeciesandintroducedcolonizers

(Davisetal.,2001)orthatecologyshouldnotbepoliticizedandappliedtopublic

policy(Veda&Walters,1999).Inrecentyears,though,ithasbeengenerally

acceptedandpracticedbyecologistsandconservationecologiststhatecological

considerationsshouldbeincludedinpublicpolicy.

Theworkofenvironmentalhistoriansandinvasionecologistshasmadeclear

thatthereisasynchronicrelationshipbetweenthecolonizationofthecontinentby

EuropeanandlaterAmericansettlersandtheintroductionofinvasivespecies.Itis

Co-Colonizing 7

wellestablishedthatmanyinvasivespeciesthatthreatennativeecosystemswere

eitherintentionallyintroducedaspartofthesettlercolonialprojectoraccidentally

throughvariousvectorssuchasballastwater,onhumans,oronimportedplants

andanimals(Heise&Christensen,2017)(Mann,2007).Thisintroduceswhat

TimothyNeale,asettler-scholarstudyingweedecologyinAustralia,calls“aparallel

orcompanionship”betweensettlersandweeds(2017).Here,Irefertothisprocess

ofcollaborativecolonizationofanativehabitatbytwoormoreinvasivespecies

(includinghumanpopulationsofsettlers),especiallyfromthesamebiogeographical

region,as“co-colonizing.”Thisconceptwillbeusefulinunderstandingtheinvasion

ofmanydistinctecosystemsbyEuropeansettlersandtheplant,animal,and

microbespeciesthataccompanytheminaholisticecologicalandhistoricalanalysis.

Anotherinformativeconceptthathasemergedwithinecologyitselfiswhat

researchershavetermedbiotichomogenization(Oldenetal.,2005).Itisdescribed

asthereplacementofnativecommunitieswith“locallyexpandingand

cosmopolitan,non-nativeones”(p.1)andcausesalocal,regional,andglobal

homogenizationofbiologicalspeciespoolsaswellasecosystemtypesand

interactions.Thistheoreticalframeworkisparticularlyimportantandindeed

uniqueinthatecologistsexplicitlydrawtheconnectionbetweenbioticand

socioculturalhomogenizationthatisdescribedbysocialscientists.Itbringsto

attentionatoncetheconnectionbetweensocialandbioticfactorsofinvasionand

theimpendingharmsofthereductionofbiologicalandculturaldiversitythatwe

observeinanincreasinglyglobalizedworld.Iwillattemptheretointegratethe

Co-Colonizing 8

ecologicalframeworkofhomogenizationwithacritiqueofsettlercolonialismand

itshomogenizingeffectsontheworld.

Thediscoursessurroundingandemergingfrominvasionecology,andtoa

lesserextent,theenvironmentalhistoryoftheAmericancontinent,havetovarying

degreesaddressedorfailedtoaddressthesettlercolonialstructuresthatcauseand

informtheoccurrenceofinvasivespeciesandenvironmentaldegradationinthe

particularcontextoftheAmericaspost-contact.Namely,invasionecology

illuminatestheprocessesandstructuresofinvasionbyanimalandplantspecies

whileobfuscatingthestructureofsettlercolonialismthatisthefoundationof

European-Americansociety.Aswillbediscussedlater,thestudyofinvasivespecies

withinthesettlerscientistcommunityallowssettlerstodiscussinvasionwithout

grappling,andmorecrucially,relinquishingtheirpositionassettlersonoccupied

Indigenousland.Theborrowedandsharedterminologybetweensettlercolonial

studiesandinvasionecologysuchas“colonizing,”“invasion,”or“native,”begsthe

questionofwhatisanalogousbetweenplant,animal,andhumancolonizationofthe

Americas,andwhatisnonanalogous.Onethingthatbecomesclearintheliterature

isthatapplyingecologicaltheoriesandmethodologiestocomplexhuman

sociopoliticalinteractionsisfraughtwithethicalandtheoreticalproblems.

Therehasalreadybeensignificantstudyofthestructures,processes,and

impactsofsettlercolonialismwithinthefieldsofIndigenousandsettlercolonial

studies.Theinterrogationofsettlercolonialismasastructureratherthananevent

(Wolfe,2006)providestheoreticalframeworksandprinciplesthatareapplicableto

apotentialecologyofinvasionthatunderstands,critiques,andchallengessettler

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colonialismratherthanignoresorreinforcesit.Oneworkinparticularthathas

propelledforwardananalysisofsettlercolonialismanddecolonization,asaprocess

ofrepatriatingIndigenousland,isEveTuckandK.WayneYang’s(2012)

“DecolonizationisNotaMetaphor.”Init,theauthorsexplaindecolonizationasthe

projectofundoingcolonizationviarepatriationoflandandrestorationof

Indigenoussovereignty.Theyalsodiscusshowdecolonizationismadeametaphor,

renderingitimpotentandallowingsettlercolonialismtoremainunchallenged.

“DecolonizationisNotaMetaphor”contributesanumberofuseful

theoreticalframeworks,includingabroadunderstandingoflandasconsistingofall

bioticandabioticcomponentsoftheecosystemsinhabitingit(TuckandYang,

2012).Thisconceptualizingoflandisactuallynotfarremovedfromthe

understandingofthescopeofthefieldofecology.EcologytextbookslikeEcology&

FieldEcology(Smith&Smith,2001)andEcology(Odum,1966)definethescopeof

ecologyasthe“totalrelationshipsoftheanimalbothtoitsinorganicandorganic

environment”andthebiosphere,“thebiologicallyinhabitedsoil,air,andwater,”

respectively.Itisinterestingtonotethatmostecologytextbooksrecounttheorigin

andmeaningoftheterm,fromtheGreekroot“oikos”:thestudyofhome.Tuckand

Yangstatethatsettlercolonialismisuniqueinthat“settlerscomewiththeintention

ofmakinganewhomeontheland”(emphasismine)and“insistsonsettler

sovereigntyoverallthingsintheirnewdomain”(2012).Whosehomeisbeing

studiedandhowdopopulationsclaimahome?Andhowdotheynegatetheclaims

ofothers?Itisnecessarytoproblematizesettlerscientists’conceptionofhomein

thisway,asitisbasedonsettleroccupationandownershipofIndigenousland.

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Thecentralityoflandanditsreframingaspropertyinsettlercolonialismis

accompaniedbyaparticularformofviolencethatseversIndigenouspeople,plants,

andanimalsfromland.Bothoftheseconceptionsregardinglandrelatetothe

ecologyofinvasion,withintroducedspeciesbothcompetingforaccesstoabiotic

andbioticresourcesoftheecosystemtheyenteraswellasdisruptingthenative

species’abilitytosurviveintheenvironmentinwhichtheyhaveevolved.Tuckand

Yangofferuparesponsetocolonialism:decolonization,which,atitsmostbasic,isa

processofundoingcolonialism.Theparallelwithininvasionecologymightbe

eradicationofinvasivespeciesandrestorationofnativespeciesandtheirhabitats

butitisimportanttoacknowledgeTuckandYang’spointthatthesearenot

automaticallythesamething,thateradicationofinvasivespeciesdoesnotequalan

undoingofsettlercolonialism.Botharecontentiousandasdescribedlater,fraught

withtheoreticalquestionssurroundingthestatetowhichecosystems/histories

shouldbe“restored,”butforsettlers(scientistsincluded),theeradicationof

invasivespeciesrequiresmuchlesspersonalandcollectivesacrificeonthepartof

settlersociety.

ThiscontentionexistsbecausethedisentanglingofwhatTuckandYangcall

thesettlersetofrelationsrequiresadismantlingofsettlerclaimstolandas

property.This,predictably,ismetwithgreatresistancefromsettlers,muchmore

thanthecallforeradicationofinvasivespecies.Decolonizationrespondstothis

difficultybyshiftingthefocusawayfromsettler’sconcernswithsettlerfuturity;itis

nottheresponsibilityoftheprojectofdecolonizationanditsadherentstoensure

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thefutureofsettlers,butratheritisconcernedwiththefuturityofIndigenouslands

andpeoples,twocategoriesthatitviewsasco-constitutiveandinseparable.1

Thoughdiscussionofthemeritoforargumentsfordecolonizationisbeyond

thescopeofthispaper,itshouldbenotedthattheintentistoconsiderthe

possibilityofbothincorporatingecologicalconsiderationsintotheprojectof

decolonizationand,perhapsmoreimportantly,developingadecolonialethicof

studyingtheecologyofthegeographicallyspecificandhistoricalworldweinhabit.

TuckandYangarguethatcivilrightsorsocialjusticemovementsoftencontradict

decolonizationandthatthereneedstobeareframingoftheiraimsinordertobe

accountabletotheIndigenouspeoplewhoselandtheyoccupy.Likewise,invasion

ecologymusttakeintoaccountthesettlercolonialprojectthatcontextualizesthe

invasionofspeciesandsettlerscientistsshouldstrivetodotheirworkinawaythat

isaccountabletoIndigenouscommunities.Shouldwefailinthisendeavor,itwillbe

aretrenchmentoftheveryprocessesofsettlercolonialoccupationthatcausethe

ecologicalandculturalharmsthatwelament.

1“Indigenouspeoplesarethosewhohavecreationstories,notcolonizationstories,abouthowtheycametobeinaparticularplace-indeedhowtheycametobeaplace.Theirrelationshipstolandcomprisetheirepistemologies,ontologies,andcosmologies”(“DecolonizationisNotaMetaphor”,p.6).

2Cattelino(2017)pointsoutthatitisthenunsurprisingthatmostnaturalhistory

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EnvironmentalHistory

Oneoftheprimarychallengesindevelopingadecolonialframeworkof

ecologyisdeterminingbothwhatexistedbeforecolonization,andwhatispossible

afterwards.Thereislimitedinformationavailabletoecologistsaboutthestateof

America’secosystemspriortothearrivalofEuropeansettlers.Indigenouspeoples,

meanwhile,haveproducedandpasseddownmultiplemillenniaofecological

observationoftheirsurroundingworld.Thisknowledge,consistingofintricate

awarenessofseasonalchanges,biotic/abioticinteractions,migratorypatternsas

wellasmanagementtechniquesrelatingtoforestry,fishandgamepopulations,and

agriculture,iscontainedwithinIndigenousculturalinstitutionsandnarrative.

Becauseofitsinaccessibilitytosettlerscholars,oftentimespurposelyguardedto

protectitfromexploitationormisuse,environmentalhistorianshavehadtorely

heavilyontheaccountsofearlyEuropeansettlers(Cronon,2003).

Cronon’s(2003)ChangesintheLanddiscussesthedifficultyinpiecing

togetheranaccuratepictureofthestateofecosystemspriortoEuropean

colonizationbothbecauseofsettler’smisconceptionsaboutthe“untouched”nature

oftheforestsandmeadowsthattheyencounteredandbecauseoftheirexaggeration

ofabundanceofplantsandanimalsthatlaterresultedinobserverssuchasThoreau

concludingthatthepreviouslypristineandabundantecosystemsthattheir

predecessorshaddescribedwerebythendegraded(Cronon,2003).Theformeris

particularlyimportanttounderstandingboththepopularperceptionofthe“new

world”theyencounteredandtheideologicalandpoliticalprinciplesthatguidedand

justifiedcolonization,particularlyterranullius.Theearlysettler’smistaken

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assumptionthatthelandwasterranullis,or“unused”bytheIndigenouspeoplethey

displaced,servedasamajorjustificationfortheexpropriationofIndigenousland.

Cronon(2003)goesontoexplainthatthelandscapethattheEuropean

settlersencounteredwasinfactprofoundlyandintentionallyalteredandmanaged

byIndigenouscommunities.Thisincludedwideuseofintentionalforestfires,used

toclearunderstoriesandensureopenhuntingandforaginggrounds,management

ofwildgamepopulationsandmigration,andagricultureofvarioustypes.Notonly

didEuropeansettlersremainunawareoftheseactions,theylamentedthelossofthe

wildpristinenessoftheveryforeststhattheythemselveswerealteringfortheir

ownagriculturalandtimberneeds.ThisisreminiscentofwhatRosaldo(1989)

describesas“imperialistnostalgia,”wherethepeoplewhostudiedtheecosystems

developedanostalgicfeelingtowardssomedistantandmorepurepastwhilebeing

apartoftheverystructuresthatarecausingtheirdegradation.

Partofthisprocessofdegradationandchangewasduetotheshifting

relationstoland,fromtheconceptionof

usufructlanduseheldbymany

Indigenouscommunitiestotherecasting

oflandasprivatepropertybysettlers

(Cronon2003)(TuckandYang,2012).

Thecedingoflandtosettlershasbeen

showntocorrespondwiththelossofold

growthforests,asseeninfigure2.Settler Figure2-MapshowingthecorrelationbetweentheexpropriationofIndigenouslandanddisappearanceofoldgrowthforests.

Co-Colonizing 14

conceptionsoflandwerebasedbothontheideaofproperty,withownershipofland

grantingtotalsovereigntyoveritanditsplantandanimalinhabitants,and

permanence.Agriculturalplotsbecamedelineatedpermanently,ensuringthat

topsoilandnutrientswouldbedepletedwithintensivecashcropcultivationinstark

contrasttothecyclicalprocessofclearinglandandallowingittolayfallow

practicedbyIndigenouscommunities(Cronon,2003).

Itisimportanttonoteherethatchangeinecosystems,inbothbioticand

abioticcomponents,isnotinherentlydisruptiveordegrading.Crononacknowledges

thatIndigenoushunting,agricultural,andforestrypracticeswerenotalwaysstable

andsometimesoverexploitednaturalresources.Infact,ChangesintheLandstresses

thefactthatallhumancommunitiesalterandmanipulatetheirenvironmentsand

thatecosystemsareneverstatic,whichisanassertionincreasinglysupportedbythe

scientificecologicalliterature(Hobbsetal.,2009).

Ecologistsandanthropologistsalikehavepointedoutthatthe

conceptualizationofstaticecosystemsandtheprivilegingofequilibriumfailsto

acknowledgethedynamicnatureofecosystemsandcultures.Cattelino(2017)

remindsusthatthestaticmodelarisesfromthesameideologicaltraditionas

structuralfunctionalisminanthropology,whichhassimilarlyframedchangewithin

Indigenousculturesasresultingin“culturalloss,inauthenticity,andlossof

sovereignty”ThisisalsoproblematicbecauseitcollapsesIndigenouspeoplesand

nature,perpetuateswhatsettlercolonialscholarscallthedisappearingnativetrope

thatiscentraltosettlercolonialism,andlimitsIndigenouspeoplesandculturestoa

static,bygonepast(Cattelino,2017)(TuckandYang,2012).

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Still,itisundeniablethatthelandscapeoftheAmericancontinenthas

changeddramaticallyandrapidlysincethearrivalofEuropeansettlers.Alongwith

thecoincidingdevelopmentoftheIndustrialRevolution,whichwasdirectlyfunded

bytheextractionofresourcesandexploitationoflandaswellaschattelslavelabor

(Drayton,2005),thecolonizationofthecontinenthasresultedinglobalshiftsin

atmospherictemperature,deforestation,andtherapidextinctionofmanyspecies.

Vitouseketal.(1997)estimatethatcarbondioxideconcentrationintheatmosphere

hasincreasedbyalmost30%sincetheIndustrialrevolution(Figure2showsthat

CO2emissionsnearlydoubled),about39-50%ofEarth’slandhasbeentransformed

ordegradedbyhumanity,andthataboutaquarterofEarth’sbirdspecieshavebeen

pushedtoextinctionbecauseofdirectandindirecthumanaction.

Figure3-ChartshowingtheUSCO2emissionsbetween1750and2000.Datafromourworldindata.org.

Thoughthesedevelopmentsarenotduesolelytothecolonizationofthe

Americas,theconnectionbetweensettlercolonialismandtheIndustrialRevolution

aswellastheriseofglobalcapitalismthathasspreadWesternlandusepracticesto

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alargeportionoftheworldhasbeenmadeclearthroughhistoricalanalysis

(Drayton,2005).WithinterdisciplinarystudyofthelinksbetweenEuropean

colonizationandglobalecologicalchanges,itcanbeconcludedthatthereisacausal,

thoughcomplicated,relationshipbetweenthespreadofEuropeanandthen

Americancolonialismandecologicaldegradation.

TheorizingCollaborativeColonization

Thereisoneexamplethatappearedinmultipleliteraturesdiscussingthe

environmentalhistoryandinvasion(humanandotherwise)oftheAmerican

continent:theearthworm.TheintroductionofEuropeanearthwormsservesasa

parableofsorts,offeringinsightintothewaysthattheintroductionofinvasive

species,thedisruptionordegradationofnativeecosystems,andtheEuropean

colonizationanddominationofIndigenouslandsandpeopleareintimately

interrelated,In“America,LostandFound,”Mann(2007)recountshowearthworms,

nativespeciesofwhichhadlargelygoneextinctintheAmericasduringtheglacial

periodsthatbegansome200,000yearsago,werebroughttotheBritishcolonies

eitherintentionallyorunintentionallywiththerootballsofimportedtrees.

Gradually,earthwormsbecamewidespreadacrossthecontinentas

Europeansandtheiragriculturespread.Whileearthwormsandtheirconsumption

ofleafdetritusinforestsystemsinEuropeandotherpartswheretheyexisted

naturallyserveasignificantandpositiveecologicalrole,nativeecosystemsofthe

Americashaddevelopedwithoutthepresenceoftheseorganismsforthousandsof

years(Roth,2015).Thedisruptionofnormalcyclesofaccumulationofleaflitter

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causedbothaleachingofnutrientsessentialtonativetreespeciesandadecreasein

moistureretainedandavailable,especiallyfortreesaplings(Rothetal.,2015),as

showninFigure4.

Whilepresumablyunintentional,

theintroductionofearthwormsandtheir

effectonbothdisruptinglocalbioticand

abioticprocessesandpreparingthesoil

forsettlers’introducedcropandforest

specieshintsatwhatNeale(2017)

describesasaparallelorcompanionship

betweensettlersandthespeciesthey

bring,orwhatIcallcollaborative

colonization.ResearcherslikeRothetal.

(2015),whonotedearthworms’

favorableinfluenceoninvasivehawthorn

colonization,andNeale(2017)notethat

speciesthatoriginatefromashared

biogeographicalregioncansometimesworktogethertoaltertheecosystemsthey

areinvadinginamutuallybeneficialway.Thoughusuallyunderstoodbetween

nonhumananimalandplantspecies,symbiosisofthissortcanbeframedinaway

thatincludeshumanuseofintroducedplants,animals(domesticorwild),and

microbes.

Figure4-(Above)adeciduousforestunaffectedbyearthwormintroductionand(below)aforestimpactedbyearthwormconsumptionofleafdetritus.Theeffectontheunderstoryandtreesaplingsisparticularlyapparent.Fromsciencenewsforstudents.org

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Infact,humanintroductionofspeciesisoftenintentionallyorunintentionally

connectedwiththeprojectofsettlercolonialism.Cook&Dias(2006),forexampleposit

thattheAustraliangovernmentintentionallyintroducedinvasivespeciesineffortsto

disrupt,alter,orcontrolboththenaturalecosystemsandtheAboriginalpeopleswho

theyweretryingtoexterminate.IntheAmericas,Mann(2007)offerstheexampleof

settlers’pigsthatescapedandestablishedlargeferalpopulationsandendedup

overexploitingsourcesofwildediblesliketuckahoe,whichNorthEasterntribesrelied

onwhencorncropsfailed.Inessence,thespeciesofanimalslikepigsthatwere

introducedforsettlers’consumptionandsurvivaleventuallybegantonotonlydothat,

butalsodisruptandweakenIndigenousfoodways.Somegeneralrelationshipsbetween

introducedandnativespeciesareshowninFigure5below:

Figure5-Diagramillustratingsomebioticinteractionsbetweennativeandnonnativespecies,withbluedoublelinesdepictingcollaborativecolonizationrelationships,redlinesdepictingdetrimentalrelationshipsbyinvasivespecies/populationsonnativespecies,andgreendottedlinesdepictingspeciesintroducedbysettlers.

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Similarlybutarguablymoredevastatingly,introducedspeciesdirectlyand

indirectlyservedthesettlercolonialprojectofeliminationofIndigenouspeoples.

Microbessuchassmallpox,measles,andthefluwerespreadbothunintentionally

andintentionally,withhistoricalexamplesofweaponizeduseofsmallpox-infested

blanketsdeliveredtoIndigenouspeoplesinfalsepeaceofferings,whichcaused

massivereductionsintheIndigenouspopulationswhoselandsEuropeanswere

attemptingtoseize(Dunbar-Ortiz,2014).Thisisaparticularlysevereexampleof

collaborativecolonization.AsEuropeansettlersworkedtodisplace,remove,or

eliminateIndigenouspeoplefromthelandtheycolonize,microbeswithwhichthey

hadco-developedforseveralcenturieswerespread,allowingbothspeciesto

colonizenewlandandbodies.

WhilenotdirectlyrelatedtothecollaborativecolonizationoftheAmericas,it

isimportanttonoteheretheroleofintentionalecologicaldestructiononthepartof

settlersintheircolonialpursuits.Asdescribedearlier,forestclearingfortimber,

grazing,andfarming,mostlyofexportableandprofitablecropsgrownbyslave

labor,wasalargepartofbothsettlercolonialprojectandtheresultantdisruptionto

localecosystems(Cronon,2003).Therewerealsoexamplesoftrophicdisruptions

withtheoverhuntingofnativespecieslikebeavers,wolves,andbisonandthe

introductionofnonnativegamespecieslikelakeandrivertrout(Neale,2017).The

massexterminationofbisonservesasahistoricalexampleofthewaysthatsettlers

disruptnaturalecosystemsandinturn,bydesign,disruptIndigenousfoodwaysand

especiallyculturalandspiritualpractices(Dunbar-Ortiz,2014).Notonlyarebisona

centralbioticcomponentoftheGreatPlainsprairieecosystemandamajorfood

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sourceforIndigenoushuntingtribes,buttheyarealsoacentralfigureinIndigenous

cosmologicalandculturalidentity.Theeffortstorestorebisonpopulationsinthe

NorthAmericanPlainshavebeensomewhatfraught,aswillbediscussedlater.

Thereisacriticalinterventionthatmustbemadehere,providedby

anthropologistssuchasCattelino(2017)in“LovingtheNative:InvasiveSpeciesand

theculturalpoliticsofflourishing.”Indiscussingthewaysthatecosystemshave

traditionallybeenframedasstablesystemsmaintainingequilibrium,Cattelino

(2017)pointsoutthatchangeisoftenunderstoodasdisturbingandaberrational.

Thisviewisparallelandarisesfromthesametimeperiodandintellectualtradition

asstructuralfunctionalisminanthropology,whichholdsthatcultures,too,arestatic

andthatchangeiscausedbydisruption(Cattelino,2017).Thisconnectingand

collapsingofbiologicalandculturalequilibriummakesitsothat1)Indigenous

peoplesareproducedandconceptualizedbysettlersocietyas“nature,”22)

perpetuatesthedisappearingnativetropethatIndigenousscholarshaveargued

servestoentrenchandjustifysettlercolonialdominationofIndigenouslandand

culture(TuckandYang,2012)(Wolfe,2006),and3)marksIndigenouspeoplesand

culturesasstaticandofabygonepast,limitingthemtopreserveamythicalpure

past(muchlikeThoreau’sGoldenAge)orinauthenticitythatsupposedlycomes

withchange,threateningIndigenouspeople’sclaimstoaboriginalrightstoland.

Thesecritiquesofbothanthropologicalandecologicalequilibriumandthe

association,even,ofIndigenouscultureandnaturalecosystemsisrelevanttothis

projectofunderstandingtheecologicalimpactsofcolonizationandthewaysthat2Cattelino(2017)pointsoutthatitisthenunsurprisingthatmostnaturalhistorymuseumscontainexhibitsonnativepeoplesasspeciesofnaturalworld.

Co-Colonizing 21

settlercolonialisminteractswith,facilitates,andisbenefittedbytheecological

degradationofnativeecosystemsviaphysicalchangestothelandscape,shiftsin

landuse,orintroductionofnonnativespecies.Asweproceedindiscussingtheways

thatinvasivespeciesandstudyoftheirinteractionwithnativeecosystemsand

fellownonnativespeciesfitintothehistoricaldevelopmentofsettlercolonialism,it

isimportanttorememberCattelino’s(2017)warning:thatratherthanrelyingon

theanalogyofIndigenouspeople/nativespeciesandsettler/invasivespecies,we

mustcriticallyexaminethenonanalogouswaysthatnature,Indigeniety,and

belongingareco-producedinsettlersociety.Howissettlercolonialismdifferent

thantheinvasionofecosystemsbynonnativespecies,andhowdosociety’s

responsestobothdiffer?Thiscanbepartlyunderstoodbylookingathowinvasive

speciesarestudiedbysettlerscientists.

TheStudyofInvaders

WhileIndigenousscholarsandcommunitieshavestudiedandreckonedwith

boththeprocessofcolonizationandsettlersocietyitself,asamatterofsurvivaland

resistance,settlerscholarshaveforthemostpartfocusedtheirscientificinquiryin

thesymptomsoftheiroccupationoftheAmericas.Withinecologyandbiology,this

tookontheformofstudyingthepatternsofecosystemspre-andpost-contact,as

describedbyCronon(2003),describingtheprocessofchangingecosystemsbyway

ofsuccession,rangeexpansionofintroducedspecies(Hui&Richardson2017),and

theconcentratingoncategorizing,managing,andevaluatinginvasivespecies.In

1958,CharlesEltonpublishedTheEcologyofInvasionsofAnimalsandPlantsand

Co-Colonizing 22

kickedoffthedevelopmentofthefieldofInvasionEcology.Sincethen,ecologists

havesoughttoaddressvariousquestionsaboutinvasivespecies,whatmakesthem

invasive,thefactorsthatmakecertainecosystemsmoreorlesspronetoinvasion

thanothers,andwhatvalueordetrimentintroducedspecieshave.

Oneoftheinitialproblemsaddressedbyinvasionecologyisthe

categorizationofspeciesaseithernative,nonnative,orinvasive.Thesecategories

aresometimesdifficulttodistinguishduetovariouspossibletimeandgeographic

scalesusedtoanalyzeaspecies’nativenessorforeignness(Davis&Thompson,

2000).In“EightWaystoBeaColonizer,TwoWaystoBeanInvader”Davisand

Thompson(2012)categorizespeciescolonizinganovelecosystemintoeighttypes,

withtwoofthembeinginvasive.Severalothershavealsotriedtoconsolidate

varyingandredundantnomenclatureandhypothesesintoasingleunified

theoreticalframework(Catford,2009).Partofthisendeavorincludesformationof

hypothesesthatattempttoexplaininvasionsthroughamechanisticlens.Some

factorsofinvasionthathavebeenidentifiedandsuggestedareinvasiveness

(genotypic/phenotypicandbehavioralqualitiesofspeciesthatsuccessfully

colonizenovelecosystems)andinvasibility(internalqualitiesofrecipient

ecosystemsthatmakethemvulnerabletoinvasion)(Huietal.,2016),range

expansionintoadjacentecosystems(Davis&Thompson,2000),andsuccession-

relatedcolonization,whetherrelatedtohumanornon-humandisturbance(Davis&

Thompson,2000).

Itcanbesaidthattheconceptsofinvasivenessandinvasibilityhave

analoguesinsettlerdiscoursesintheformofthepurportedinherentsettler

Co-Colonizing 23

superiorityorIndigenousinferiority,whetherbiological,racial,orcultural,that

havebeenusedtojustifycolonialismandracialdomination,whilerangeexpansion

andsuccession-relatedcolonizationcanbeseenasakintothenormalizingofsettler

colonialismasnaturalhumanmigration(rangeexpansion)andtheblamelessrole

thatepidemicssuchassmallpoxhadinenablingthesettlerdominationof

Indigenouspopulations.Allofthesefactorsofecologicalinvasion,ifappliedto

settlercolonialism,canbeviewedasnormalizingornaturalizingofthesestructures

andsetsofrelations.

Withinsettlercolonialism,thisisdonethroughaseriesofwhatTuckand

Yangcallsettlermovestoinnocencewhichincludesettlernativism,settleradoption

fantasies,colonialequivocation,conscientization,representingIndigenouspeopleas

eitheratriskofdisappearingorasinsignificantnumerically,andre-occupation

(2012).Thesemovesareonesthatallowsettlerstoabsolveourselvesofguiltor

responsibilityfortheharmsofcolonialismand,mostimportantly,tomaintain

controloverstolenlandweoccupy.Itismycontentionhere,guidedbytheworkof

IndigenousscholarsofsettlercolonialismaswellasauthorslikeCattelino(2017),

thatthesingularfocusoninvasivespecies,butnotsettlercolonialismitself,isa

movetoinnocencemadebysettlerscientiststhatdeflectsattentionawayfromthe

settlercolonialstructuresthatinformecologicaldegradationofcolonizedlands.

Someecologistshavearguedthatthecategoryofinvasivespeciesis

problematicitselfbecauseitjudgesspeciesontheirforeignnessratherthanthe

functiontheyserveorthevalue/detrimenttheyrepresenttotheecological

communitytheyenter.InaNaturecommentarysignedby19ecologists,itwas

Co-Colonizing 24

arguedthatcallingnonnativespeciesinvasiverepresentedaxenophobicand

nativisttrendamongstecologists(Davisetal,2011).Thislineofthought,while

superficiallyprogressive,isproblematicfortworeasonspresentedbyIndigenous

andnon-Indigenousscholarsofsettlercolonialstudies.

First,theframingofinvasivespeciesasvictimsofxenophobiaparallelsthe

tendencyforpublicdiscoursetoframeallAmericansasimmigrants,whereas

scholarsofIndigeneity,transnationalism,andsettlercolonialismpointoutthat

immigrantsarethosewhoareaccountabletothelawsandcustomsofthe

IndigenouscommunitiestheyenterwhilesettlersreplaceIndigenouspeopleand

imposetheirownlawsandcustoms(TuckandYang,2012).Inasimilarway,

invasivespeciesarethosethatdrasticallyalterbioticinteractionsviaresource

competition,predator/preyinteractions(Terborgh&Estes,2010),changeabiotic

factorsaffectingotherspecies(suchassoil)(Simberloff,2011),havenonatural

enemiesorrelationshipswithothermembersofthebiologicalcommunity,or

decreasegenotypicdiversityviabottlenecksduetooriginatingfromsmallnumbers

ofinitialcolonizers(Alyokhin,2011).

ScholarslikeDavisandThompson(2000)attempttoarguethatnonnative

speciesincreasebiodiversityandthattheireconomicandecologicalbenefitsshould

beconsideredindecisionsconcerningtheirmanagement.Thisparallelswhatis

discussedintheworkofIndigenoushistoriansandscholarsasbeingthesettler

narrativessurrounding“improvement”ofemptyland(TuckandYang,2012)and

themythofamulticulturaldemocraticsocietythatobscuresthesettlercolonial

realityoftheUnitedStates,Canada,andothersettlersocieties(Dunbar-Ortiz,2014).

Co-Colonizing 25

Thesecondchallengetotheargumentthatinvasivespeciesmanagementis

nativistandxenophobicisakintothelesscommonbutsometimesheard

justificationforsettlercolonialism:thatdecolonizationanditscallforanendto

settlerdominationandoccupationofIndigenouslandisxenophobic.Cattelino

(2017)pointedlynotestheironyinthediscoursesurroundinginvasivespecies

managementanderadication:initspositioningofsettlerscientistsasthestewards

ormanagersofnativeecosystemsandspecies,settlersrootthemselvestotheland

theyoccupyandpositionthemselvesasnative.Nativismonthepartofsettler

scientistsandpolicymakersonbehalfofnativeplantsandanimalsnotonlynegates

Indigenouspeople’sclaimtoland,butalsosuggeststhatsettlersarebetterableto

“preserve”nativeecosystemseventhoughIndigenousknowledgeand

methodologieshavebeenacknowledgedbyecologistsascrucialtoproper

managementofecosystems(Ween&Colombi,2013).

Instead,Cattelino(2017)pointsoutthatsettlers’roleinmanagementof

nativeecosystemsispartoftheprocessofmaintainingpatrimonyoveroccupied

Figure6-Comics,logos,andposterswarningagainstthedangersofinvasivespecies,withoutreflectionontheirsettlercolonialcontexts.Fromcaliforniachaparral.org,keywordsuggest.org,andduesllc.wordpress.com,respectively.

Co-Colonizing 26

Indigenouslandandthatinvasivespeciesandmorebroadly,ecological,

managementmustcenterIndigenousagency,governance,andscientific

participation.TuckandYang(2012)provideuswithsettlerfuturity,auseful

conceptforunderstandingthedrivingintentionbehindthispositioningofsettlers.

InsettlercolonialsocietiessuchastheUnitedStatesandCanada,itissettlerfutures

thatareenshrined,protectedbythestate,andguaranteedbythematerialand

politicaleconomiesthatstructurelife.Bothinstitutionsandnarrativesettlermoves

toinnocenceservetoensurethatsettlersandtheirdescendantswillremainina

dominantpositionwithinthecolonialsociety.

Invasivespeciesaregenerallynotaffordedthisprotectionandguaranteeof

futurityinthehabitatsinwhichthey’veinvaded,andinsteadareoftenmarkedfor

systematicandstate-fundederadication(Davis,2011)(Lockwoodetal.,2011).The

discrepancybetweensettlersociety’sresponsetoinvasivespecies(demonstratedin

theimagesinFigure6above)andsettlercolonialismitselfispreciselywhatmustbe

interrogatedwithinaholisticecologyofinvasionofthiscontinent,withaconstant

reflectiononhowwemightbemakingmovestoinnocencewithinourstudyof

ecologicalsystemsinthelandweoccupy.

Cattelino(2017)alsoconteststheuseofinvasivespeciesasanontologicalor

ecologicalcategory,notbecauseitisnativistbutbecauseitisashiftingcategory

ratherthanastaticone.Speciesthatareinvasiveinonecontextmightnotbein

another(Cattelino,2017),ormayfulfillanewecologicalnicheinoneecological

community(suchasintroducedearthworms)butdominateandreplaceanative

Co-Colonizing 27

speciesinanother.3Thechallengeofgeneralizingtheinvasivenessofaspeciesdue

tovaryingimpactsofintroducedandrange-expandingspecies(Davis&Thompson,

2000)makesitdifficulttorelyoninvasivespeciesasacategory.AsCattelinoputs

succinctly,“categoriesdothingsandsustainstructures”(2017,p.133).Animaland

plantspecies,likehumans,navigateanddefycategorieswhichthemselvesareever

shifting.

HomogenizationofaColonizedWorld

Withthecontentiousandnebulousnatureofecologicalinvasionsandsettler

colonialisms,howhascolonizationofonehumanpopulations’landbyanother

affectedtheglobalbiosphere?Itisundeniablethatecologicalchangeshaveoccurred

acrossalltimeandspaceonEarth,especiallyfollowingtheemergenceofbiological

lifeandthecomplexecologicalcommunitiestheyform.Andifalllife,fromthe

smallestmicrobestotheswiftestanimalsandgrandestplants,hasalwaysbeen

expandingitshabitatrange,inhabitingnewspacesandroles,thenwhatisthe

biologicalandpoliticalissuepresentedbycolonizationofnewecosystemsandthe

arguablymorecomplicatedstructureofsettlercolonialism?

Thisquestionisimpossibletoanswerwithbiologyalone.Still,withinthe

frameworkofconservationbiogeographytheconceptofbiotichomogenizationisa

valuablewayofunderstandingtheprocessesofinvasionofmanytypesandwhatis

atstakewiththecurrenthistoricalandecologicaldevelopmentoftheworld.Having3Grosholz(2005)offersahistoricalexampleofco-colonizingwithanonnativeclamspeciesthatwasnotinvasivenordestructivetonativeclamspeciesuntiltheintroductionofaninvasivespeciesofgreencrabthatdisruptedthenativeclamspeciesviapredationandallowedthenonnativeclamspeciestocompetitivelyexcludenativespecies.

Co-Colonizing 28

itsrootsinDarwin’sinvestigationsofspeciationandWallace’sseparationofbiomes,

biotichomogenizationisdefinedbyLockwood&McKinney(2001)as“the

replacementoflocalbiotaswithnon-indigenousspecies”which“oftenreplaces

uniqueendemicspecieswithalreadywidespreadspecies.”

Ataglobalscale,biotichomogenizationinvolvestheincreasingsimilarity

betweenbiotasacrosstimeandspaceresultinginmanyecosystemsacrossthe

worldconsistingofthesamecommonspeciesandecologicalrelationships(Olden,

2006).Inessence,theoveralldiversityofbiologicalcommunitiesisdecreasedas

certaindominantspeciesandbiotasbecomewidespreadaroundtheworld.Olden

(2006)breaksbiotichomogenizationintothreetypes:genetichomogenization,in

whichgeneticsimilarityofgenepoolsincreaseswithhybridizationorextinction;

taxonomichomogenization,

inwhichcosmopolitan

speciesreplaceendemic

species;andfunctional

homogenization,inwhich

ecologicalrolesservedby

speciesbecome

increasinglysimilar.

Severalstudieshave

usednow-widespreadspeciesofrainbowandbrowntroutasinformativecasesof

thethreetypesofbiotichomogenization(Olden,2006)(Neale,2017).Thestocking

oflakesandriversinregionscolonizedbyEuropeanswithgeneticallysimilar

Figure7-MapofBrowntrout(Salmotrutta)nativehabitat(darkgray)andintroducedrange(lightgrey).Fromesapubs.org.

Co-Colonizing 29

populationsoftrout,theextirpationofnativeendemicspecies,andthealterationof

nativeecosystempredationpatternsallservedtohomogenizethegeneticand

taxonomicdiversityofthesefreshwaterbiotasand,interestingly,thepredation

pressureonnativeplanktonspecieswasfoundtoincreasetherateofinvasionof

theseecosystems(Olden,2006).Neale(2017)focusesontheintroductionofbrown

trouttoNewZealand’swaterwaysbyEuropean

settlersanditsroleindisruptingIndigenousfood

andwatersourcesandservingsettlerdesires

andneeds,butbothstudiesoftroutintroduction

pointtosomeoftheissuesofhomogenization:it

disruptsIndigenouspeople’slivesand

connectiontolandinserviceoftheprojectofsettlercolonialism(Neale,2017)andit

makesnativeecosystemsmorevulnerabletoinvasion(Olden,2006).

Inthe“HumanDimensionsofBioticHomogenization,”Olden,Douglas,and

Douglas(2005)turntoboththewaysthatbiotichomogenizationaffectshuman

socialandculturalpracticesandthe“parallelsandlinkages”betweenbioticand

culturalhomogenizationdescribedinthesocialsciences(p.1).Theymake

importantcontributionstothediscussionofbiotichomogenizationanditseffecton

localIndigenouscommunitiesaswellascountertheargumentthatintroductionof

species(invasiveorotherwise)increasesspeciesrichnessandlocaldiversity(α-

diversity)bynotingthatbiotichomogenizationisaccompaniedbylossofoverallγ-

andβ-diversity(Oldenetal.,2005).Theirconclusionthatdecreasedbiodiversity

andtheextinctionofnativespeciesaffectspecificbiogeographicalrelationships

Figure8-Browntrout(Salmotrutta),anintroducedspeciesnowfoundinmanylakesystemsaroundtheworld.Fromhatchmag.com.

Co-Colonizing 30

betweenIndigenouscommunitiesandthespeciesthattheycohabitatewithrelates

directlybacktothenotionoftheintroductionofnonnativespeciesanderadication

ofnativespeciesbeingtoolsofsettlercolonialism.

Oldenetal.(2005)gofurtherintheiranalysisbetweentheanalogousaspects

ofbioticandculturalhomogenization,arguingthatthespreadofbothintroduced

speciesandsocioeconomicstructures(viasettlercolonialism,imperialdomination,

orassimilation)decreasestheoveralldiversityofhumancultures.Thisparallels

whatothershavesaidaboutEuropeancolonialism’seffectontheglobaleconomic

andecologicalrelationsthatstructurethelivesofalargeportionofthehuman

population,withglobalcapitalism,resourceextraction,andWesterngovernance

expandingthroughouttheworld.Theparallelsandlinkagesbetweenculturaland

biotichomogenizationareindeedimportantandprovideinsightintothe

interrelatednessbetweennatureandculture.Withthecurrentsituationand

discoursesurroundingglobalclimatechange,causedbyacombinationofEuropean

industrialization,extractionandconsumptionoffossilfuels,proliferationof

Europeanagriculturalpractices,anddeforestation,it’simportanttopointoutthe

directrelationtothecolonizationoftherestoftheworldbyEuropeanditssettler

colonialprogeny.

Thereissomecautiontobetakenwithcomparingbioticand

cultural/sociopoliticalhomogenization,particularlywhendiscussingtheirimpact

onIndigenouscommunities.Cattelino(2017)againremindsusofthethreemajor

waysthatthisequivocaldiscoursecanfollowandretrenchhistoricalideologiesof

settlercolonialism.Namely,settlersocietyco-producesnatureandIndigenous

Co-Colonizing 31

people,renderingthembothaslackingagencyaswellaslimitingtheirabilityto

change/adaptwithoutlosingauthenticity(alwaysdefinedbysettlersociety)or

claimtoland(Cattelino,2017).Thealarmistwarningsoflossofnativespeciesand

nativepeoplesortheirculturesalsoconstructsIndigenouspeoplewithinthesettler

popular,scientific,andpoliticalnarrativeasatriskofdisappearingoralready

disappeared(TuckandYang,2012)(Cattelino,2017).

Thesecritiquesofcollapsingbioticandculturalhomogenizationintothe

sameprocessareimportantinterventionsintheconservationbiologyandecological

discoursesurroundingecologicaldegradation.Ratherthanfocusingonpreserving

bioticdiversityforitsownsake,regardlessofitswell-acknowledgedbenefitsand

ecologicalimplications(Alyokhin,2011),adecolonialethicofecological

degradation,invasivespecies,andhomogenizationmustcentertheknowledgeand

collectiveagencyofIndigenouspeoples(Cattelino,2017).Toprioritizecultural

diversityandpreservation,oftenwithastaticviewofIndigenouscultures,over

Indigenoussovereigntyandcollectiveagencywouldfurtherapatternwithin

AmericandiscoursethatrendersIndigenouspeoplesandculturesasstatic,

unchangingandofthepast.Whathomogenization,bioticandcultural,doesprovide

isabiologicalandethicalimpetusforstudying,managing,andpreventing/undoing

ecologicaldegradationrelatedtosettlercolonialismand,perhapsmoreimportantly,

supportingpoliticallythesovereigntyoftheIndigenousnationswhoselandwe

occupy.

Co-Colonizing 32

TowardsaDecolonialEcology:TwoCaseStudiesinRestorationEcology

Ashasbeensaidthroughoutthispaper,conservationandecological

restorationinasettler-colonialcontextraisescertainhistoricalandpolitical

tensions.ThisisbecausetheIndigenouslandweliveonisboththesiteofthe

ongoingsettlercolonialdisruptionofoccupationanditsmainsubjectofconcern.

Similarly,thisdisruptionisenacteduponboththeenvironmentandallofits

inhabitants.ThecollaborativecolonizationoftheAmericasisbynecessitytiedto

thecollaborativedegradationofnativeecologicalcommunities(includinghuman

populations).Therefore,thepossibilityofadecolonialecology,ratherthanonethat

retrenchessettlercolonialoccupation,isdependentonitsabilitytosupportthe

assertionofIndigenoussovereigntyandincreasetribalcommunities’controlover

theirland.Toexaminethetensionsandcomplicatedrelationshipbetweensettler

colonialismandecologicalrestoration,thissectionwilllookattherestorationof

AmericanbisonintheGreatPlainsofNorthAmericaandtherestorationofPacific

SalmoninthePacificNorthwest.

Thoughpre-contactbisonpopulationestimatesvarywidely,itisbelieved

thatNorthAmericawasoncehometobetween25and75millionbison(McDonald,

2001).Thisnumberwasreducedtolessthan1000by1890,followingtherapid

expansionofEuropean-Americansettlement(McDonald,2001).Historianslike

Dunbar-Ortizhaveexplainedthatmuchoftherapiddeclineofbisonpopulationscan

beattributedtotheintentionaloutcomesofAmericanFederalgovernmentand

militarypoliciesofcolonialwarfareduringtheIndianWars,cuttingIndigenous

tribes’accesstofoodandothermaterialsthroughmassextermination(2015).This

Co-Colonizing 33

violenceisdownplayedorignoredinthelandmanagementandecologicalliterature,

whichattributesbisonpopulations’declineto“bothIndianandEuro-American

actions”anddrought,habitatdegradation,competitionfromnonnativespecies,and

introduceddisease(White,1991).

McDonald(2001)focusesonarelevantcauseofbisonherds’“dwindling”:

huntingandhabitatdestructionfordomesticcattleranching.Likebrowntrout,

cattleareanintroducedspeciesthathasbecomenearlyubiquitousaroundthe

world,followingthesettlercoloniesthatreliedonthedomesticatedbovidsforfood,

materials,andagriculturallabor.Domesticatedanimalstendtoonlybecome

classifiedasinvasivespecieswhentheybecomeferalandestablishsignificant

populationsthatimpactthenativehabitatstheyinvade(forexample,feralpigsin

theAmericansouthandsouthwest).However,thereplacementofbisonherdsby

cattleandothersettler-introducedlivestockcanbeunderstoodasahomogenizing

process,withthereplacementofanecologicallyandculturallyimportantnative

specieswithacommonone.

Figure9-ReintroducedbisonontheWindRiverReservationinIowa.Fromwayoflife.com.

Co-Colonizing 34

Reintroductionandconservationeffortshavebeenrelativelysuccessfulin

termsofpopulationnumbers.By1999,thereweremorethan300,000bison

worldwide(McDonald,2001).However,McDonaldnotesthatthemajorityofthese

wereonprivaterancheswhileaverysmallportionlivedonpublicortriballands.Of

these,averysmallportionismanagedaswildanimalherds,withthemajority

treatedasindustrialanimalsontheirwaytodomestication.Thishasledtoachange

inbehaviorandphysiologythroughevolutionandreductionofgeneticdiversityvia

bottleneckeffects.McDonaldalsomakesanimportantpointthattheraisingofbison

asalivestockanimal,repletewithfeedlotsandartificialselection,essentially

negatesthebenefitsandpurposeofrestoringanecologicallyimportantgrazing

speciesintheGreatPlainsgrasslandecosystems(2001).

Theseecologicalconsiderationsofbisonrestorationalsointeractwith

politicalandeconomiconesoftheGreatPlains.Aconfluenceofprivate,state,

federal,andTribalinterestsandclaimtolandalongwithdiffereingmanagement

practicescreatesacomplicatedsettingforecologicalconservation.Indigenous

tribeshavestressedthespiritual,cultural,andecologicalimportanceofbisonand

theneedtorespectthemandtheirpositionintheGreatPlainscommunity

(McDonald,2001).Meanwhile,privatesettlerranchershavearguedagainstthe

reintroductionofbisonbecauseoftheirgrazingcompetitionwithcattleand

interferencewithlucrativeminingandoilextractionoperations.Federalandstate

governmentsandtheirconstituentshaveintervenedwiththeintentionof

conservingpubliclands“forallAmericans”andmanagingbisonherdsaswellas

predatorslikewolvesthroughcullingorreintroduction(McDonald,2001).

Co-Colonizing 35

ThepoliticsofbisonherdrestorationarealsotiedupinanAmericanWest

imaginarythatromanticizessettlement,thefrontier,andthecowboyaestheticand

historyoftheregion.Likethelandthattheyinhabit,bison(alongwithIndigenous

communitiesandcultures)becomeentangledwithinthatimageryoftheAmerican

West,positioningthemaspartofasharedAmericanidentity.This,Tuck,Yang,and

otherIndigenousscholarsinformus,isthesettlerinheritancethatmaintainssettler

colonialclaimstosovereigntyovertheland.Ratherthanrestoringbisonfortheir

ownecologicalandspiritualpurpose,settlersconservethemaspartofthecultural

andbiologicalwealththattheyhaveclaimed.

ThealternativetothismotivehasbeenproposedbyIndigenouscommunities

intheGreatPlainsregion,withMcDonald(2001)notingtribalbisonherd

management’semphasisoninterdependenceandspiritualrelationshipbetween

human,bison,andtheirsharedenvironment.Tribeshaveimplementedthesewith

tribal-ownedenterprisesliketheInterTribalBisonCooperative(McDonald,2001).

Manyscientistsandenvironmentalconservationistshaveconcurred,callingforthe

restorationofwildpopulationsofbisonratherthanincommercialandindustrial

ranchingsettings.However,thequestionoflandiseverpresent.Oneoftheputative

solutionstobisonrestorationintheGreatPlainsistheMillionAcreProject,aproject

basedonthenotion(introducedbybiologists)thattheGreatPlainsecosystem

needsonemillionacresofprotectedlandfora“safezone”wherewildanimalscan

takerefuge,closingthelandofftograzingandhunting,includingthatofIndigenous

communities(McDonald,2001).Meanwhile,McDonald(2001)observesthatthe

Co-Colonizing 36

InterTribalBisonCooperativehashadgreatsuccesswitheducationalandcultural

initiatives,buthasbeenunabletosecurelandfortribal-ledbisonrestoration.

Othertribalcommunitieshaveemployedadifferentstrategyforcombining

ecologicalrestorationandtribalsovereigntyeffortswiththeassertionoftreaty

rights.HereintheIndigenousterritoriesknownasthePacificNorthwestofthe

UnitedStates,tribeshavesoughttoprotectoneofthemostimportantecologicaland

spiritualcommunitymembers:salmon.MembersoftheOncorhynchusgenusare

nativetotheregion’slake,river,andoceansystemsandhaveco-evolvedwith

Indigenouspeopleoftheregionforthousandsofyears(WeenandColombi,2013).

Intheircomparisonoflandmanagementregimesofriversystemswithsignificant

IndigenouspopulationsandthreatenedsalmonpopulationsinNorwayandOregon,

WeenandColombi(2013)provideadiscussionofhowIndigenousknowledgeand

sovereigntyinformsecologicalmanagementprojectsandtheirsuccess.

BeforeEuropeanandAmericancolonization,itisestimatedthatthe

ColumbiaRiversustainedapopulationofaround700,000Indigenouspeople

speaking11differentlanguages(WeenandColombi,2013).Theculturaland

spiritualrelationshipandimportanceofthisrelationshipcannotbeunderstatedfor

tribesliketheNezPearce.Theviolenceofthedisruptionofsalmonisequally

importanttoconsider.Startingin1850withthefirstEuropean-Americansettlers’

arrivalinthearea,thepopulationsofsalmonintheregion’sriversystems

significantlydeclined.Settlersfishedcommercially,builthydroelectricdamns,

loggedforestscrucialtomaintainingecosystemcycling,andreleasedtoxicmining

waste,reducingthesalmonpopulation(WeenandColombi,2013).Otheractions

Co-Colonizing 37

likeoverexploitationofbeaversforpelts(whosedamsserveasanimportanthabitat

componentforjuvenilesalmon)andconversionofmarshlandsintofarmlandsalso

hadadetrimentaleffectonsalmonintheregion.

OneimportantdevelopmentintherelationshipbetweenthePacific

Northwesttribesandthesettlersocietythatdominatestheirlandisthe

establishmentoftreaties.Thoughthemorethan500treatiesenteredbetween

IndigenoustribesandtheUnitedStatesgovernmenthavenearlyallbeenbrokenby

theUnitedStates(Dunbar-Ortiz,2015),treatiesstillensuretribesaccesstocertain

lands,benefits,andactivities.Thisincludeshuntingandfishing,withmanytreaties

includingastipulationthatIndigenoussignatoriesretaintheirlong-heldrighttofish

certainriversandotherbodiesofwater.TheColumbia,Duwamish,Elwhaandother

importantriversintheregionareincludedinthetreatiessignedbyPacific

Northwesttribes.However,thereismorethanonewaytobreakatreaty.Tribes

havepointedoutthattreatiespromisingfishingrightsareoflittleuseifthefish

populationsandtheecosystemsthatsupportthemaredegradedviadam

construction,industrialpollution,orsettleroverfishing.Inthiscase,ecological

restorationandconservationbecomesnecessaryforassertingtreatyrights.

Inresponsetotheneedtorestoretreaty-protectednaturalenvironments,

theNorthwestIndianFisheriesCommissionwasformedin1974followingtheUS

SupremeCourtvictorythatreaffirmedtreaty-protectedfishingrights

(nwtreatytribes.org,n.d.).Beforethat,WashingtonStatebroketreatiesby

preventingIndigenouspeoplefromfishingontheirtraditionallandsandarrested

thosewhodefiedthestatelawaspartofacivildisobediencecampaign.The

Co-Colonizing 38

NorthwestTreatyTribesisaneffortbytheCommissiontosupporttribesin

assertingtheirtreatyrights,establishandmanagehatcheriestoensuresalmon

populationrobustness,andrestoreriverecosystems.Recently,theNorthwest

TreatyTribeshasbeenacentralpartoftheefforttoprotectPacificsalmon

populationsfromthreats,

includingfrompollution

andtheintroductionof

commerciallygrown

Atlanticsalmon(asshown

totheleftinfigure9),a

nonnativespeciesthathas

beenfoundtopredate

juvenilefishandintroduce

geneticdeformitiesintothenativepopulations.

Protectingnativesalmonpopulationsandrestoringtheirheavilypolluted

andtransformedecosystemshasinvolvedacombinationoflegaladvocacy,

educationandawarenessraising,hatcheryenterprisemanagement,andecological

research.The20membertribescollaborateinthesevariousprojectsaswellas

consultwithstateandprivatescientists.ThisisnotuniquetothePacificNorthwest

tribes,asmanyIndigenousnationsandtribescollaboratewithsettlerscientistsfor

conservationoftriballandsandnaturalresources.However,itistheexplicit

purposeofassertingtreatyrightsandrestoringoftribalsovereigntythatmakes

roomforadecolonialethicofecology.Herethecontributionsandmethodologiesof

Figure10-NorthwestTreatyTribescrewmembersfromtheLummitriberemovingspilledAtlanticsalmonandreturningnativePacificsalmontothePugetSound.Fromcrosscut.com.

Co-Colonizing 39

ecologycanberepurposednotforthestudyofsettlers’newdomain(Tuckand

Yang,2012)butfortheholisticstudyand,moreimportantly,interactionwiththe

naturalenvironmentandallofitsinhabitants.

Therearestillsomeconsiderationsandconcernstobeaddressedinthis

example.Theemploymentoftreatyrightsforprotectionandrestorationofnatural

environmentsdoesnotautomaticallytranslatetorepatriationofland.Infact,the

UnitedStatessettlerstatehasexpresslyclaimedtotalsovereigntyoverthelands

withinitsterritory,holdingintrustthelandit“reserves”forIndigenoustribes.It

hasalsounilaterallyendedtribes’abilitytoenterandnegotiatetreaties

(law.cornell.edu,n.d.).Inaddition,manytribesarenotevenrecognizedbytheUS

settlerstateandeitherdonothaveanexistingtreatyorhaveonethathasbeen

brokenandthereforedonothavealandbase,liketheDuwamishtribeofthelands

todayknownasSeattle.

AndwhilethecollaborationbetweenIndigenoustribesandgovernment

scientistsiscommendableandspeakstothepotentialusefulnessofecologyand

conservationecologyindecolonialprojects,itisimportantnottoreproducethe

patternsdiscussedearlier.Settlersmustnotpositionthemselvesaseithersuperior

caretakersormanagersofthelandnorworktoensureourownsettlerfuturity

(TuckandYang,2012).WealsomustrememberthatIndigenouspeopleshave

managedandcohabitatedintheselandssincetimeimmemorialwiththeirown

epistemologies,sciences,andmethodologies,andthatWesternecologyisnot

necessarilyindispensibleinthepropermanagementoftheselands.Thesetwo

assertionsarelikelytobeuneasilyreceivedbythescientificcommunity,butthey

Co-Colonizing 40

arecriticaltocenteringdecolonizationandIndigenoussovereigntyratherthan

settlerdesiresandfuturity.Whensettlercolonialismisunderstoodasoneofthe

contextsoftheecologicaldegradationthatweobserveintheworldaroundus,it

followsthatthesolutionisnotecologicalrestorationforitsownsake,butfor

addressingandundoingtheharmsofcolonization.

Conclusion

Thoughnotacompleteorexhaustivesurveyoftheenvironmentalhistoryof

theAmericancontinentspre-andpost-colonization,itishopedthatbynowitis

clearthatthecolonizationofthelast526yearshashadprofoundecologicalaswell

associoculturalimpacts.Whetherthatbefrommassextinctionofnativespeciesdue

tooverexploitation,orintroductionofnow-ubiquitousspeciesthatchangethevery

structureofthesoil,settlercolonialismhasradicallyalteredanddisruptedthe

ecologicalrelationshipsofthiscontinentmuchlikeithaswithIndigenous

communities’.Thestudyofthisrelationshipbetweensettlercolonialismandthe

ecologicaldegradationthatenabledandresultsfromitiscomplicatedboth

theoreticallyandethically,withecologicaldiscoursefallingwithinhegemonic

narrativesofsettlercolonialismandthesheercomplexityoftheecologicalsystems

thatitseekstounderstand.

Inattemptingtodescribe,explain,andrespondtotheecologicalalterationof

thisland,conservationscientistsandecologistshaveputforththeoriesofinvasion,

homogenization,andecologicalequilibriumandadaption.Somefocusheavilyonthe

plantandanimalspeciesthathavecometoinvade,reshape,andreplacenative

Co-Colonizing 41

species’communities.Thisfocus,too,iscomplicatedandmadeproblematicbythe

waysthatsettlerspositionthemselvesasnativetothelandtheyhavecolonized,

evenwiththeirdiscoursesofprevention,management,anderadicationofinvasive

species.Othershavenotedthatsettlersutilizeplant,animal,andmicrobespeciesin

theirprojectofsettlercolonialism,inawaysimilartohowspeciescollaborateto

invadeanovelecosystemwhentheyhavedevelopedinasharedbioregionand

withinsharedecologicalrelationshipsorfunctions.Someofthesehavebeen

intentionalintroductionsandmassextinctions;othershavebeenfacilitatedbyco-

evolutionaryorculturaltraitssuchasdisease-resistanceoragriculturalpractices.

Whatshouldbeclearisthatsettlercolonialismanditsresultantspreadof

bothcosmopolitanspeciesandculturalpractices/ideologiescauseprofound

changesontheworld.Thehomogenizationofculturesandbiotasthreatensnotonly

theculturalandbiologicaldiversitythatmakesspecificbioregionsuniquebutalso

theworld’sabilitytorespondtodisturbancessuchasclimatechangeorepidemic.

(Olden,2006)(Oldenetal.,2005).Inordertoaddressthecomplexlinkages,the

analogousandnonanalogousaspectsbetweensettlercolonialismandbiological

invasion,wemustturntotheworkandleadershipofIndigenousandnon-

Indigenousscholarswhohavesoughttostudy,challenge,andundosettler

colonialism.Willinvasionecologistsandconservationbiologistsbeabletoprioritize

Indigenouscommunities’andnations’epistemologies,methodologies,andindeed

desires,evenifthosedon’tdirectlyalignwiththeacceptedpracticesandgoals

withinsettlerecology?

Co-Colonizing 42

Thefieldofecology,alongwithitsscientists,technologies,and

methodologies,hasmuchtooffertoprojectsofecologicalrestorationand

preservationinserviceofdecolonization.Whatiscrucial,though,isawillingnesson

thepartofsettlerscientiststocriticallyexaminenotonlytheecologicaleffectsof

theiroccupationofIndigenousland,butalsotheirownpositionalityassettlerson

thisland.Andindevelopingadecolonialethictoguideourstudyoftheecologyof

thisland,wemustconsistentlyandcriticallyexaminethewaysthatourapproachto

solvingtheproblemrootsustothisland,retrenchingthesettlercolonialstructures

thatshapeourexistencehere.Muchlikenaturalecosystems,thereisnogoingback

toamorepureoridyllicpast.Wemust,however,embracethechaoticanduncertain

natureofdecolonizationonitsownterms,andgrasptheivyatitsrootandallowthe

foresttogrowanew.Buteventhisistomakeametaphorofdecolonization.So

instead,Iinviteyoutoengagedeeplyfirstwiththeactualdesiresofdecolonization,

asaprojectfordeepjustice,andreflectonwhatitrequiresofusecologicallyaswell

associally.

Co-Colonizing 43

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