cmpe-013/l computer systems and “c” programming
DESCRIPTION
CMPE-013/L Computer Systems and “C” Programming. Gabriel Hugh Elkaim Spring 2012. About: Me. Faculty at UCSC since 2003 Undergraduate from Princeton in Aerospace Eng. Masters and PhD from Stanford in Aero/ Astro Built a robotic winged catamaran for my PhD thesis - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
CMPE-013/L
Computer Systemsand “C” Programming
Gabriel Hugh ElkaimSpring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
About: Me• Faculty at UCSC since 2003
• Undergraduate from Princeton in Aerospace Eng.
• Masters and PhD from Stanford in Aero/Astro
• Built a robotic winged catamaran for my PhD thesis
• Consulted on many embedded projects
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
CMPE-013 Website
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
CMPE-013/L Info
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
CMPE-013/L Syllabus
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
CMPE-013/L Extended Course Description
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
CMPE-013/L Books• [K&R]: “The C Programming Language, 2nd Edition”
by Kernighan and Ritchie, Prentice-Hall, 1988, ISBN-10: 0131103628.
• [Notes]: “Notes to accompany K&R,” by Steve Summit available on the class website and at: http://www.eskimo.com/~scs/cclass/krnotes/top.html
• “Programming 16-Bit PIC Microcontrollers in C: Learning to Fly the PIC24,” by Lucio Di Jasio, Newnes Press, 2007, ISBN: 9780750682923
• “The Cartoon Guide to Computer Science” by Larry Gonick, Barnes and Noble Books, 1983. http://www.soe.ucsc.edu/classes/cmpe013/Spring11/Gonick/
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
CMPE-013/L Attendance• Highly Recommended
– Material builds up quickly– Videos available, but not the same as being there
• In class quizzes– No excuses accepted post-quiz.
• At least one lab section per week– Easier to get through the labs with help– TA/Tutors will be available then– Required for your “signed up” section
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Academic Honesty• Cheating is presenting someone else’s work as your
own• All code turned in will be run against a code-checker• Anyone caught cheating will immediately fail the
class and the lab, and be reported to their college• Copying each other’s code is never acceptable.
• Don’t do it—not worth it.
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
CMPE-013/L Grading• Lecture and Lab are one and the same: CMPE-013
and CMPE-013L will get the same grade, same evaluation.
• In class quizzes (once per week): 30%• Programming assignments (one per week): 70%
• No midterm, no final
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
CMPE-013/L Lab Work• All programs we are using can be loaded onto your
own PC for use at any time—they are all free.• We’re using microchip’s MPLAB IDE and C30 compiler
(modern toolchain)• Using Proteus VSM simulator to simulate an
expensive development kit (Explorer16)• You can buy the actual Explorer16 from Microchip if
you want to (~$150).
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Microstick and Explorer16Microstick + FTDI ~ $35 Explorer16 + PicKIT ~ $150
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Reading Assignment for Thur• Introduction to Programming• Math Refresher• Compiler Steps• Compiler Errors
• Preface and Introduction of K & R• Summit Notes on Preface and Introduction
• Check out Webpage and Forum
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Lab 0: “Hello World”• Due on Monday, 09-Apr-2012 at 11:55PM
• Sign-off’s by TA and Tutor in Section
• Code submitted electronically
• Full lab on Website and eCommons
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
What is a Computer?
• Computer – A computer is a machine that manipulates data based on a list of
instructions called program. – A computer consists of hardware and software.
• Computer Hardware – Computer hardware is the physical part of a computer.– A typical computer consists of central processing unit (CPU), main
memory and external memory , and input and output devices.– A CPU consists of control unit (CU), arithmetic and logic unit
(ALU), and registers.
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Samples of Computer Hardware
A single board computer and a tiny computer.
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
The von Newmann Computer Architecture
Both programs and data are stored in the same memory
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Major Components of a Computer1. Input devices
• Obtains information from input devices (keyboard, mouse)2. Output devices
• Outputs information (to screen, printer, control other devices)3. Main memory
• Installs programs and data for rapid access4. CPU: 4.1 Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
• Performs arithmetic calculations and logic decisions 4.2 Control unit (CU)
• Supervises and coordinates activities of the computer4.3 Registers Fast memory
5. External memory • Store programs and data permanently (hard disks, CDs, USB)
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Hardware Trends
Moore’s Law (1965):
The number of transistors that can be inexpensively placed on an integrated circuit increases exponentially, doubling approximately every two years.
Based on Moore’s law, every two years, the following approximately double:
– CPU speed at which computers execute their programs.– The amount of main memory.– The amount of secondary memory.
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Computer SoftwareComputer software refers to a collection of computer programs that can be loaded into main memory and executed in the CPU of a computer.
Computer software can be classified as operating system and application software.
An operating system is a software program for management and coordination of activities and sharing the resources of a computer.
Application software refers to programs developed to assist users in completing specific tasks.
A process: a running program.
Software is harder than hardware.
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Interaction of Users and Computer Hardware through Software
Two interface methods:(1) Command shell(2) Graphical user interface (GUI)
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Computer Programming LanguagesThree types of programming languages
1. Machine code or machine languages A sequence of 0’s and 1’s giving machine specific instructions Example: 00011001
2. Assembly language Using meaningful symbols to represent machine code. Example: add hl,de
Assembler: Assembly code machine code Disassembler: machine code assembly code
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Computer Programming Languages
3. High-level languages Similar to everyday English and use mathematical notations (processed by compilers or interpreters)Example of a C statement:
a = a + 8;
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Computer Programming Languages
3. High-level languages Similar to everyday English and use mathematical notations (processed by compilers or interpreters)Example of a C statement:
a = a + 8;
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Comparison of High-Level Language with Machine Code and Assembly Code
Memory address Machine code Assembly code-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------0X1EA1 000100010000100000000000 ld de,0x00080X1EA4 1100010000000000 ld hl,(sp+0) 0X1EA6 00011001 add hl,de0X1EA7 1101010000000000 ld (sp+0),hl
The memory addresses, machine code, and assembly code corresponding to a C statement a = a + 8 for the Rabbit3000 8-bit microprocessor.
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
10 Reasons to Learn Chttp://iel.ucdavis.edu/publication/WhyC.html
1. C is one of foundations for modern information technology and computer science.
2. C is the most commonly used programming languages in industry. 3. C is a standardized programming language with international standards. 4. Writing computer programs is essential to solving complex science and
engineering problems. 5. Computer programming is becoming a necessary skill for many professions. 6. Computer programming can develop student's critical thinking capabilities. 7. C is one of the most commonly used programming languages in colleges and
universities. 8. C is the language of choice for programming embedded and mechatronic systems
with hardware interface. 9. C excels as a model programming language. 10. Once you have learned C, you can pick up other languages without much difficulty
by yourself because all other modern languages borrowed heavily from C.
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Structured Programming in C
– A disciplined approach to writing programs in C.– Clear, easy to test and debug, and easy to modify.
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
History of C• C
– Invented by Ritchie based on B, a simplified version of BCPL.– Used to develop Unix operating system and Unix commands– Most system software such as OS are written in C or C++– Replacement for assembly language for hardware interface.– By late 1970's C had evolved to “K & R C“
• C Standards– 1st C standard created in 1989 by ANSI, ratified by ISO in 1990. It is called C89. Some call it C90.– 2nd C standard was ratified in 1999, called C99.
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Just the Facts• C was developed in 1972 in order to write the UNIX
operating system• C is more "low level" than other high level languages
(good for MCU programming)• C is supported by compilers for a wide variety of
MCU architectures• C can do almost anything assembly language can do• C is usually easier and faster for writing code than
assembly language
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Busting the Myths (1.2)The truth shall set you free…
• C is not as portable between architectures or compilers as everyone claims– ANSI language features ARE portable– Processor specific libraries are NOT portable– Processor specific code (peripherals, I/O, interrupts,
special features) are NOT portable
• C is NOT as efficient as assembly– A good assembly programmer can usually do better than
the compiler, no matter what the optimization level – C WILL use more memory
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Busting the Myths (2.2)The truth shall set you free…
• There is NO SUCH THING as self documenting code – despite what many C proponents will tell you– C makes it possible to write very confusing code – just
search the net for obfuscated C code contests… (www.ioccc.org)
– Not every line needs to be commented, but most blocks of code should be
• Because of many shortcuts available, C is not always friendly to new users – hence the need for comments!
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
What we will cover in 13/L (1.3)• “C” programming
– Using C in an Embedded Environment
– Comments– Variables, Identifiers and
Data Types– Literal Constants– Symbolic Constants– printf() Library Function– Operators
– Expressions and Statements
– Making Decisions– Loops– Functions– Multi-File Projects &
Storage Class Specifiers
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
What we will cover in 13/L (2.3)• “C” programming (con’t)
– Arrays– Data Pointers– Function Pointers– Structures– Unions– Bit Fields– Enumerations– Macros with #define
• Advanced Techniques– State Machines– Recursion– Interrupts– Program decomposition– Abstraction– Scope– Static / Dynamic
Memory allocation
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
What we will cover in 13/L (3.3)• Embedded “C” on a
microcontroller– Specific issues with
uControllers– Peripheral usage– Reading documentation
• Testing and Debugging– Commenting– Test harnesses– Incremental
development– Issues with embedded
debugging
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Key things we’ll enforce (1.2)• Clean and clear style
– More important to adhere to established guidelines than use the “right” style
– We’ll use (modified) Linux style guide• Modularity and decomposition
– Code is segmented by functionality– Proper use of .h and .c files– Good use of functions for clean implementation
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Key things we’ll enforce (2.2)• State Machines / Event Driven Programming
– Best way to design reactive systems– Makes debugging much easier
• Incremental build and test– Every bit of code has a unit test– Unit test is designed with code block– Use of pseudo-code and comments– End to end code checks
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Concept of Ugly/Beautiful
• Ugly Dog
• Beautiful Dog
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Concept of Ugly/Beautiful
• Ugly Car
• Beautiful Car
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Concept of Ugly/Beautiful
• Ugly Building
• Beautiful Building
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Concept of Ugly/Beautiful
• Ugly Man
• Beautiful Man
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Concept of Ugly/Beautiful
• Ugly Woman
• Beautiful Woman
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Concept of Ugly/Beautiful
typedef char C;typedef long I;typedef struct a{I t,r,d[3],p[2];}*A;#define P printf#define R return#define V1(f) A f(w)A w;#define V2(f) A f(a,w)A a,w;#define DO(n,x) {I i=0,_n=(n);for(;i<_n;++i){x;}}I *ma(n){R(I*)malloc(n*4);}mv(d,s,n)I *d,*s;{DO(n,d[i]=s[i]);}tr(r,d)I *d;{I z=1;DO(r,z=z*d[i]);R z;}A ga(t,r,d)I *d;{A z=(A)ma(5+tr(r,d));z->t=t,z->r=r,mv(z->d,d,r); R z;}V1(iota){I n=*w->p;A z=ga(0,1,&n);DO(n,z->p[i]=i);R z;}V2(plus){I r=w->r,*d=w->d,n=tr(r,d);A z=ga(0,r,d); DO(n,z->p[i]=a->p[i]+w->p[i]);R z;}V2(from){I r=w->r-1,*d=w->d+1,n=tr(r,d); A z=ga(w->t,r,d);mv(z->p,w->p+(n**a->p),n);R z;}V1(box){A z=ga(1,0,0);*z->p=(I)w;R z;}V2(cat){I an=tr(a->r,a->d),wn=tr(w->r,w->d),n=an+wn; A z=ga(w->t,1,&n);mv(z->p,a->p,an);mv(z->p+an,w->p,wn);R z;}V2(find){}V2(rsh){I r=a->r?*a->d:1,n=tr(r,a->p),wn=tr(w->r,w->d); A z=ga(w->t,r,a->p);mv(z->p,w->p,wn=n>wn?wn:n); if(n-=wn)mv(z->p+wn,z->p,n);R z;}V1(sha){A z=ga(0,1,&w->r);mv(z->p,w->d,w->r);R z;}V1(id){R w;}V1(size){A z=ga(0,0,0);*z->p=w->r?*w->d:1;R z;}pi(i){P("%d ",i);}nl(){P("\n");}pr(w)A w;{I r=w->r,*d=w->d,n=tr(r,d);DO(r,pi(d[i]));nl(); if(w->t)DO(n,P("< ");pr(w->p[i]))else DO(n,pi(w->p[i]));nl();}
C vt[]="+{~<#,";A(*vd[])()={0,plus,from,find,0,rsh,cat}, (*vm[])()={0,id,size,iota,box,sha,0};I st[26]; qp(a){R a>='a'&&a<='z';}qv(a){R a<'a';}A ex(e)I *e;{I a=*e; if(qp(a)){if(e[1]=='=')R st[a-'a']=ex(e+2);a= st[ a-'a'];} R qv(a)?(*vm[a])(ex(e+1)):e[1]?(*vd[e[1]])(a,ex(e+2)):(A)a;}noun(c){A z;if(c<'0'||c>'9')R 0;z=ga(0,0,0);*z->p=c-'0';R z;}verb(c){I i=0;for(;vt[i];)if(vt[i++]==c)R i;R 0;}I *wd(s)C *s;{I a,n=strlen(s),*e=ma(n+1);C c; DO(n,e[i]=(a=noun(c=s[i]))?a:(a=verb(c))?a:c);e[n]=0;R e;}
main(){C s[99];while(gets(s))pr(ex(wd(s)));}
/**************************************************************************** Function: RC_Init
Parameters RCpins: an unsigned short with a 1 in each position to set the pin as an RC servo pin, should be a bitwise OR of the #define'd RC_PORTxxx pins.
Returns char: SUCCESS or ERROR
Description Initializes the RC_Servo subsystem, sets each pin as a digital output, and sets the uptime for each pin at 1.5msec, with a period of 20msec.
Notes: Uses TIMER4 with a rollover.
Author: Gabriel Hugh Elkaim, 2011.12.15 16:42 ****************************************************************************/char RC_Init(unsigned short int RCpins) { char i, curPin; unsigned short int CurrentTime; dbprintf("\nInitializing the RC Servo Module."); // Check if inputs are in range, and if already initialized if ((RCpins == 0x000) || (RCpins > 0x2FF) || (RCstate != off)) { return ERROR; } RCstate = init; // Go through input and set each RC pin direction and force to low for (i = 0; i < RCPINCOUNT; i++) { curPin = (1 << i); if (RCpins & curPin) { RCpinMap[numRCPins] = i; numRCPins++; RC_upTime[i] = SERVOCENTER; *RC_TRISCLR[i] = rcBitsMap[i]; // Sets pin direction to output *RC_LATCLR[i] = rcBitsMap[i]; // Forces pin to low state dbprintf("\nEnabling pin: 0x%X", curPin); } }// Set up Timer #4 to overflow at more than 2msec, enable and set interrupt OpenTimer4(T4_ON | T4_IDLE_STOP | T4_GATE_OFF | T4_PS_1_2 | T4_32BIT_MODE_OFF | T4_SOURCE_INT, SERVOCENTER * uSEC); ConfigIntTimer4(T4_INT_ON | T4_INT_PRIOR_4 | T4_INT_SUB_PRIOR_0); mT4IntEnable(1); RCstate = first; return SUCCESS;}
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Concept of Ugly/Beautiful• Code can be ugly or beautiful• We will strive to write beautiful code
• While you might not recognize it, yet, you will by the end of this quarter.
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Software Architecture• Often orthogonal to Project Management• Can be the success or failure of a project
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Flow Chart and Pseudo-Code
• Pseudo-code is plain English that explains in coarse steps what the code should do– Not syntax specific– Forms the basis for
your top-level comment
– Hides details of programming language
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Style Examples• Adherence to a specific style
– Variables in camelCase with leading lower case– Functions in CamelCase with leading Upper case– #define (literal constants) are in UPPERCASE
• Exception: macros can look like functions if they act like one
– Variable and Function names are descriptive• Eg: backingUpState = TRUE;
– Correct use of white space and indentation– Correct placement of braces {}
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
.a Linker
.o
.s
Development Tools Data Flow
.gld
.hex
.map
.cof
C Compiler.c
.s
Archiver(Librarian)
MPLAB® IDEDebug Tool
C Source Files
Assembly Source Files
Assembly Source Files
Object Files
Object File Libraries (Archives)
Linker ScriptCOFFDebug File
Executable
Memory Map
Compiler Driver Program
Assembler(.asm or .s)
(.lib or .a)
(.lkr or .gld)
(.asm or .s)
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Development Tools Data Flow
C Compiler
Compiler
C Source File C Header FilePreprocessor
.sAssembly Source File
.h.c
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
C Runtime Environment (1.2)• C Compiler sets up a runtime environment
– Allocates space for stack– Initialize stack pointer– Allocates space for heap– Copies values from Flash/ROM to variables in RAM
that were declared with initial values– Clear uninitialized RAM– Disable all interrupts– Call main() function (where your code starts)
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
C Runtime Environment (2.2)• Runtime environment setup code is
automatically linked into application by most PIC® compiler suites
• Usually comes from:– C30: crt0.s / crt0.o (crt = C RunTime)
• User modifiable if absolutely necessary• Details will be covered in lab sections
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Example
Fundamentals of CA Simple C Program
#include <stdio.h>
#define PI 3.14159
int main(void){
float radius, area;
//Calculate area of circleradius = 12.0;
area = PI * radius * radius;printf("Area = %f", area);
}
Header File
Function
Variable Declarations
Constant Declaration(Text Substitution Macro)
Comment
Preprocessor Directives
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
Questions?
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012
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CMPE-013/L: “C” ProgrammingGabriel Hugh Elkaim – Spring 2012