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Media ‘Biases’ Media ‘Biases’ and ‘Filters’and ‘Filters’

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A Propaganda ModelA Propaganda Model Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky, 1988Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky, 1988:: NEWS FILTERS:NEWS FILTERS:

Size, Concentrated Ownership, owner’s Size, Concentrated Ownership, owner’s wealth, and profit orientation of media wealth, and profit orientation of media organizations.organizations.

Advertising as primary income source of Advertising as primary income source of mass media.mass media.

Reliance of media on information provided byReliance of media on information provided by Government, Government, Business andBusiness and “ “Experts”Experts”

““Flak” or negative response to ‘discipline’ Flak” or negative response to ‘discipline’ the media.the media.

‘‘Anti-Communism’ as a national religion and Anti-Communism’ as a national religion and control mechanismcontrol mechanism

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Size, Ownership, and Profit Size, Ownership, and Profit Orientation of the Mass Media: Orientation of the Mass Media: The The

First FilterFirst Filter Top tier of media (measured by Top tier of media (measured by

prestige, resources and outreach) prestige, resources and outreach) consists of government and news consists of government and news agenciesagencies

Government and news agencies define Government and news agencies define ‘news agenda’ ‘news agenda’

They supply national and international They supply national and international news to lower tiers of the media.news to lower tiers of the media.

Media depend on government for Media depend on government for general policy support.general policy support.

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Global “Networks”Global “Networks” Many large media corporations are integrated into Many large media corporations are integrated into

the market through stockholders, directors and the market through stockholders, directors and bankers.bankers.

Other factors include: Globalization, convergence, Other factors include: Globalization, convergence, de-regulation and synergy.de-regulation and synergy.

These apply to manoeuverings of corporations as These apply to manoeuverings of corporations as well as the strategies of governments.well as the strategies of governments.

Convergence—or erosion of boundaries —Convergence—or erosion of boundaries —between communication sectors results from digital between communication sectors results from digital technologies and their capacity to transfer technologies and their capacity to transfer information between formerly segregated areas in information between formerly segregated areas in broadcasting, telecommunications and computersbroadcasting, telecommunications and computers

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Privatization and De-Privatization and De-regulationregulation

Privatization and de-regulation or, more Privatization and de-regulation or, more appropriately, ‘re-regulation’—from regulation in appropriately, ‘re-regulation’—from regulation in the public interest to new regulatory regimes the public interest to new regulatory regimes based on economic and entrepreneurial based on economic and entrepreneurial imperatives—have shifted the focus from public imperatives—have shifted the focus from public service mandates and monopoly structures to service mandates and monopoly structures to commercial forms of production and a more open commercial forms of production and a more open economy.economy.

De-regulation of communication industries is the De-regulation of communication industries is the result of global trade liberalization and new result of global trade liberalization and new technologies—satellite, cable and the internet—technologies—satellite, cable and the internet—which are no longer tied to geographical which are no longer tied to geographical boundaries.boundaries.

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SynergySynergy Corporations have created synergy—”the process Corporations have created synergy—”the process

of taking a media brand and exploiting it for all the of taking a media brand and exploiting it for all the profit possible” (McChesney, 1998)—via the profit possible” (McChesney, 1998)—via the vertical (vertical (The control over cultural production, distribution and The control over cultural production, distribution and

exhibition exhibition ) ) and horizontal (and horizontal (Ownership and control across a Ownership and control across a

variety of media and industries variety of media and industries ) ) integration of industries.integration of industries. Global conglomeration has resulted in the Global conglomeration has resulted in the

predominance of a few media mega giants predominance of a few media mega giants controlling the world-wide flow of communication controlling the world-wide flow of communication goods such as Time Warner, Disney, News goods such as Time Warner, Disney, News Corporation, Sony, Viacom, General Electric Corporation, Sony, Viacom, General Electric (owner of NBC), Dutch Phillips (owner of (owner of NBC), Dutch Phillips (owner of Polygram) and BertelsmannPolygram) and Bertelsmann

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Who owns What?Who owns What?

The combination of hardware and software The combination of hardware and software enables these companies to cross-promote films enables these companies to cross-promote films and television programs through tie-ins and spin-and television programs through tie-ins and spin-offs, such as home-videos, computer games, offs, such as home-videos, computer games, books and toys.books and toys.

Website: Who owns what? Website: Who owns what? (Canwest (Canwest overhead)overhead)

- http://www.http://www.cjrcjr.org/tools/owners/.org/tools/owners/canwestcanwest.asp.asp

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The Advertising License to do The Advertising License to do business: business: The Second FilterThe Second Filter

Before advertising became prominent, Before advertising became prominent, the price of a newspaper had to cover the the price of a newspaper had to cover the cost of doing business.cost of doing business.

With the growth of advertising, papers With the growth of advertising, papers who attracted ads could be sold below who attracted ads could be sold below production costs. This placed papers who production costs. This placed papers who lacked advertising at a disadvantage. lacked advertising at a disadvantage.

““The advertisers’ choices influence media The advertisers’ choices influence media prosperity and survival.prosperity and survival.

As a result, working class papers and a As a result, working class papers and a more radical press are at a disadvantage.more radical press are at a disadvantage.

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The Influence of The Influence of AdvertisersAdvertisers

Large corporate advertisers will rarely support Large corporate advertisers will rarely support programs with serious criticisms of corporate programs with serious criticisms of corporate activities, environmental degradation, and activities, environmental degradation, and interconnections between military and interconnections between military and industry.industry.

Advertisers will also avoid programs with Advertisers will also avoid programs with serious complexities and disturbing serious complexities and disturbing controversies that may interfere with the controversies that may interfere with the ‘buying mood’ of its readership/audiences.‘buying mood’ of its readership/audiences.

This dependence on advertising dollars, This dependence on advertising dollars, therefore, translates into less critical content therefore, translates into less critical content being printed or aired, resulting in articles being printed or aired, resulting in articles and programs, which are culturally and and programs, which are culturally and politically more conservative.politically more conservative.

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““TABLOID” TVTABLOID” TV Instead of critical documentaries, ‘Discovery’

and ‘National Geographic Television’ programs feature adventure and travel type shows which invite viewers to escape into exotic landscapes and scenarios.

News programs are becoming increasingly ‘tabloidizised”, in their “relentless search for a nightly extravaganza of chaos, conflict, confrontation, and controversy (Fleras, p. 47)

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Sourcing Mass-media News: Sourcing Mass-media News: The Third FilterThe Third Filter

The mass media are drawn into a The mass media are drawn into a symbiotic relationship with powerful symbiotic relationship with powerful sources of information by economic sources of information by economic necessity and reciprocity of interest.necessity and reciprocity of interest.

Media organizations need a steady, Media organizations need a steady, reliable flow of the ‘raw material of news’.reliable flow of the ‘raw material of news’.

Media organizations have daily news Media organizations have daily news demands and imperative news schedules demands and imperative news schedules that they must meet.that they must meet.

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Central Nodes for Gathering Central Nodes for Gathering NewsNews

Economics dictate media organizations to Economics dictate media organizations to concentrate their resources where concentrate their resources where significant news occurs on a frequent basissignificant news occurs on a frequent basis where important rumors and leaks abound, where important rumors and leaks abound, and where regular press conferences are held.and where regular press conferences are held.

Central nodes of such activities includeCentral nodes of such activities include The White House, the Pentagon, and the State The White House, the Pentagon, and the State

Department, in Washington, DC Department, in Washington, DC Parliament Hill in Ottawa, and provincial Parliament Hill in Ottawa, and provincial

parliaments.parliaments. CourtsCourts City HallCity Hall Police Headquarters (New York City)Police Headquarters (New York City) Special Events (Film Festivals, Sports event, Special Events (Film Festivals, Sports event,

etc.)etc.)(Gaye Tuchman, 1978; Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky, (Gaye Tuchman, 1978; Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky,

1988)1988)

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Government SourcesGovernment Sources Government and corporate sources are easily Government and corporate sources are easily

recognizablerecognizable They have credibility by their status and prestige.They have credibility by their status and prestige. This helps media’s claim to be “objective” This helps media’s claim to be “objective”

dispensers of the news.dispensers of the news. It is a protection from criticisms of bias and the It is a protection from criticisms of bias and the

threat of libel suits, they need material that can threat of libel suits, they need material that can be portrayed as presumptively accurate.be portrayed as presumptively accurate.

It is also cost efficient: taking information from It is also cost efficient: taking information from sources that may be presumed credible reduces sources that may be presumed credible reduces investigative expenses. investigative expenses.

However, materials from sources that need to be However, materials from sources that need to be checked, requires costly research.checked, requires costly research.

CMNS 130

Information and Information and CirculationCirculationGovernment and corporations release Government and corporations release

information to the media via:information to the media via: Press releasesPress releases Public relations effortsPublic relations efforts Purchasing newspaper space to get viewpoint Purchasing newspaper space to get viewpoint

acrossacross

Professional Organizations (commerce Professional Organizations (commerce and trade) use:and trade) use: Public Relations and Lobbing activitiesPublic Relations and Lobbing activities Advertising, direct-mail campaigns, distribution Advertising, direct-mail campaigns, distribution

of educational films, booklets, pamphlets, outlays of educational films, booklets, pamphlets, outlays on initiatives and referendums, political and on initiatives and referendums, political and think tank contributions. think tank contributions.

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Government and business Government and business promoters make things ‘easy’ promoters make things ‘easy’

for news organizationsfor news organizations They provide media organizations with They provide media organizations with

facilities in which they can gather.facilities in which they can gather. They provide advance copies of speeches They provide advance copies of speeches

and forthcoming reports.and forthcoming reports. They schedule press conferences at hours They schedule press conferences at hours

well-geared to news deadlines.well-geared to news deadlines. They write press releases in usable They write press releases in usable

language .language . They carefully organize their press They carefully organize their press

conferences and ‘photo opportunities’.conferences and ‘photo opportunities’.

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The Role of “EXPERTS”The Role of “EXPERTS”

‘‘Experts’ tend to echo the Experts’ tend to echo the official point of view.official point of view.

They impart ‘objectivity’ and They impart ‘objectivity’ and ‘authority’ to a news story ‘authority’ to a news story (Stuart (Stuart Hall, 1978)Hall, 1978)

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““The large bureaucracies of the powerful The large bureaucracies of the powerful subsidize subsidize the mass media, and gain special the mass media, and gain special access by their contribution to reducing the access by their contribution to reducing the media’s cost of acquiring the raw materials of, media’s cost of acquiring the raw materials of, and producing news”.and producing news”.

Non-routine sources must struggle for access, Non-routine sources must struggle for access, and may be ignored by the arbitrary decision of and may be ignored by the arbitrary decision of the gatekeepers”.the gatekeepers”.

““Critical sources may be avoided not only Critical sources may be avoided not only because of their lesser availability and higher because of their lesser availability and higher cost of establishing credibility, but also cost of establishing credibility, but also because the primary sources may be offended because the primary sources may be offended and may even threaten the media using them”.and may even threaten the media using them”.

From Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky From Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky (1988). (1988). Manufactoring ConsentManufactoring Consent

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Flak and the Enforcers: Flak and the Enforcers: The Fourth FilterThe Fourth Filter

““Flak” refers to negative response to a media Flak” refers to negative response to a media statement or program.statement or program.

It may take the form of It may take the form of LettersLetters TelegramsTelegrams Phone callsPhone calls PetitionsPetitions LawsuitsLawsuits SpeechesSpeeches Bills before Congress (US) or Parliament (Canada)Bills before Congress (US) or Parliament (Canada) Other modes of complaint, threat, and punitive Other modes of complaint, threat, and punitive

action.action.

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How ‘Flak’ affects the How ‘Flak’ affects the MediaMedia

If flak is produced on a large scale, it can be If flak is produced on a large scale, it can be both uncomfortable and costly to the media.both uncomfortable and costly to the media.

Positions have to be defended within the Positions have to be defended within the organization and without, sometimes before organization and without, sometimes before legislature and even in courts.legislature and even in courts.

Advertisers may withdraw patronage.Advertisers may withdraw patronage. If certain kinds of fact, position, or program If certain kinds of fact, position, or program

are thought to elicit flak, this may act to a are thought to elicit flak, this may act to a deterrent to media organizations. deterrent to media organizations.

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How ‘Flak’ is producedHow ‘Flak’ is produced Flak can be produced Flak can be produced indirectlyindirectly

by complaining to constituencies by complaining to constituencies (stockholders, employees) about the media,(stockholders, employees) about the media,

by generating institutional advertising that by generating institutional advertising that does the same, does the same,

or by funding think-tank operations designed or by funding think-tank operations designed to attack the media.to attack the media.

Corporations also sponsor organizations Corporations also sponsor organizations who keep a close eye on media, and who keep a close eye on media, and produce ‘flak’ when media ‘fail’ to portray produce ‘flak’ when media ‘fail’ to portray business in an appropriate light.business in an appropriate light.

CMNS 130

Anticommunism as a Control Anticommunism as a Control Mechanism: Mechanism: The Fifth FilterThe Fifth Filter

Communism Communism as the ‘ultimate evil’ has always as the ‘ultimate evil’ has always been the specter haunting property owners, been the specter haunting property owners, as it threatens the basis of their class as it threatens the basis of their class position and superior status.position and superior status.

The Soviet, Chinese, and Cuban revolutions The Soviet, Chinese, and Cuban revolutions were traumas to Western elites.were traumas to Western elites.

The ideology helps mobilize the populace The ideology helps mobilize the populace against an ‘enemy’.against an ‘enemy’.

It also fragments the political left and labour It also fragments the political left and labour movements.movements.From Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky (1988). From Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky (1988). Manufactoring Manufactoring ConsentConsent

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The Framing of IssuesThe Framing of Issues

When anti-communist fervour is aroused, When anti-communist fervour is aroused, the demand for serious evidence in the demand for serious evidence in support of claims of ‘communist’ abuses is support of claims of ‘communist’ abuses is suspended.suspended.

Defectors, informers move to the center Defectors, informers move to the center stage as ‘experts’.stage as ‘experts’.

Anti-Communist control mechanism exerts Anti-Communist control mechanism exerts strong influence on mass media.strong influence on mass media.

Issues tend to be framed in terms of a Issues tend to be framed in terms of a dichotomized world—the ‘axes of evil’.dichotomized world—the ‘axes of evil’.

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The Five Filters—The Five Filters—SummarySummary

The five filters narrow the range of The five filters narrow the range of news that passes through the news that passes through the ‘gates’.‘gates’.

They limit what can be made into They limit what can be made into ‘big news’ items.‘big news’ items.

Messages from and about dissidents Messages from and about dissidents and weak, unorganized groups and and weak, unorganized groups and individuals, are at a disadvantage in individuals, are at a disadvantage in sourcing costs and credibility.sourcing costs and credibility.

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The propaganda approach to media The propaganda approach to media suggests a systemic and highly suggests a systemic and highly political dichotomization in news political dichotomization in news coverage based on serviceability to coverage based on serviceability to important power interests.important power interests.

This can be discerned in This can be discerned in dichotomized choices of story and in dichotomized choices of story and in the volume of coverage.the volume of coverage.

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Constructing News Constructing News ImagesImages

““Seeing is believing”; “The camera never Seeing is believing”; “The camera never lies”—are clichés which draw attention to lies”—are clichés which draw attention to popular beliefs and apparent faith in popular beliefs and apparent faith in observation and visual representation.observation and visual representation.

However, camera positioning and angle, However, camera positioning and angle, picture framing and lighting, image picture framing and lighting, image selection, photographic retouching, digital selection, photographic retouching, digital image manipulation, editorial cropping and image manipulation, editorial cropping and final juxtaposition can all radically change final juxtaposition can all radically change or even invert the sense of depicted scenesor even invert the sense of depicted scenes—’the camera can lie”.—’the camera can lie”.

‘‘Time for Peace: Time to Go’! Time for Peace: Time to Go’! (overhead)(overhead)

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Signifier Signifier (shot)(shot)

DefinitionDefinition Signified Signified (meaning)(meaning)

Close-upClose-up

Media shotMedia shot

Long shotLong shot

Full shotFull shot

Face onlyFace only

Most of Most of bodybody

Setting and Setting and characterscharacters

Full body of Full body of personperson

IntimacyIntimacy

Personal Personal relationshiprelationshipContext, Context, scope, public scope, public distancedistance

Social Social relationshiprelationship

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Signifier Signifier (film/video)(film/video)

DefinitionDefinition Signified Signified (meaning)(meaning)

Pan downPan down

Pan UpPan Up

Zoom inZoom in

Fade inFade in

Fade OutFade Out

CutCut

WipeWipe

Camera looks Camera looks downdownCamera looks Camera looks upup

Camera moves Camera moves inin

Image appears Image appears on blank screenon blank screenImage screen Image screen goes blankgoes blankSwitch from Switch from one image to one image to anotheranotherImage wiped off Image wiped off screenscreen

Power, Power, AuthorityAuthority

Smallness, Smallness, weaknessweaknessObservation, Observation, focusfocusBeginningBeginning

EndingEnding

Simultaneity, Simultaneity, exitementexitementImposed Imposed conclusion.conclusion.

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Chavez: Inside the CoupChavez: Inside the Coup Filmed & Directed By

Kim Bartley & Donnacha O Briain

Edited ByAngel Hernandez Zoido

Produced in Association with The Irish Film BoardNPS & COBO, RTE, BBC, ZDF/ARTE, YLE