NASA Technical Memorandum 87798

Molecular Clouds in the Carina Arm

David Andrew Grabelsky

NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies

New York, New York

NI IXNational Aeronautics

and Space Administration

Scientific and Technical

Information Branch

1986

https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19870001353 2018-08-31T13:49:55+00:00Z

TABLE OF CONTENT5

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V

INTRODUCTION

A. The CarinaArm: A BriefReview

I.OpticalStudies

2. Radio Continuum

3. Radio RecombinationLlneStudies

4. HI Studies

5. MolecularLineObservations

B. PresentWork

I

5

5

8

9

10

11

13

II.INSTRUMENTATION AND OBSERVINGTECHNIQUES

A. Instrumentation

1. Antenna

2. Mount and Drive System

3. Receiver

4. 5pectrometer

5. Computer System

B. Calibration and Observing Techniques

15

15

16

17

19

20

21

24

III. OB5ERVATION5 30

r_:E'D_iQ PAGE BI.AF_ NOT FI_

iii

IV. LARGE-SCALE PROPERTIESOF MOLECULAR GAS

IN THE CARINA ARM

/_ Kinematics and Distribution of CO

in the Carina Arm

1. The /,v Diagram

2. The Spatial Maps

3. The Distribution About the

Galactic Plane

B. Comparison with H I

1. The /,v Diagrams

2. The 5patlal Maps

3. The z-Distribution

C. Summary

36

37

37

42

45

50

50

54

55

57

V. THE CARINA ARM MOLECULAR CLOUDS

A. Identificationof the Clouds

Distances

Masses

59

61

63

64

iv

B. The _ICarinaeMolecularCloud

I. Identificationof the Cloud Complex

Mass

2. The _ICarinaeNebula and the

MolecularCloud

StellarWinds

Rocket Effect

3. StarFormationEfficiencyinthe

TICarinaeMolecularCloud

4. Summary

C. The Carina Arm in the Galaxy

D. Notes on Individual Clouds

65

65

68

69

74

77

79

86

87

90

VI. SUMMARY 108

REFERENCES 112

APPENDIX A: TELESCOPEPOINTING

A. Determination of Pointing Parameters

B. Pointing Accuracy

1. Shaft Encoders

2. Starpointing

3. Sunpointing

120

121

122

122

122

123

TABLE5 124

FIGURE CAPTIONS 131

FIGURE5 142

APPENDIX B: ADDITIONAL /,v AND b,v MAPS

1. /,v at each b; full resolution

2. b,v at each /; full resolution

3. /,v at each b; 0.5" 5uperbeam

4. b,v at each 1; 0.5" Superbeam

197

197

251

312

333

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Working with Patrick Thaddeus, my adviser,has been one of the

highlights of my graduate studies at Columbia University. His passion for

science coupled with his gift for recasting complex concepts in intuitive

terms made studying under him stimulating and rewarding. It is a pleasure

to thank him for his support, guidance, and encouragement during the years I

spent on the Southern Millimeter-Wave Telescope Project.

Richard Cohen, my co-adviser, deserves thanks for numerous reasons,

but two in particular. First, he is largely responsible for the success of the

Southern Millimeter-Wave Telescope. Without Richard's scientific and

technical know-how and direction, the Southern Telescope would still be a

pile of nuts, bolts, waveguides, and transistors in New York. Second, with

his special brand of intellectual challenge, he did much to help me steer

clear of sloppy thinking. I learned a great deal working with Richard, and I

am pleased to express my appreciation to him for sharing his talents.

Throughout all phases of my work on this thesis, from helping to build

and test the telescope in New York to analysis and interpretation of the data

after I returned from Chile, Tom Dame provided valuable advice and

assistance, as well as encouragement and friendship. For this -- and for his

good company on several long runs in Central Park -- I am grateful.

I would like to thank many other people, in both New York, at the

Goddard Institute for Space Studies and Columbia University, and in Chile,

for helping make this thesis possible. Sam Palmer and Dennis Mumma helped

construct the telescope and taught me how to trouble-shoot its electronics.

Dorn Peterson had an integral part in the receiver effort. Leo Bronfman

assembled the receiver and kept it running, and, as my fellow graduate

vii

studenton the project,was an importantpartnerand companion inall

aspectsof the work. Joe Montaniand Mustafa Koprucu helpedbuildthe

telescopeand,with the aidofJorge May, HectorAlvarez,and Monica Rubio

of theUniversityof Chile,kept itrunningsmoothly. Pat Osmer, as director

of CTIO,alongwith VictorBlanco,John Graham and the restof the

observatorystaffput many of the observatory'sfacilitiesat thedisposalof

the Columbia Millimeter-Wave Projectand provideda harmonious working

environmentforthe Columbia group. Iam alsovery appreciativeof Victor

and BettyBlancofor theirwarm hospitalityduringmy stay inChile.

Thanks alsogo to the (pastand present)facultyof the Astronomy

Department at Columbia University,Bruce Elmegreen inparticular,fortheir

interestand support,and to my fellowgraduatestudentsfortheir

friendship.At the Goddard Institutefor5pace Studies,Richard5tothers

providedseveralinformativediscussionsregardingclustersand the use of

the intialmass function.Allison5mlth aidedinthe reductionof the data,

and Ellin5arothelped ironout some kinksinthe manuscript.

Iam indebtedtomy entirefamily -- my parents,my brothersand

sistersand theirchildren,and my in-laws-- fortheirperpetuallove,

support,and encouragement throughoutthe many years that ledto this

thesis.Finally,my deepestaffectionand gratitudego to my son Jonah for

preventingme from growing oldover the lasttwo years,and to my wife

Becky forher tolerance,understanding,and unparalleledloveduringthe

entirecourse ofthiswork.

viii

I. INTRODUCTION

A spiral arm in Carina was first proposed by Bok in 1937, just fourteen

years after spiral nebulae were conclusively shown to be distant,

extragalactic stellar systems. Having noted stellar concentrations

elongated in the directions of Carina and Cygnus, Bok (1937) concluded his

monograph The Distmbution of Stars in Space:

The observer in the tropics should not find it difficult toaccept as a working model for our Milky Way one with a distant centrein Sagittarius and fn which a spiral arm passes from Carina throughthe Sun toward Cygnus.

Since then, the Carina arm has been firmly established in allspiral tracers

as one of the best-defined major spiralarm segments in the Galaxy.

Following the pioneering studies of localspiral structure in the Northern

Milky Way by Morgan, Sharpless, and Osterbrock (1952) and Morgan,

Whitford, and Code (1953), complementary studies were undertaken in the

Southern galactic plane. Itsoon became evident that the Carina region was

host not only to Bok's "elongated" grouping of stars,but also to a rich and

varied collection of Population Iobjects which appeared to be spread out

over considerable distances. Whether the observed relative paucity of

optical spiral tracers preceding (ingalactic longitude)the Carina

concentration was due to overlying extinctionor represented a true

boundary to the bright feature was not certain. By comparing the optical

data and radio continuum obseP_ations in the region,Sher (1965) argued that

the edge was real and showed that the 0 and B stars,Cepheids, young

clusters,and emission nebulae appeared to trace a spiral arm aligned nearly

parallelto the lineof sight in Carina. Bok, who from the beginning had held

thata major spiralfeatureexistedinCarina,deliveredadditionalstrong

supportfor5her'sinterpretation.From a comparison study of PopulationI

inCarinawhich made use ofa substantialamount of new data,includingthe

OB starsurveyof Graham and Lyng_ (1965) and the (thenunpublished)radio

recombinationlinesurveyofWilson,Bok eta1(1970) providedwhat has

become the canonicalpictureof the Carinaarm: the arm opens outward

startingfrom a point--2kpc from theSun near / = 295"; itisviewed

tangentiallyat / = 283", where itcrossesthe solarcircle,then extendsto

--I0 kpc from the Sun as itbends back toward higherlongitudes.The

evidencethatledtothispictureofthe arm isreviewed below. How the

Carinaarm connectedwith otherspiralarms on the othersldefo the

galacticcenter(1_e.,inthe firstquadrant)was (andremains)a matter of

some debate and it is a question which will be addressed in this thesis.

Part of the problem of connecting the Carina arm with the rest of the

Galaxy comes from the difficulty in interpreting the neutral hydrogen

observations in terms of large-scale galactic structure. The early 21-cm

pictures of spiral structure differed from the optically-determined local

picture, the neutral hydrogen suggesting nearly circular arms whlle the

optical tracers indicated high-pitched arms. Ir the young stars formed from

the H I, shouldn't both trace the same arms? Although part of this

discrepancy could be traced to the different types of distances used --

optical versus kinematic-- no directobservationallinkexistedbetween

the massive starsand the neutralhydrogen from which presumably they

formed.

With the adventof millimeter-wave astronomy inthe late1960's,it

soon became apparent that molecular gas -- H2 in particular -- was at least

as important a constituent of the interstellar medlum in the lnterior

2

regions of the Galaxy as H I,and the J = 1_0 rotational transition of CO

emerged as the best tracer of the abundant H2 molecule. The placental

material of massive stars was discovered: giant molecular clouds. As the

birth sites of 0 and early B stars and theiraccompanying H Ifregions (see

e.g.,Blitz 1978), giant molecular clouds might at last provide a physical

link between the distant but obscured radio arms and the localoptical arms.

The firstCO surveys of the inner Galaxy showed that H2 was concentrated in

a broad "ring"about the galactic center,but they did not reveal any apparent

large-scale spiral structure (Burton et aL I975; Scoville and Solomon

Ig75). However, these early surveys were severely undersampled, and

subsequent, well-sampled surveys in the firstgalactic quadrant offer a

more complete view of CO spiralstructure (Cohen eta/. Ig80; Dame Ig83;

Sanders et aL 1985).

Observed in CO, giant molecular clouds now appear to be superior to

neutral hydrogen as a tracer of large-scale spiralstructure. Like the H I,

they are easily observed throughout the galactic disk and, tn the firstand

second galactic quadrants, delineate the same arms (Cohen eta/. 1980). But

unlike the H I, the CO appears to exhibit high arm-interarm contrast (Dame

1983). It does not necessarily follow, however, that molecular clouds are

more concentrated in the arms than H I, since streaming motions of only a

few kilometers per second can mimic spiral arms in the data (Liszt and

Burton 1981 ). Using the Columbia CO survey of the first quadrant, Dame

( i 983) argued that molecular clouds are indeed more confined to the arms

by demonstrating that the CO and H i share the same large-scale kinematics,

and thereby ruling out differences in streaming motions as the cause of the

apparently higher arm-interarm contrast seen in CO than in H I.

3

The degree towhich molecularcloudsare themselves confinedto the

arms, atleastinthe regionof the "molecularring,"isstillcontroversial.

Recently,forexample,5olomon etal (1985) argued thattwo distinct

populationsof molecularclouds,representedby ~2000 warm and cold

"cores"identifiedbetween I = 20" and 50",existInthe Galaxy.They claim

thatthewarm cores appeartoresideinthe spiralarms, while the cold

cores,outnumberingthe warm :3to I,show a Kinematicdistribution

consistentwith no concentrationto the arms. Alternatively,Dame etaL

(1985),takingpartialinventoryof the most massive molecularcloudsinthe

firstquadrantand locatingthem inthe Galaxyby a varietyof techniques,

found thatsplralarms are well tracedby the largestclouds.The mass

spectrum of molecularcloudsintheGalaxy beingdominated by the largest

clouds(see e.g.,Dame 1983; Sanders etal 1985),the questionof

confinementofmolecularcloudstothe arms isbetteraddressed

consideringcloudsby mass ratherthanby number. Inthlsthesisthe

approachofDame etal.isused toshow thatintheCarinaarm, as inthe

flrstquadrant,the largestmolecularcloudsare good splral-armtracers,

and thatjustoutsidethe Carlnaarm, the totalmass ofmolecular gas Is

relativelysmall.

A significantcharacteristicof theCarlnaregion,recognizedsincethe

earlieststudiesof the Carinaarm, IsItshlghopticaltransparency.Some

starsand opticalH IIregionscan be seen to distancesgreaterthan 10 kpc.

SeveralradioH IIregionshave distancesspanningthe same range,many of

them the radiocounterpartsof the opticalH IIregions.The Carinaarm

providesa rareexample IntI_eGalaxy ofa spiralarm which isdelineated

overmany kiloparsecsInalltheclassicradioand opticaltracers,and so

providesan opportunitytocompare the classicopticalspiral-armtracers

4

and their parent molecular clouds over the same large distance. Based on

the flrst well-sampled CO survey in the Carlna arm, this thesis offers an

initial contribution to such a comparison. To I_]ace the observations

presented here in the context of the known structure of the Carina arm, the

following brief review of previous observations of that region is given.

A. The Carina Arm: A Brief Review

1. Optical Studies

5tudles of OB stars in Carlna have been made by several authors, among

them Bok and van Wljk (1952), Graham and Lyng_ (1965), and Feinstein

(1969), whose main results are worth discussing briefly.

Based on the observations of Bok and van Wljk, Bok (1956) pointed out

the large concentration of OB stars in Carina from distances of _"1.5 to

4 kpc, and, expanding on his 1937 study of the region, suggested we were

viewing a spiral arm orlented roughly along the line of sight. Bok also noted

that throughout the reglon the optlcal extinction was generally low and that

there was an apparent edge to the stellar distrlbutlon at / _- 283".

Felnsteln obtained UBV photometry for 135 OB stars with known spectral

types In the region and found they extended at least to 6 kpc but no closer

than 1.6 kpc. Using the objective prism survey of Graham and Lyng§ of 436

OB stars, Graham (1970) determined that the stars span distances of 2 to

I0 kpc between / ; 282" and 292". He found the dlstribution to have a sharp

boundary that became more distant with longitude. Arguing that this

apparent boundary represented a true edge In the OB star distribution,

Graham proposed that we were seeing the outer edge of the Carina arm and

5

locatedthe tangentdirectionat I _ 285". Inaddition,he pointedout that

the starswere found primarilyatnegativelatitudes,with a z-displacement

thatincreasedwith distance.

A statisticalstudy of southernOB starsby Lyng_ (I970) ledtothe

identificationofeightOB concentrationsbetween / = 284" and 330 °,fiveof

them intheCarinaregion.5ome are galacticclusters,while othersare OB

associationswithin_3.5 kpc (Humphreys i972;i978). Young clustersinthe

Carinaregionshow a wide range of distances,and theirdistributiontraces

a spiralarm ingood agreement with thattracedby the individualOB stars

(Vogt and Moffat 1975b and referencestherein).

The listof stellarspiraltracersinCarinaalsoincludesyoung

Cepheids,observed to I0 kpc (Fernie1968;Tammann 1970),and supergiants

of allspectraltypes(Humphreys 1970). Based on the Schmidt rotation

curve,Humphreys (1970) found evidenceamong the supergiantsfor

noncircularmotions which variedsystematicallywithin the longituderange

280" to300". Since the supergiantsfitthesame spatialdistributionas tt_e

othertracers,Humphreys interpretedthe negativevelocityresiduals(/_e.,

with galacticrotationInthe fourthquadrant)between I - 280" and 292"

and the positiveresiduals(againstgalacticrotation)between I - 292" and

300" as streaming motions alongthe outerand inneredges of the arm.

Three propertiesof the stellardistributionsthatledinvestigatorsto

suggesta lengthwisespiralarm inCarinawere therichnessof thestellar

content(particularlytheOB stars),the greatdistancespresentinthe

narrow longituderange,and theratherabruptappearanceof the

concentration,beginningat I_-283". These same propertieswere evident

intheHc_surveysof Hofflelt(1953),Gum (1955),and Rodgers,Campbell,

and WhiteoaI<(1960, hereafterRCW), althoughdistancestoeach emission

6

region were not initially available. Particularly noticable in the RCW atlas

(Rodgers, Campbell, Whlteoak, Baily, and Hunt l g60) is the relatively low Ho<

intensity preceeding the large array of emission regions which sets in near

the OB star edge. The entire region between / = 283" and 297" is rich in

H_, as a glance at the RCW atlas demonstrates. Further evidence that the

edge near 283" marked the tangent direction of the Carina arm was provided

by the radio continuum observations, as described below. Some of the

brighter nebulae in the Carina region include RCW 53 (11 Carinae Nebula),

RCW 54, RCW 57 (NGC 3576 and NGC 3603), and RCW 62 (IC 2944).

Interferometric studies In H_ by Georgelln and Georgelln (1970a; 1970b)

yielded kinematic distances to enough H I I regions to trace the Carina arm

to _-8 kpc near ! = 290". A similar Investigation by Blgay eta/.(1972)

showed the H I I regions near / = 282" to lie between 2.5 and 5 kpc,

straddling the solar circle in that direction. Many of the H_ regions

Included in early catalogs were subsequently detected in radio

recombination lines, and the wide range of observed velocities implied that

the optical regions were spread out over considerable distances.

The large number of optical objects seen to such great distances in the

narrow longitude range of the Carina arm implies generally low optical

extinction. Indeed, this well-known characteristic of the Carina region

motivated some of the optical studies. With data available on Cepheids,

5her ( i 965) indicated that visual absorption was less than one magnitude

per kiloparsec out to ~5 kpc. Bok etal.(1970) estimated 0.5 magnitudes per

ki!oparsec between / = 282" and 305" to comparable distances, and more

recent studies of the large-scale distribution of interstellar extinction

(Sundman 1979; Loden and 5undman 1980; Neckel and Klare 1980) also noted

the high transparency of the Carina region.

2. Radlo Continuum

Mills (1959) suggested that steps in the radio continuum along the

galactic plane were due to lines of slght along tangent directions to spiral

arms, notlng one such a step (among others) at / = 281" In the 85.5 MHz

survey of Hl ll et el. (1958). 5her (1965) emphasized the coincidence of the

trough in the 1.4 GHz continuum map of Mathewson, Healy and Rome ( 1962a,

hereafter MHR) with the low HcxIntensity Just ahead of the bright edge of

the Carina concentration in the RCW atlas. 5her reasoned that the optically

dark region truly lacked Population I materlal since optical absorption

cannot be responsible for a radio continuum dip. The coincidence of the

sudden jump In the continuum at ! = 283" with the onset of the optical

Population I concentration then led to the conclusion that this longitude

marked the outer edge of the Carina arm.

In the MHR survey, which had a spatial resolution of 50', fourteen

discrete sources were Identified between I = 280" and 300"; between 270"

and 280" only two sources were found. Based on their spectral indices

(determined by comparison with the 85.5 MHz survey of Hill et el.) eight of

the fourteen sources were classified as thermal and two as nonthermal

(Mathewson, Healy and Rome1962b). 5urveys with higher spatial resolution

were carried out at 2650 MHz (Thomas and Day 1969), at 5000 MHz (Goss

and 5hayer 1970), and at 408 MHz (Shaver and Goss 1970a), all aimed at

observing previously identified sources. The spatial resolution of the

2650 MHz survey was 8.2'; the other two surveys had resolutions of 4' and 3'.

At 2650 MHz, 40 sources were found between ! = 289" and 300", six of them

identified (some tentatively) with MHR, Hill etaL, or RCW sources. At

8

408 MHz, 37 sources between I = 280" and 300" were found ( versus 29 at

5000 MHz); of these, 28 were observed at both frequencies. Where

determinations could be made, 15 sources were classified as thermal and

eight nonthermal (:Shaver and Goss 1970b). More recently, Haynes eta/.

(1978) carried out a high-sensitivity survey at 5 GHz with a 4' beam, flndlng

104 sources between I = 280" and 300" (Haynes et al 1979). A prominent

characteristic of the continuum maps of all these surveys is the clustering

of strong sources between / = 282" and 292".

In addition to these continuum surveys, hlgh resolution studies of

individual sources in the arm have also been made, Including 50" resolution

observations of NGC3576 and NGC 3603 (Retallack and Goss 1980) and the

TI Carina Nebula (Retallack 1983). These measurements wlll be considered

in Chapter V, where the molecular clouds associated with these objects are

discussed.

3. Radlo Recombination Line $tudles

The most comprehensive study of radlo recombination llnes In the

Southern Milky Way was by Wlison eta/(1970), In H109o_ Between

/ = 282" and 300" 24 sources were found, nine of them belonging to the

Carina Nebula. Less extensive observations have been made in the following

lines: H126o( and H127o( (McGee and Gardner 1968), Hel09o( and C109o(

(Mezger eta/. 1970), HlO9o((Caswell 1972), H90o(, He90o(, H137_, and

H 128_J (McGee et al 1975), and H76o_and He76(x (McGee and Newton i 981 ).

None of these found any additional sources in the Carina arm. The

significant result of all these studies (Wilson eta/., in particular) is that

within I = 280" and 300" the wide range of velocities observed implies a

9

wide rangeofkinematicdistances.As alreadynoted,the radioH Ifregions

painta pictureof the Carinaarm incomplete accord with the optical

picture.

The i1 CarinaeNebula has been the subjectof a number of

recombinationlineinvestigations;thesewillbe mentioned inChapter V ina

detaileddiscussionof the giantmolecularcloudassociatedwith thlsvery

brightH Ifregion.

4. HI Studies

An arm-likeconcentrationofH IinCarinawas evidentinthe earliest

21-cm surveysof the SouthernMilkyWay (see e.g.,Kerr eta/.1957 and Oort

etaL 1958).Taken together,Northernand Southernsurveyssuggestedthe

H IinCarinapassed throughtheSun toward Cygnus (althoughone might

interpretthe early21-cm plane-of-the-Galaxymaps as havingallthe

"arms"passingthroughthe Sun). Bok (Ig5g} quicklyrecognizedthe good

agreement ofthe neutralhydrogenresultswith thedistributionof OB stars,

H Ifregions,and Cepheids,and againargued fora Carina-Cygnusarm. A

generalpropertyof theH I inthe SouthernGalaxytoemerge from the first

21-cm studieswas an apparentwarping of the H Iplaneto negative

latitudes,which increasedwith distancefrom the galacticcenter.(Graham

[I970] found a similartrend IntheOB starsand pointedout the agreement

with theH Iresults.)Inlaterattempts to deduce the overallspiral

structureof theGalaxy from 21-cm observations,considerable

disagreementhas arisenon how toconnectthe Carinawith the Northern

spiralarms. For example,Kerr(Ig70) maintainedthatthe arms were nearly

circularand thatCarinaconnectedwith Cygnus throughthe Sun -- the

I0

picture Bok favored. Weaver (1970), on the other hand, proposed higher-

pitched arms, Joining Carlna and 5aglttarlus In a single arm. (A revlew of

the arguments for both alternatives carl be found in 51monson [1970]).

Recently, Henderson et a/.(1982) indicated that the Carina arm extends to

longitudes below 280" beyond the solar circle, which, If true, makes the

Carlna-Saglttarlus connection unlikely.

Aside from the question of how to match the north and south, all

21-cm studies conflrm three properltles of the H I distribution In the

5outhern Galaxy: the downward warping of the galactic H I plane, the

widening of the H I layer with galactocentrlc distance, and the persistence

of the Carlna arm to distances of --20 kpc. The Carlna arm ls unquestionably

a major spiral feature. In Chapter IV the 21-cm picture of the Carlna arm ls

examined in more detail and the question of its place in the Galaxy will be

considered in light of a comparison of the H I and the CO.

5. Molecular Line Observations

Molecular absorption-line surveys of the 5outhern Galaxy were carried

out in the 1667 MHz line of OH (Caswell and Robinson 1974) and in the

4830 MHz llne of i-12C0 (Whiteoak and Gardner 1970; 1974). The

observations, taken toward known continuum sources, detected lines over a

wide range of velocities in Carina, which, like the recombination line

measurements, Imply a wlde range of distances. The same conclusion can be

drawn from the 1662 and 1665 MHz OH emission-line observations of

Manchester et eL (1970). These studies provided the first indications that

molecular material flts the same pattern as the other spiral tracers in the

Carina arm.

11

Other molecules detected in the arm include NH3, H20, HCN, HCO, HCO+,

and CO(Whiteoak 1983 and references therein). Nine H20 masers, all

associated with known H II regions in the CaMna arm, have been discovered

between / = 284" and 300" (Scalise and Schal] 1977; Kaufmann etel. 1977;

Scalise and Braz 1980; Batchelor eteL 1980; Braz and Scalise 1982).

The first CO survey in the :Southern Galaxy was made in the J = 1--*0

line by Gil]ispie ere�. (1977). Five detections were made between / = 284"

and 300" in the direction of well-known H II regions, including the CaMna

Nebula, NGC 3576, and NGC 3603. Subsequently, the Carina nebula was

observed in the 2_1 transition of CO by de Graauw et eL (1981 ), who mapped

a small portion of the region. Further observations in the 241 line toward

individual sources were also made by White and Phillips (1983). In the

J = I-_0 COsurvey at b -- O" made with the 4 m telescope at CSIRO

(McCutcheon et el. 1982; Robinson et el. 1983) the distant portions of the

Carina arm were barely detected, because this part of the arm lies almost

entirely below the plane (see Chapter IV); the tangent region, lying beyond

the low-longitude boundary (294") of this survey, was completely missed. A

J = 2_1 survey by Israel etaL(1984) covered / = 270" to 355" at b = 0", but

again, owing to the survey's sparse sampling, restricted latitude coverage,

and low sensitivity, the Carina arm went largely undetected.

12

B. Present Work

This thesis reports the results of the first well-sampled, large-scale

CO (J = 1--_0) survey of molecular clouds In the Carlna arm. The survey was

made with the Columbia 1.2 m millimeter-wave telescope at Cerro Tololo,

Chile. Prior to carrying out the observations presented here, I participated

inthe constructionand testingof the instrumentinNew York Cityand its

subsequent installationat CerroTololo.Being a closecopy ofthe Columbia

millimeter-wave telescopeinNew YorkCity,the Chiletelescopenot only

Incorporateda proven design,but alsoofferedthe added benefitthatnew

SouthernCO surveysand previouslycompletedNorthernCO surveys(made

with the New York telescope)couldDe Joinedtogetherwlth almost none of

the calibration problems that have traditionally plagued the North-South

matching of galactic surveys made with different Instruments. Since the

largest molecular clouds In the first and second quadrants have proven to be

excellent spiral tracers (Dame et el. 1985), one would hope that a survey of

these objects In the Carina arm would provide an answer to the question of

the Carina arm's connection with the Northern arms as seen in CO. It does.

The first results of thls survey of the Carina arm were reported by Cohen et

el. (1985a). In that paper, we showed that the arm ls traced exceptionally

well over 25 kpc by the molecular clouds and that the Carlna arm apparently

joins the 5agittarlus arm, as defined by molecular clouds Identified In the

Columbia CO survey of the flrst quadrant (Dame et aL 1985). This thesis

presents the observations and analysis that led to these conclusions.

In the Chapter II the telescope and observing techniques are described,

and in Chapter III the observations of the Carlna region are presented in

various forms and some of the reduction techniques are described.

13

Chapter IV focuseson the large-scalecharacteristicsof the arm, including

a discussionofthe z-distributionofthe molecularlayerand a comparison

of theCO and theH I.InChapterV the individualgiantmolecularcloudsare

identifiedand cataloged,with specialattentiongiven tothe cloud

associatedwith the _ICarinaeNebula;the cloudsare used to tracethe arm

over25 kpc and compared with cloudsfound inthe firstand second

quadrantstodeterminehow the Carinaarm connects with the restof the

Galaxy.Chapter VIpresentsa summary of the results.

14

II. INSTRUMENTATION AND OBSERVING TECHNIQUES

The observations described here were carried out at the Cerro TO]GIG

Inter-American Observatory (CTIO) In Chile wlth the Columbia millimeter-

wave telescope (hereafter the Southern Millimeter-Wave Telescope, or Just

the Southern Telescope), a close copy of the Columbla millimeter-wave

telescope In New York Clty (the Northern Millimeter-Wave Telescope, or the

Northern Telescope). Prior to installation at CTIO, the telescope was

thoroughly tested In New York City on the roof of the Ooddard Institute for

Space Studies (GISS). In 1982 November it was dismantled and shipped to

Cerro Tololo where it arrived near the end of 1982 December; by the

beginning of 1983 January the Southern Millimeter-Wave Telescope was in

full operation. The first part of this chapter presents a description of the

instrument, and the second part a discussion of the calibration and

observing techniques.

A. Instrumentation

The telescope consists of flve principalcomponents: i) the antenna;

2) the mount and drive system; 3) the receiver; 4) the spectrometer; and

5) the computer system. Each of these isbriefly described. My primary

responsibilityhaving been the mount and drive and the computer system,

these sections will be emphasized. Results of the pointing tests are

presented in Appendix A; a more detaileddescription of the antenna and the

receiver can be found InBronfman (I985). See the theses of R.Cohen (1977)

and G. Chin (1977) and Cohen eta/. (1985b) for details regarding the

15

pointingand computer system of the NorthernMillimeter-Wave Telescope

thatare relevanttothe 5outhernMillimeter-Wave Telescope.

I. Antenna

The antenna is a Cassegraln system consisting of a 1.2 meter parabolic

primary reflector (f/D=0.375) and a 17.8 cm hyperbolic secondary reflector.

The effective focal ratio of the primary plus the secondary is 3.79. The

primary was manufactured by Philco Ford with a measured RM$ surface

accuracy of 36 microns, but was subsequently resurfaced to an RM$

accuracy of --6 mlcrons as a prototype for a balloon-borne telescope for

continuum observations in the far Infrared. Deformation of the primary

under gravitational stress contributes at most an additional 6 microns (Chin

1977), giving a total surface accuracy of 12 microns, corresponding to

~X/200 at 2.6 mm, about four tlmes the usual criterion for a diffraction

limited system.

To check that the primary, secondary, and horn were all properly

aligned and that the antenna was diffraction limited as claimed, the antenna

pattern was measured following the general procedure described by Cohen

(1977). With a 115 GHz transmitter located atop Cerro Morado, a mountain a

few kilometers from Cerro Tololo, the antenna pattern was mapped by

scanning across the transmitter in azimuth and elevation. The full width at

the half-power points (FWHM) of the beam was found to be 8.8', and

comparison of the measured pattern and the pattern calculated from scalar

diffraction theory showed good agreement (Bronfman 1985), assuring the

system was diffraction limited.

16

2. Mount and Drive System

Built by the machine shop of the Columbia University Phyics

Department, the altitude-azimuth mount of the telescope (Fig. II-1) Is

almost Identical to the New York telescope's mount, except for a sllghtly

larger housing for the azimuth section (allowing easy access for

maintenance). Each axis is equipped with a direct-drive torque motor, a

tachometer generator, and a 16-bit optical shaft encoder. The computer

reads the position and velocity of each axis l OO times per second and Issues

torque commands to the motors based on the commanded position and an

approximate solution to the telescope's equation of motion. The telescope

is made to track by converting source right ascension and decltnatlon to

altitude and azimuth five times per second. Data taken when pointing errors

exceed about one arcminute are automatically discarded. The telescope's

light weight allowed it to change position by as much a l 0" in about one

second, so position-switching (used for the observations presented in this

thesis) can be carried out quickly and efficiently. The entire telescope

system is housed under a 16-foot dome in a small building at the summit of

Cerro Tolo]o, A 5-foot wide sllt In the dome for observing is covered wlth a

low-loss (_0. I 5 dB) plastic fabric called Grifolin that mechanically

protects the telescope from the wind andallows a nearly constant

temperature to be maintained inside. The azimuth tracking of the dome is

control led by the computer.

A stringent check of the telescope pointing is achieved with a small

optical telescope coallgned with the radio axls of the primary. Startlng

with approximate pointing parameters (see Appendix A), the radio center _;f

i7

the Sun is located automatically by determining the symmetry points of

azimuth and elevation scans across its limb. The optical and radio axes are

then collimated to w.lthln --0.25' by tracking the Sun's radio center and

mechanically adjusting the optical telescope until the Sun's optical image is

centered In the reticle. Finally, the positions of about 40 stars, well

distributed across the sky, are checked with the optical telescope, and an

analysis of the pointing errors yields improved pointing parameters.

From this "starpointing" procedure, which included no corrections for

possible nonperpendicularity of the altitude and azimuth axes or the

altitude and radio axes, peak and RM$ polntlng errors of 0.5' and 0.2' were

found. Inclusion of nonperpendlcularlty corrections produced negligible

Improvements In the pointing accuracy so such corrections were omitted.

Subsequent periodic starpolntings showed a gradual deterloratlon of the

pointing accuracy due to a slow drift of the azimuth axls with respect to

the vertical. When the RM5 error exceeded about one arcmlnute, new

pointing parameters were determined and the accuracy restored.

As a daily check on the pointing, the radio positlon of the Sun was

monitored by scanning across lts limb, as described above. Using the

pointing parameters from the starpointlng procedure, an offset of about one

arcmlnute was found between the expected and observed positions of the

Sun. The source of thls discrepancy was never completely determined, but

being less than 1/8 of a beam it did not pose a serious problem.

At the beginning of each observing session, a spectrum was obtained

at the peak position of Orion A. The good day-to-day agreement of these

spectra (see Section B below) provided a further check on the pointing (as

well as a check on other components of the system).

I8

Detailsofthe pointingmodel can be found inthe thesisof R.Cohen

(1977);Itsapplicationtothe 5outhernMllllmeter-Wave Telescopeand a

summary of theresultsare givenhere Inthe Appendix A.

3. Receiver

A doublesidebandreceiver,based on a very stableliquidnitrogen

cooled(77 K) 5chottkybarrierdiode mixer,was used todetectthe Incoming

(RF)signal.Inthe firststage,the RF signalcollectedat a scalarfeedhorn

and the localoscillator(LO)signalIntroducedby means of a resonantring

injectioncavityaremixed to producea firstintermediatefrequency(IF)

signalof 1390 MHz. The LO signalIsthefrequency-doubledoutputof a 57

GHz klystronthatisphase-lockedtoa computer-controlledfrequency

synthesizer.By settingthesythesizerfrequency,the LO istuned to correct

forthe Dopplershiftof theCO linedue to the earth'smotion wlth respectto

the localstandardof rest.The firstIFsignalpasses throughan impedance-

matching transformerand isamplifiedby a low-noise(22 K)FET amplifier

with 30 dB ofgain. Exceptforthe feedhorn,allthe components inthe first

stageare maintainedat 77 K by liquidnitrogenina vacuum dewar. Inthe

second stage,the firstIFsignalisfurtheramplified,then down-converted

toa second intermediatefrequencycentered 150 MHz, and,after

amplification,the second IFsignalissentto the spectrometer.The single

sidebandnoise temperaturemeasured atthe feedhorn is~385 K.

For furtherdetailson thereceiver,see the thesisof L.Bronfman

(1985).

19

4. 5pectrometer

The filterbank spectrometer (or "backend"),builtat G155 from the

NRAO design (Mauzy 1974), has 256 channels, each with spectral resolution

of 0.5 MHz (1.3km s-i at 115 GHz), for a total bandwidth of 330 km s-i. The

150 MHz signal from the receiver enters the IF section of the backend where

it is divided intosixteen 8 MHz wide bands, each centered on 8 MHz. Each of

these signals is routed to one of sixteen identicalfilterboards; on each

filterboard,sixteen contiguous 0.5 MHz filtersfollowed by square-law

detectors yield the power spectrum of the input signal to the board. In the

next stage, 256 integrators on sixteen identicalintegrator boards integrate

the output of each detector for 48 milliseconds. A 5-millisecond hold

period follows during which each integratoroutput is read, digitized,and

sent to the computer where it is added to the sum of allprevious cycles for

that channel. The integrators are then reset Inpreparation for the next

integrationcycle.

During the course of post-observation data reduction itwas discovered

that a weak (_ l q) raise signal persisted In three channels, even In absence

of any real emission. The problem could be traced to a 5 -10% deviation

from square-law behavior of the detectors in these channels. At a given

source position, the final spectrum is the difference between a spectrum

taken on-source and a spectrum taken off-source (with the baseline

determined from a straight-line fit; see 5ectlon I I.B below); it can be shown

that, in the difference spectrum, the deviations from square-law behavior

lead to residual signal levels which are 3 - 6% above the level in the

remaining good (baseline) channels. These residuals account for the

2O

measured falsesignals.Inthe few dataprocessingprocedureswhere this

problem became noticable,e.g.,the summing togetherofseveralspectra

channel-by-channel(anoperationthatledto thediscoveryof the bad

channels),the bad channelswere replacedwith an interpolationusingtheir

neighboring,good channels.Aside from these cases,the bad channels

produced no effectgreaterthan thenoise,so the problem was generally

ignorable.(The bad channelshave sincebeen corrected.)

5. Computer System

The computer system, builtarounda Data GeneralNova 4/X

minicomputer with 128 K bytes ofmemory, controlsthe telescopepointing,

data acquisition,and synthesizerfrequencysetting.On-linedataprocessing

and a moderate amount of programming may be done by the observerwhile

the computer carriesout the primary telescope-controltasks.

FigureII-2shows a blockdiagram ofthe overallsystem. A crystal

oscillatorgeneratesan Interruptevery0.01siderealsecond;alltime-

keepingtasks are performed and thenthetelescopepointingprograms are

executed.The computer interfacewith the telescopedriveelectronics

receivestelescope(anddome) positionand velocityinformationand sends

torquecommands, effectlngthepointing(seeSection:2above).A

microcomputer-controlledreferencegenerator(notshown inFig.II-2)

issuesthe "Integrate-hold-reset"commands to thespectrometer's

integrators.The "_^_",,v,_command causesa ,_vvo"....interrupt,initiatingthe

readoutof the integratorsvia theNova/spectrometerinterface.The Nova is

interfacedwlth an IEEE-488 GeneralPurposeInterfaceBus (GPIB)for

21

communication with the frequency synthesizer (and other IEEE-488

programmable devices).

Data storage facilitiesconsist of a CDC 9427H moving head disk drive,

with a 5 megabyte fixed disk and a 5 megabyte removable disk cartridge,

and Cypher F IO0 dual density (800/1600 bits per inch) tape drive. After

each observation iscompleted, the data are transferred from a buffer In the

computer to the dlsk cartridge,along with an information header (position,

synthesizer frequency, date, etc.).Each cartrldge can hold about 2000

scans. A variety of telescope system and Data General system (RD05)

programs are stored on the fixed disk. Data are transferred daily and

weekly to tapes both for backup and for transport from the telescope to New

York, where full-scale processing ls carried out.

Operator Interaction wlth the system Is through a Hewlett-Packard

2623A Graphics Terminal. In addition to commanding the source

coordinates, the observer may dlsplay and manipulate both completed and

in-progress observations. Hard copies of graphics data may be obtained

from a built-In printer In the graphics terminal, and text may be output to a

dot matrix printer used to malntaln an automatic log of each observation. A

TV monltor, updated every second, displays the status of the system.

A second Nova 4/X computer ls available both as a backup and for

program development and data analysis without Interruption to the

telescope operations. A spare dlsk drive, tape drive, graphics terminal, and

a graphics printer are included.

The telescope operating system consists of a collection of elementary

("low-level") routines written in Data General assembler, and a collection of

complex ("high-lever'), interactive programs written in a language, similar

to FORTH, called the Dictionary. The low-level routines, always compiled in

22

the computer memory, carry out the telescope-control tasks and provide the

rudiments of the Dictionary in the form or approximately 270 permanent

"words" (subroutines) that can be commanded from the keyboard or from

other programs. The permanent words make the low-level telescope-control

routines accessible to the operator, provide a library of mathematical

functions, and allow the programmer to extend the Dictionary by "defining"

new words in terms of permanent and previously defined words. The

extended Dictionary code resides on the fixed disk, although during normal

operation part of it is compiled in the computer memory. Other programs

are compiled only at execution time and are subsequently discarded from

memory. The complete operating system, including the low-level routines

and about 1000 permanent and deflned Dictionary words, occuples about 90%

of the available memory. With the remaining 10% users may create

programs for special purposes.

Some of the hardware differences between the Northern and Southern

Millimeter-Wave Telescopes required modifications to the operating

system, the most complicated of these software changes being the

implementation or frequency-switching In the Southern Telescope. In the

Northern Telescope, frequency-switching was achieved by alternating

between two oscillators (with distinct frequencies) in the LO circuitry of

the receiver, the alternation being synchronized with the start of each data

acquisition cycle of the backend. The computer kept track of the switching

phase, but had no control over which oscillator was active. In the Southern

Telescope, a new scheme for frequency-swltching was used in whlch the LO

circuit had only one oscillator In place of these two, and the computer set

the switching phase and frequency of the LO signal through the

programmable frequency synthesizer. To effect this scheme, I developed

23

assembly-level and high-level routines that controlled the synthesizer. The

interrupt-servicing program was modified to allow a frequency-command

routine to be placed in a queue (with other routines) upon completion of the

dMve interrupt routine (similarly queued-up routines calulate and command

torques, recompute telescope pointing coordinates, and process backend

data; the order in which they are executed depends on their preassigned

priority). The final program gave the observer the MexJbJlJty to choose the

frequency difference and the switching rate.

Various other minor differences between the Northern and 5outhern

Telescopes required a number of less major modJMcatJons to the operating

system. For example, a larger calibration chopper wheel on the 5outhern

Telescope required more time to go from rest to its uniform rotation rate

than did the chopper on the Northern Telescope, and a time delay had to be

added Jn the program that processed calibration data from the backend.

B. Calibrationand ObservingTechniques

Weather conditions at Cerro Tololo are extremely favorable for year-

round observations at millimeter wavelengths and only few a days of

operation were lost because of rain or snow between 1983 January and

August. (Year-round, round-the-clock observing posed a challenge to

keeping the telescope system maintenance-free, but very little observing

time was lost to technical problems.) The approximately 7000 spectra on

which this thesis is based were collected in less than one year.

The receiver was calibrated using the standard chopper wheel

technique discussed by Penzias and Burrus (1973), with refinements

suggested by Davis and Vanden Bout (1973) and Kutner (1978). In the

24

original method the measured difference between a room-temperature

blackbody and the sky produces a calibration signal that, assuming the

ambient and atmospheric temperatures to be equal, depends on atmospheric

attenuation in the same way as does the measured spectral line signal. The

ratio of the measured line signal to the calibration signal then yields a line

temperature that is Independent of the atmospheric attenuation. The

calibration signal is obtained by pointing at the sky while rotating a two-

bladed chopper wheel across the feed horn and subtracting the sky signal

(clear horn) from the absorber signal (blocked horn).

Two refinements, suggested by Davis and Vanden Bout (]978), were

made to the original procedure. The first ls a correction applicable to

double sideband receivers. If the atmospheric opacity is different in the

two sidebands, the total calibration signal will be the sum of two terms

with differing amounts of attenuation, while the observed spectral line will

be affected only by the attenuation in one of the sidebands. In this case, the

ratio of line signal to total calibration signal will give the wrong result.

(Another potential source of error is unequal gains in the two stdebands, but

because laboratory measurements of the receiver on the Northern

Millimeter-Wave Telescope indicated very nearly equal gains in each

stdeband [Cohen et aL, 1985b], and since the present receiver and the

Northern Telescope's receiver have slml]ar electronics In the signal path, It

was assumed that the gains in the two sidebands of the present receiver

were equal.) The second refinement takes into account the difference

between the atmospheric and the amblent temperatures, the atmospheric

temperaturebeing generallylower. The effectof thistemperature

differenceon the originalmethod isto increasethe calibrationsignal,

leadingtoa derivedlinetemperaturebelow itstruevalue.Both corrections

25

are elevation dependent and require knowledge ofthe atmospheric opacity

as a functionof frequency.

Ina thirdrefinement,the primarysources ofatmospheric attenuation

inthe millimeterregion,molecularoxygen and water vapor,are treatedina

two-layeratmosphericmodel, followingKutner (1978).The upper,oxygen

layeriswell mixed throughouttheatmosphere and has a largescaleheight;

itstemperatureand opacity,stableover longtime scales,are taken tobe

constantInthe model. The water vapor layerisclose tothe ground,and its

temperatureand opacitycan change significantlyina matter ofhours or

minutes. The opacityand effectivetemperatureof the water are

determinedby antennatipping-- measuring the sky brightnessas function

of elevation-- and fittingthedata with the two-layer model.

With allthreerefinementstothe originalmethod, the finalcalibration

signalfor a givensource isa functionof: I) the measured calibration

voltage;2) the sourceelevation;3) the ratioof gains inthe two sidebands,

assumed forthe presentreceiverto be unity;4) the 02 layertemperature

and opacityinboth sidebands("s"forsignaland "i"for image),calculatedto

be: Tos = 255 K,T_ = 254 K,i;os= 0.2i,and _(_ = O.iO; 5) the H20

layertemperatureand opacity,determined from an antennatipping;and

6) Tit, the forward beam filling factor for the source, equal to the main

beam efficiency, TI, for a source that Just fills the maln beam. Uslng the

same chopper wheel method for the Northern Millimeter-Wave Telescope,

Cohen eta/(1985b) estimate the calibration is accurate to wlthln 15_. In

daily observations with the Southern Millimeter-Wave Telescope of the peak

position In Orion A, the peak temperature varied typically by 3% with a

maximum deviation of 12_; typical variation of the integrated temperature

was 3_ with a 15_ maximum deviation.

26

All line intensitiesreported in thisthesis are antenna temperatures

corrected for atmospheric attenuation and main beam efficiency,and are

equal to the radiation temperature, T_', for a source that just fillsthe main

beam. The main beam efficiency,11,having not been measured directly,was

inferred by scaling the data for a number of standard sources to the results

from the Northern Millimeter-Wave Telescope for the same sources. The

antenna temperatures (corrected for atmospheric attenuation),TA" ,of the

sources measured at the Southern Telescope were found to be about 17%

higher than those measured at the Northern Telescope, a result primarily

reflecting the slightlydifferent optics (and efflciencles)of the two

antennas, and a small error in the calculated oxygen opacities (and thus the

calibrated antenna temperatures) at the Northern Telescope (Dame, private

communication). Since T R" = TA'IT [ (fora source fillingthe main beam), and

the calculated main beam efficiency of the Northern Telescopels 0.81 (Cohen

et el. 1985b), then the requirement that TR'(Southern) = TR'(Northern)

implies that Tl = 0.95 for the Southern Telescope. This efficiency for the

Southern telescope, implied by the scaling,could be about I0_ too high due

to the oxygen opacity error just noted.

The temperature scale of the Northern MlllImeter-Wave Telescope

compared with that of the Bell Labs 7 m telescope is within 17_ for

individualmolecular clouds and within I0_ for totalgalactic plane

emission; comparison with the NRAO 11 m telescope gives 8_ for individual

clouds and 26_ for totalgalactic plane emission (Cohen et eL 1985b). The

two types of comparisons, using either individualmolecular clouds or

galactic plane emission, give different results because of the different

efficlencies with which these sources couple wlth the beam.

27

The 5outhernMilkyWay passes highoverhead at Cerro Tololo,and the

observationsreportedherewere allmade at elevationsbetween 45" and

70", and usually above 55". At the start of every observation a 5 second

calibration scan, at the same elevation as the source, was made in order to

determine a calibration signal for that observation. Antenna tippings were

done at the beginning of each observing session (about every eight hours).

The optical depth of the water vapor per air mass seldom exceeded O.12, and

during the dry winter months was often half this value.

Position-switching was used to remove instrumental contributions to

the spectrum, and yielded very flat baselines (Flg. II I-1). In thls standard

method of observing, a comparison spectrum of a positlon free or co

emission (OFF)is subtracted from the spectrum of the source (ON). For a

given observation, the telescope alternates, every 15 seconds, between the

ONand the OFF,the computer separately recording the spectrum at each

position. The final spectrum, the difference of the two, is formed at the end

of the observation. Since the sky contribution to the total power is

elevation dependent, It is important that the ms and oFFsbe at nearly equal

elevations. For this purpose, I developed a program that displayed

graphically, for a glven oNat any time, all oFFswithin some radius (usually

10") of the oN. The choice to observe the o_ (at a speclflc time) was then

based on finding an OFFwithin some acceptable elevation range. Using this

program, several hours of observations could be scheduled in a few minutes.

The results were m-OFFelevation differences of typically 0.2", and

extremely flat baselines. Reference positions, checked by position-

switching against one another, were verified to be emission-free to about

0.07 K, or half the tyical RM5 noise of the survey. Table I1-I lists the

reference positions used in this survey.

28

The receiver was tuned so that 0 km s-1 (with respect to the local

standard of rest) corresponded to the center of the spectrometer. All

positions were observed typically for five minutes, yieldlng an RMS noise

per channel of about O. 14 K. To determine the baseline of each spectrum, a

straight line was subtracted from it; the straight line was the least-

squares fit to the emission-free ends (usually the first and last 40

channels) of the spectrum. Any spectrum that, after this procedure,

exhibited baseline curvature greater than 1 to 2 times the RMS was rejected

and the point re-observed.

29

II I. OBSERVATIONS

The observations presented In this chapter comprise two large-scale

CO surveys in the fourth galactic quadrant which cover all the emission

arising in the Carina arm from / = 270" to 300", and provide most of the

evidence for conclusions drawn in this thesis. Where the Carina arm

extends beyond / = 300", the high longitude limit of these surveys,

observations from a third, adjoining survey, carried out concurrently with

the same telescope by L. Bronfman, will be used in the discussion.

Figure II I-i shows the region of the sky covered by the two surveys.

Both extended from / = 270" to 300" and covered 330 km s -1 (centered at

vLSR - O) with a spectral resolution of 1.3 km s -1, but differed in latitude

coverage and spatial resolution. The main or "full resolution" survey,

indicated by the region filled with small circles in the figure, had a spatial

resolution of 8.8' (one beam) and a sampling interval of O. 125", or 7.5' in

latitude and longitude. Although the nominal latitude range was within

b = _+1", all Carina arm sources (longitudes greater than "_280") were

followed in latitude until the line antenna temperature dropped below "_0.5

K. The irregularly-shaped latitude boundary in the figure reflects the

general pattern of those latitude extensions. For longitudes less than about

280", the emission is mostly local in origin (see Chapter IV), and not from

the Carina arm, so the full resolution survey includes only Ibl < 1" for

/ _ 280". The total area of the full resolution survey, about 85 deg 2, was

covered by _'5500 observations.

The second, companion survey had a spatial resolution of 0.5" and

covered a latitude range of Ibl _ 5" wltn a sampling Interval of 0.5" In

3O

latitude and longitude. Nearly 16 times the solid angle of the main beam,

the half-degree "beam" is obtained by stepping the telescope's position

through a 4x4 array during data acquisition. The resultant rapid, on-line

spatial smoothing permits mapping a large area in a relatively short time.

This survey, dubbed the "_uperbeam" survey (after the computer program,

developed by T. Dame, that controls the telescope in this observing mode),

was carried out for two reasons: 1) to provide a quick overview of the

emission in the Vela-Carina-Centaurus region of the galactic plane and 2)

to help determine appropriate latitude limits for the full resolution survey.

The 5uperbeam survey includes 1281 spectra coverlng 300 deg2.

Typical spectra from the full resolution survey are shown in

Figure 111-2. The RM5 noise per channel is about O.14 K; only first-order

(straight line) fits were used in determining the baselines of all the

spectra. The flat baselines and high signal-to-noise evident in this sample

are characteristic of the quality of the spectra in both surveys.

Recorded as a "cube" T(/i,bj,Vk), data in this and subsequent chapters

will usually be displayed by projecting the integral of temperature over one

of the independent variables onto the plane of the other two, the integration

limits depending on the emission characteristics being discussed. As

mentioned in Chapter II, three bad channels were discovered In the

spectrometer after the survey had been completed. The defect, no more than

1 (_ (0.14 K) in any individual spectrum, ls noticable only when llke

channels in several spectra are summed together ( e.g, in integrated /,v and

b,v maps), the result belng a false signai at the veloclty of the bad channels

(at least 9 spectra must be summed for the false signal to exceed the 3 (_

level of the sum). (The problem can be ignored in spatial maps where

different channels within individual spectra are summed, or in /,v maps at

31

singlevaluesof b,and b,vmaps at singlevaluesof /.)Maps displayingbad

channels(which appearas narrow linesat constantvelocity)have been

repairedby replacingthebad-channelsums with the interpolatedvalue of

the neighboring,good-channelsums.

The total molecular cloud emission from the 5uperbeam survey,

integrated from -50 to +50 km s-1, is shown in the plane of the sky in

Figure 111-3. Containing no velocity information, this map, analogous to a

continuum map, is useful for showing overall planar distribution of the

emission without regard for its distribution along the line of sight. For

example, between I = 270" and 280" the emission appears diffuse and has a

large latitude extent, while for longitudes above 280" the emission occurs

largely in well defined molecular clouds which are concentrated near the

galactic plane. It will be shown later that the wide-latitude emlssion ls

mostly local and that the narrow layer is the much more distant Carina arm.

The similar spatial map in Figure 111-4 is a hybrid of the 5uperbeam

data from Figure 111-3 and the data from the full resolution survey, also

integrated from -50 to +50 km s-1. This figure Illustrates that the latitude

coverage or the full resolution survey ls sufficient to cover all the Carina

arm clouds: outside the dotted line, where the 5uperbeam data is shown, we

see wide-latitude emission at / less than 280", but very little else. It is

also evident from the figure that the molecular clouds seen in the

5uperbeam map show considerable structure at full resolution. The region

between I = 280" and 285", in particular, is qulte complex. From I = 285"

to 295" strong sources Immersed In the complex low-level background

appear to be clustered on scales ~1 ", suggesting that the smaller beam is

resolving big molecular clouds.

32

To emphasize the most intense features, spatial maps were also

produced In which all spectral channels below about 3(_ (0.5 K) were

"clipped" (/_8., set to zero) before Integration; the resultant maps

(integrated from -100 to + I00 km s-l), are shown In Figures 111-5

(Superbeam) and 111-6 (full resolution comblned wlth 5uperbeam). Even wlth

the velocity-blending in these maps, having removed most of the weak

background by clipping, a few large clouds can now be recognized. For

example, most of the emission between / = 285" and 288" is part of a large

cloud complex associated with the 1l Carlnae Nebula. The emlsslon between

/ = 289" and 290.5" In the plane ls a cloud associated wlth the H II reglon

RCW 54a, and most of the emission between / -- 291" and 296" comes from a

cloud complex associated with the H II regions NGC 3576, RCW 60, RCW 6l,

and RCW 62. More will be said about these and other giant molecular clouds

in the Carina arm in Chapter V.

The kinematics of molecular gas In the galactic dlsk is best studied by

displaying the data In the longitude-velocity plane, as in Figure II 1-7.

Coverlng most of the fourth quadrant, the /,v map In this figure was

produced by Integrating the full resolution data over all latitudes where

observations have been made; we emphasize that the data have f/or been

c]lpped In this map. Although the INtegration llmlts are not uniform In /,

they should Include essentially all nonlocal (Carlna arm) emission at

longitudes between 280" and 300", as the total emlssion spatial map

(Fig. 111-4) Indicates. For / > 300" only full resolution data were available,

but the Carlna arm (seen in this part oF the /,v diagram as the lane of

positive velocity emission) is covered completely within the latitude ]imits

of the survey In this part of the fourth quadrant. The /,v map In Figure II I-7

will generally be referred to as the"/,v map" or the "/,v diagram."

33

The dominant featureofthe /,v map isthe open loopof emission

formed by a negativevelocitysegment from I = 280" to 300" and a positive

velocitysegment at I _ 280" joinedby the intenseemission centeredat

v = 0 km s-inear / = 280". This loopisthe Carinaarm, itsnear sidebeing

tracedby the negativevelocityemission,itsfarsideby the positive

velocityemission,and itstangentmarked by the strongemission connecting

the two. A more detaileddiscussionisdeferreduntilChapter IV. (The

strongemission inthe upper leftofthismap originatesinthe innerGalaxy

and willbe largelyignoredhere;see Bronfman [I985] fora fulldiscussion.)

FigureIII-8shows the corresponding5uperbeam /,vmap made by

integratingfrom b = -5" to +5". The weakness inthe5uperbeam map of the

laneofpositivevelocityemission seen inthe fullresolutionmap, and the

greaterintensityinthe 5uperbeam map of the emission below /= 280", are

readilyunderstood.Being closelyconfinedtothe galacticplane,the

positivevelocityemission isdilutedby the largebeam and wide latitude

coverageofthe Superbeam surveyand fallsbelow the 3(5level(roughlythe

firstcontour)of the5uperbeam /,vmap. At / _ 280" much of the emission

thatspillsout of the latitudeboundariesof the fullresolutionsurvey is

coveredinthe 5uperbeam survey(seeFig.III-4),so more emission is

includedinthe 5uperbeam /,vmap below I = 280" than inthe fullresolution

/,vmap. Bearinginmind these differences,both maps are fullyconsistent.

An /,vmap made by smoothing the fullresolution/,vmap inlongitude

to 0.5" (Fig.III-9)more closelyresembles the 5uperbeam /,vmap, the main

differencebetween the two beingthe differenceinthe strengthof the local

materialbelow I = 280". Between / = 280" and 300", the Superbeam map

containsabout 30% more integratedemission (abovethe 30"level)thanthe

34

full resolution map, again indicating that most of the emission at I _ 280"

isaccounted forinthe fullresolution/,vmap.

A set of54 fullresolution/,vmaps at each sampled latitudeinthe

survey (b = +2.5"to -4.125")isshown inFigureB-1 (placedinan appendix

due to theirbulk).ForIbl> I',where the latitudecoveragevaries,dotted

linesmark the separationbetween observedand unobserved sectionsof

longitude(exceptfor I < 280", therelittleorno emission isexpectedin

the unobserved portionsof eachmap, as we have Justseen).The positive

velocityemission inthesemaps Isstrongestbetween b = 0" and -I°,while

strongnegativevelocityemissioncan be seen over a wider latituderange,

roughlyfrom b = 1.5"to -2.5".The differinglatitudeextentsof the

positiveand negativevelocityemissionsimply reflectthe different

distancestothe farand nearsidesof theCarinaarm. Emission from the

tangentregionof thearm (I= 280",v = 0 km s-i),evidentbetween

b = 0.625" and -2.75",is,as inthe farside,strongestatnegative

latitudes.The loopthattracestheCarinaarm inthe integrated/,vmap is

apparentinthesemaps primarilyInthenarrow latituderange between

b = -0.25"and -0.875". Itisquiteclearfrom these maps thatthe Carina

arm couldbe overlookedina CO surveyrestrictedtob = 0".

There beingno otherCO surveyof theCarinaarm with comparable

coverage,itseems appropriateto includehere(alsoinAppendix B),in

additionto the maps to be used Inthe nexttwo chapters,a largersetof

maps forgeneraluse. FigureB-2 shows 241 fullresolutionb,vmaps ateach

i,,,,,,i_,,,_.. ,,,,,,_ov,_,_,v,,ourvey,FigureB-3 shows "_',v._,,_ observedinthe ,,,I,_..^,.._,^........ Zl

5uperbeam /,vmaps ateach latitudeobservedintheSuperbeam survey;and

FigureB-4 shows 61 5uperbeam b,vmaps at each longitudeobserved inthe

5uperbeam survey.The maps are presentedhere withoutfurtherdiscussion.

35

IV. LARGE SCALE PROPERTIES OF MOLECULAR GAS IN THE CARINA ARM

Between longitudes 280" and 300", the Carina arm has been well

established in a variety of optical and radio spiral tracers. CO, being an

excellent spiral tracer in the first and second quadrants (Dame 1983), may

be expected to join the list of tracers in the Carina arm. As we will see

below, the Carina arm is indeed traced exceptionally well by molecular gas,

and is actually the best example to date of a CO spiral arm in the Galaxy. As

the birth sites of massive stars and their accompanying H II regions, giant

molecular clouds provide an important physical link between the optical and

the classic 21-cm arms. In the Carina arm in particular, where the optical

tracers can be seen to very great distances ('_ l O kpc), the good agreement

between the optical and molecular pictures of the arm underscores the

importance of CO in the study of large-scale galactic structure in regions of

the Galaxy where the arms are optically obscured.

The optical transparency of the Carina region of the galactic plane ends

with increasing / near / - 298", but the molecular arm continues much

further: at least to / = 329 °, as will be shown. This chapter focuses on the

large scale characteristics of the arm. First, the Carina arm's appearance Jn

the /,v diagram is discussed. Using the /,v diagram to locate the near side,

tangent region, and far side of the arm in velocity space, these three

segments of the arm next are viewed as they appear in the plane of the sky.

Then, for the emission from beyond the solar circle, the distribution of

molecular gas about the galactic plane is examined, and the surface density

of molecular hydrogen as a function of galactocentric radius determined.

Finally, the CO results are compared with the large-scale distribution of

neutral atomic hydrogen observed at 21-cm.

36

A. Kinematics and Distributionof CO inthe Carina Arm

I. The /,vDiagram

Inthe fourth galactic quadrant, material within the solar circle

(Ro = I0 kpc) is generally overtaking the Sun in its galactic orbit,so radial

velocities in the local standard of rest are negative. Similarly, material

beyond the solar circle is fallingbehind,so radialvelocities are positive.

From previous optical and radio studies (see Chapter I),the tangent point of

the Carina arm is known to be near the solar circle at / = 28 I'. Within the

solar circle,the arm approaches a point about 2 kpc from the Sun near

I = 296", and beyond the solar circle itmoves further from the galactic

center (and from the Sun) with increasing longitude. The expected signature

of the Carina arm in the /,vdiagram, then, is a loop with the near side at

negative velocities between / = 281" and 296", the far side at positive

velocites at longitudes greater than "_281",and the connecting tangent

region near zero velocity at / = 281 ". This is exactly what is seen in the

integrated /,vmap (Fig.IfI-7). Because velocity crowding and noncircular

motions influence the appearance of the /,vmap (e.g.,Burton 1971 ),a closer

look at the Carina "loop" is worthwhile. For the following discussion, a

schematic representation of the main features in the /,v diagram is

displayed in Figure IV-lb beside the integrated /,v diagram to the same

scale (Fig. IV-la).

The correspondence of the near side of the arm with the high velocity

ridge between / = 280" and 300" raises the question of whether velocity

crowding, rather than a true density enhancement, could be responsible for

37

the enhanced emission in this part of the /,v diagram. While there are

undoubtedly some chance line of sight coincidences of distinct molecular

clouds near the terminal velocity, the sharp gap in emission between

/ = 289" and 291" (and to a lesser extent between / = 296" and 297") along

the high velocity ridge indicates that velocity blending of many small,

randomly distributedclouds is not likelyto be the originof this ridge. This

may be seen by considering the following two-dimensional picture.

The velocity extent of the emission gap at I = 290" -- through the

high velocity ridge and allthe way to zero velocity -- corresponds to a path

length of about 7 kpc through the galactic plane; the implied region of the

galacticplane that is free of molecular clouds is from the 5un to the solar

circlebetween / = 289" and 291". The area lies between 9 and I0 kpc from

the galactic center and covers about 8 x I05 pc2. Let :Ebe this total cloud-

free area,and letSM be the number surface density (pc-2)of all molecular

clouds in the mass range Mi _ M _ M 2 in the galactic plane between R = 9

and I0 kpc. Then, ifthe clouds in this mass range are distributed in the

plane with a Poisson distribution of mean SM, the probability, Po, that no

clouds with masses between M1 and M2 occupy T. is:

Po = exp(-SM_).

For a given mass range, Mi _ M _ M 2,with mean mass <M>, we can write

SM = fMC_/<M>, where c_ is the mass surface density of molecular gas, and fM

iS the fractlon of c_ contained in clouds with masses between Mi and M2.

From the axisymmetric distribution derived by Dame (1983) and relation

(IV-l) introduced later in this chapter, we have c_ = 3 Me Pc-2 between

R = 9 and 10 kpc. Using the molecular-cloud mass spectrum of Dame

38

(1983), f_ and hence sN have been estimated for six half-decade wide

logarithmic mass intervals with centers ranging from/og(M/i"l e) = 4.0 to

6.5; the smallest mass corresponds roughly to the sensitivity limit of the

full resolution survey for clouds at 7 kpc. The computed values of Po for the

respective mass intervals (least to most massive) are found to be: 0.002,

0.031, O.147, 0.320, 0.549, and 0.702. Evidently, if velocity crowding of

small clouds were the origin of the high velocity ridge in this part of the /,v

diagram, a gap such as the one observed at / = 290" would be a very unlikely

occurence. As larger and larger clouds are considered, however, the

existence of the gap becomes less unlikely, suggesting that the high

velocity ridge emission comes from large clouds. The gap at / = 290" in

the high velocity ridge is just the line of sight between very large clouds

that happen to lie near the terminal velocity.

Large clouds also are subject to velocity crowding, but they are

relatively few in number, and, out of four identified near the terminal

velocity between / = 280" and 300", two can be placed in the near side of

the Carina arm on the basis of associations with well-known optical

objects that trace the arm (see Chapter V). It seems reasonable, therefore,

to attribute the high velocity ridge emission largely to the near side of the

Carina arm.

Between ! = 280" and 284", near zero velocity the tangent region of

the arm is marked by intense COemission. A long path length through the

arm lies In a narrow range of longitudes near the tangent, accounting for the

observed brightness of the emission and rapid increase in the velocity width

as / increases from 280" to 284". Some local emission may be mixed in as

well, but the coincidence of the bright COedge with the classic Carina

tangent suggests that the local contribution is slight. The relatively weak

39

intensity just before / = 280" corresponds to an interarm region outward in

galactocentric radius from the Carina arm tangent.

The abrupt onset of the tangent emission as our line of sight sweeps

toward I = 280" from below is illustrated especially well in Figure IV-2,

which shows the emission from the full resolution survey integrated over

latitude and velocity as a function of longitude. Plotting the total intensity

of a spiral tracer versus longitude is a classic method for locating the

tangent directions of spiral arms. In such an intensity-longitude or

"1(/)" graph, the tangent directions appear as upward steps in the intensity,

and the ratio of brightness in the tangent direction to that in the preceding

interarm direction indicates the arm-interarm contrast of the spiral tracer

(Dame 1983). In the first quadrant, the CO I(/) graph shows a typical

tangent-interarm brightness ratio of about 2 to 1 (Dame 1983), and in the

fourth quadrant (Fig. IV-2) similar ratios are seen in the tangent directions

of the Centaurus and Norma arms, at / = 31 O" and / = 330". For the Carina

tangent at ! = 280", however, the ratio is much higher: about to 13 to 1.

(The nearby step down from ! = 270" to 272" results mostly from local

emission.) There are three possible explanations for such a high ratio.

First, the latitude coverage of the full resolution survey fans out at about

the same longitude as the step in the I(/) graph, suggesting that the

strength of the step might be an artlfact of the sampling. This possibility

was carefully considered by comparing I(1) graphs produced from the

5uperbeam survey to the full resolution I(I) graph smoothed in longitude to

0.5". The smoothed full resolution I(l) graph was found to be completely

consistent with the 5uperbeam I(1) graphs, and therefore, since the

sampling of the 5uperbeam survey is uniform in / and b, the irregular

sampling pattern of the full resolution survey fails to explain the high

40

tangent-interam brightness ratio. Second, since COemission from the

tangent region of the Carlna arm is klnematically indistinguishable from

local, low velocity COemission, the strength of the step in the I(/) graph

could be due in part to contributions from local emission. However, as noted

above, such contributions cannot be substantial, as evidenced by the

observation of distant, optically visible H II regions at the Carina arm

tangent (Bigay et aL 1972), and the absence of Population I material ahead

of (at lower longitudes than) the tangent coupled with the step in the radio

continuum intensity observed in the direction of the Carina tangent. Third,

the high tangent-interarm brightnesss ratio is a true indication of the

physical arm-lnterarm contrast in the Carina arm. Thls explanation is by

far the most plausible of the three, and the conclusion is unavoidable: there

is ~ 13 times more molecular gas in the Carina arm than in the interarm

region ahead of the tangent. This finding provides significant support for

the clalm that molecular clouds in the Galaxy are confined largely to the

spiral arms (Cohen eta/. 1980; Dame 1983), and demonstrates emphatically

the importance of COas a spiral tracer.

Above ! = 280", at positive velocities, the tangent region extends

continuously to the far side of the Carlna arm. Because the far slde lles

beyond the solar circle, there is no kinematic distance ambiguity in the CO

emission. A fairly sharp low velocity edge for longitudes above ~284"

marks the Inner side of the arm, and the relative emptiness of the region

between this edge and zero veloclty is very simllar to the interarm gap

observed between the local arm and the Perseus arm in the second quadrant

(Cohen eta/ 1980). As is the case with the near side, individual molecular

clouds identified in the far side between I = 280" and 300" colncide with

previously known Carina arm tracers, including some very distant optical

41

H II regions. Beyond / = 300", the arm extends to the top of the /,v map:

the small object at /= :329", v = 30 km s -i is not noise, but a distant,

6 x 105 P1o molecular cloud in the Carina arm; an even more distant cloud

observed at / = 335" extends the arm even farther (Chapter V).

Running down the center of the /,v diagram, near zero velocity, is a

lane of emission mostly local in origin, although a small amount of weak,

distant emission may be present here as well. The local emission is

recognlzable by the narrow llnes and, In the case of the narrow-veloclty

component of the feature seen between /= 293" and 295", by Its large

latltude displacement (see the /,v maps from b ; -2" to -3" In Fig. B- I ). The

sparseness or the emlsslon that appears between the near and far sides In

the /,v diagram 1s also evident in the plane-of-the-sky map of the tangent/

reglon (Flg. IV-3b) discussed below.

Except for the local emlsslon near zero velocity, the region between

the near and far sides of the arm In the /,v diagram 1s remarkably free of

emission. This gap corresponds to the lnterarm region Interior to the Carina

arm. Wlth the exception of the Perseus arm (Cohen et aZ 1980), no other CO

spiral arm, when viewed in /,v space, exhlblts such a sharp intensity drop

lnslde Its inner edge; It 1s the relative emptiness of the reglon Inward of

the arm that makes the Carlna loop stand out In the /,v diagram.

2. The Spatial Maps

To view the near side, tangent region, and far slde of the Carina arm on

the plane of the sky, the emission was integrated over the approximate

velocity widths of these features as they appear In the integrated /,v

diagram. The velocity boundaries are indicated In the key to the /,v diagram

42

(Fig. IV-lb) as the dotted lines at constant velocity, and the resultant

spatial maps are shown In Flgures IV-3a to IV-3d. For / _ 300", the spatial

maps combine the full resolution and 5uperbeam data; from / = 300" to

330", only full resolution data are available. In the following discussion the

spatial maps are referred to according to the segment of the arm displayed,

Ze., the "near side map" (Fig. IV-3a), the "tangent region map" (Flg. IV-3b;

this map contains some local material as well -- see below), and the "far

side maps" (Figs. l V-3c and IV-3d).

For ! > 284", the near and far sides of the arm are well contained

within the adopted velocity ranges of the spatial maps. Below 284", where

the near and far sides of the arm merge continuously into the tangent, the

velocity boundaries at -9 km s-i, the inner edge of the near slde, and at

7 km s-1, the lnner edge of the far side, sandwich the tangent region

somewhat arbitrarily. Even so, these llmlts evidently enclose most of the

tangent emission, as a comparison of the tangent region map to the total

emission spatial map (Fig II I-6) shows. Almost all the peaks between

/ = 280" and 285" In the total emlsslon map appear In the tangent region

map. (Notable exceptions are the peaks at / = 283", b = 1.5"; / = 284.25",

b = 0.75"; and I = 284.5", b = 0.5 °, the first two being seen in the near

side map, the third in the far side map.) The abrupt onset of the tangent

emission, prominent in the total emission map, is no less evident in the

tangent region map; and although the total emission map is more intense

than the tangent region map between /= 280" and 285", the complicated

appearance of the emission is similar in each. This is because the large

path length sampled by the small velocity extent of the tangent region map

accounts ror most of the tangent region emission.

43

Two othercharacteristicsof the emission inthe tangentregionmap

shouldbe noted. First,the wide latitudeemission between I = 270" and

275" iscompletelyaccountedforwithin the low velocitiesof the tangent

regionmap (compare the nearand farsideand tangentregionmaps),

supportingthe earlierassertionthatthiswide latitudeemission islocal.

Second,the emission near zerovelocitybetween the near and farsidesof

the arm inthe /,vdiagram isweak when viewed inthe planeof thesky,

especiallycompared with the nearsldeand farsideemission between

/ = 285" and 300*. This clearlysupportsthe conclusionthatthe interarm

regioninteriortothe Carlnaarm iscomparativelyfreeof molecularclouds.

The spatialmap ofthe near side(Fig.IV-3a)ischaracterizedby well-

definedmolecularcloudsorcloudcomplexes between I = 284" and 296*.

For example, the cluster of strong peaks between / = 285" and 288" near

the galactic plane is a single cloud complex associated with the 11 Carinae

Nebula, the brightest optical feature in the Carina arm. The emission

between / = 292" and 295" comprises a large cloud complex associated

with a group of H II regions, including RCW 62 and NGC 3576, also

optically prominent Carina arm objects. Between / = 280" and 284" below

the galactlc equator, where the near side merges with the tangent region

(compare Figs. IV-3a and IV-3b), and for ! > 297", where our line of sight

moves toward the inner Galaxy, the emission has a more confused

appearance, making identification of Individual clouds less certain. The

total latitude extent of the near side is 3 to 4 degrees, corresponding to a

total thickness of about 160 to 210 pc, assuming an average distance of :3

kpc to this part of the arm.

In the far side of the arm (Figs. IV-3c and IV-3d), most of the emlssion

ls concentrated below the galactic equator. As the longitude increases, the

44

latitudewidth of the layershrinks,reflectingthe increasingdistanceto the

farsidewith longitude,inagreement with the kinematicpictureof the far

side.

3. The DistributionAbout the GalacticPlane

Because no kinematic distance ambiguity exists for emission beyond

the solar circle, a unique distance from the galactic plane, z, may be

assigned for the emission at each observed /, b and v for R > Ro, and the

distribution of molecular material about the galactic plane in the outer

Galaxy can be determined directly. In this section the dependence on

galactocentric distance of the average midplane, layer thickness, and

surface and volume density of molecular hydrogen beyond the solar circle is

derived, ignoring for the moment the dependence of these properties on

galactocentric azimuth.

A qualitative comparison between the observed radial distribution and

the assumed axial symmetry can be gleaned from Figure IV-4. In the figure,

the galactocentric rings of constant radlus are shown transformed to /,v

space (using a flat rotation curve, V(R) = 250 km s-1) and superimposed on

an outline of the /,v data. The opening outward of the Carina arm with

increasing longitude is quite apparent, particularly between ! = 280 ° and

310" Because this nonaxisymmetric structure is ignored below, and

individual clouds in the arm have velocity widths that "spread them out"

over a few kiloparsecs in kinematic radius, the arm will be largely washed

out in the following treatment. But even so, we will see that by considering

a restricted range of longitudes the arm and lnterarm regions are easily

distinguishable.

45

To convert the observed COluminosity at each postitlon to density, the

integrated emission, J'T*Rdv,denoted W(CO), is assumed to be proportional

to the column density of molecular hydrogen, N(H2). Even though the i2CO

line is optically thlck, W(CO)has been shown empirically to be a good tracer

of molecular cloud mass in the Galaxy (Lebrun et el 1983; Bloemen et el.

1985). We adopt here the W(CO)-N(H2) relation of Bloemen et a/.:

N(H2)/W(CO) = 2.8 x 1020 cm-2 (K km s-1)-l. (Jr-l)

Their result was derived using gamma rays as a tracer of the total gas

column denslty and the 21-cm llne as a tracer of the atomic hydrogen

column density.

Wrltlng expression (IV-1) in the differential form,

dN(H2) = 2.8 x102o T*n dv (cm -2)

it follows that the density at any point (R,z) can be written as

p(R,z) : 6.17 TR*(/,b,v) x Idr/dvi -i Me pc -3, (IV-2)

where TR" is the CO line temperature; R and z (for R > Ro) are uniquely

determined by /, b, and v (in km s-i), r is the kinematic distance to the point

in parsecs, and the mean molecular weight per H2 molecule has been taken to

be 2.76 mH (Allen 1973). The factor Idr/dv1-1 can be calculated from the

rotatlon curve using the expression for the observed radial veloclty due to

differential galactic rotation,

46

VLSR = RO[LO(R)-LD(Ro)]SJB(/)COS(b),

where LoCR)is the angular velocity at radius R. As a reasonable first

approximation, and to facilitate comparison of the COresults with the H I

results of Henderson eta/. (1982), a flat rotation curve was used:

V(R) = 250 km s-1 The projected surface density, (_(R), is just j'p(R,z)dz,

where the integral runs over all z. In this analysis, the computed densities

at each point, (/,b,v), between / = 280" and 335", weighted according to the

respective volume elements, were summed in bins in R and z, yielding a

sampled mass per bin. Dividing the total mass sampled by the total volume

sampled in a given bin then gave the average density for that bin.

The results for p(R,z) are plotted as a function of z at fixed R, starting

at 10.5 kpc, in Figures IV-Sa-f; the data are shown by the solid line. At

each radius, a Gaussian with the form

p(z) = Po exp[-(Z-Zo) 2/n(2)/(zl/2)2] (IV-3)

was fitted to the data, and the parameters determined: Po, the peak density

of the Gausslan; Zo, the z-displacement of the peak; and zl/2, the half-

thickness at half the peak density. The fits, drawn with a dotted line in the

figures, are evidently fairly good representations of the actual distribution

at each radius. Table IV-I gives the parameters from the fits, the H2

surface density based on the fit, and, for comparison, the surface density

measured directly from the area under the solid (data) curves in the figures.

The CO midplane, layer thickness, and surface density are plotted versus

radius in Figures IV-12a-c.

47

The mean of the distributiondips below the plane for Ro < R < 12.5

kpc, reaching a maximum displacement of z = -166 pc at 12.5 kpc. The

half-thickness of the layer grows with increasing radius. By i3 kpc, there

is very littlemolecular hydrogen, and the measurements, as shown, are

highly uncertain. In general, the surface density of H2 beyond the solar

circleis known to be smaller than in the inner Galaxy (e.g.,Sanders et aZ

1984) and drops off with increasing radius beyond R o. Between / = 280" and

335", however, a peak is seen in (_(H 2) at R = 11.5 kpc. This peak is probably

caused by the three or four large molecular clouds between / = 290" and

320' that straddle the I 1.5 kpc ring in Figure IV-4. With the results of the

axisymmetrlc model for the inner Galaxy used by Dame ( ! 983), the H2

surface density at the 11.5 kpc peak is found to be only a factor of _,4

below the value at the peak of the "molecular ring" in the first quadrant.

Taking the peak at 11.5 kpc to be representative of the surface density in

the Carina arm suggests that a single spiral arm can account for a

significant fraction of the H2 surface density observed in the interior region

of the Galaxy.

If attention is restricted to longitudes 290" to 310" and just the two

rings at 10.5 kpc and 11.5 kpc are considered (refer to Fig. IV-4), we can get

some idea of the arm-interarm contrast in terms of surface density. In this

case, we find that d(H 2) - 1.1 M® pc -2 at 10.5 kpc, and 4.9 Me pc -2 at I 1.5

kpc, giving arl arm-interarm surface density contrast of _'4,5 to 1. Because

the preceding analysis tends to wash out nonaxisymmetric structure ( ie.,

spiral arms), the actual contrast is likely to be higher -- recall that a

13 to 1 contrast is seen in the I(I ) graph (Section A.I above). To a distant

extragalactic millimeter-wave astronomer with a face-on view of our

Galaxy, the Carina arm must be a prominent feature.

48

Finally, the total mass of H2 in the sector of the Galaxy considered

( / = 280" to 335", R = 10.25 kpc to 13.25 kpc) may be obtained by

multiplying the H2 surface density of each ring segment by the area of the

segment and summing over the segments. The result using the surface

densities from the fits is 1.0 x108 Me, whereas using the measured surface

densities (the numerical integrals of the solid curves in Figs. IV-Sa-f) gives

1.1 x lO8 Me. These numbers are about 1.7 to 1.9 times the value obtained in

the next chapter by considering the total mass in a catalog of Carina arm

molecular clouds. This factor of ~2 difference can be largely reconciled by

evaluating the completeness of the molecular cloud catalog within the

projected area of the galactic plane considered in the present section. If

account is taken of: 1) molecular clouds too faint to be included in the

catalog, and 2) a few molecular clouds Interior to the Carina arm that

contribute to the surface density derived above but are not included in the

catalog of Carina arm clouds, about half of the "missing mass" is recovered.

The mass in clouds in category (2) may total as much as 107 M e (Bronfman,

private communication). Another ~ 107 Me is estimated to reside in clouds

below the mass threshold for Inclusion in the catalog. This estimate was

obtained by using the molecular cloud mass spectrum of Dame (1983), the

threshold apparent CO luminosity for clouds in the catalog, and an average

distance to each of the galactocentric rlng segements to calculate roughly

the fraction of the surface density (and hence of the total mass) in each ring

segment that falls below the threshold. With corrections ( 1) and (2) to the

total mass in the cataloged Carlna arm clouds, then, the total mass found

from cloud counting agrees to within ~25_ of the total derived from the

axisymmetric averaging of the COemission.

49

B. Comparison with H I

Inthissectionthe largescaledistributionofH2 and of H Iare

compared. 51mIlarcomparisons Inthe firstquadranthave shown a good

correlationbetween the CO and H I,althoughthe CO appears tobe more

confinedto the spiralarms (Dame 1983). The H Idataused to producethe

maps discussedbelow are from a neutralhydrogensurvey of the Southern

MilkyWay made with the Parkes 18 m telescope.A magnetic tape

containingthe surveywas kindlyprovidedby Dr.Frank Kerr.

I. The /,v Diagrams

Figure IV-6 is the H I /,v map integrated within Ibl _ 2 °, covering the

same region of /,v space as the CO /,v map in Figure 111-7. As in the first

quadrant ( e.g., Burton and Gordon 1978; Dame 1983; Sanders et el 1984), the

CO and H I termlnal veloclty curves are quite similar. For example, between

1 = 318" and 315", the slope in / of the hlgh velocity ridge becomes almost

vertical In both COand H I; at I = 313", a sllght positlve velocity

indentation flanked on either side (in I) by two negative velocity bumps is

seen in both the CO and H I high velocity rldges. These and other easily

recognizable coincidences of the COand H I terminal velocity curves

suggest that the two species share the same large-scale kinematics.

More quantitative evidence is provided by comparing the emission-

weighted mean velocities of COand H I along their respective high velocity

ridges. To make this comparison we define the mean velocity of the high

velocity ridge of species X (CO or H I) at longitude /, <v(/)Hv_x, to be

5O

<v( I)HVn>X= J'Vx(/)Tx( l,v)dv/J'Tx(/,v)dv, (IV-4)

where the integrals extend over +25 km s-1 of the assumed rotation curve at

the given longitude, and before Integrating, the CO data ls smoothed in / to

the resolution of the Parkes survey. The difference between these mean

velocities, L_<VHvR(I )>, where

A <V(/)HV_ - (V( I)HVI:PCO- (V(/)HV_H I, (IV-S)

should be approximately independent of the rotatlon curve used. Figure IV-7

shows these velocity residuals plotted against longitude; to demonstrate

the relative insensitivity to the rotation curve, the residuals were

calculated using both the Burton and Gordon (1978) rotation curve (solid

line for A<v(/)HVI_) and a simple straight line in the /,v plane from

v = -85 km -1, I = 330", to 0 km s-I, 270" (dotted line for A<v( / )HVR>).A

large discrepancy between the COand H ! terminal velocities appears near

/ = 290", the longitude of the gap in the COhigh velocity ridge, but because

there is no CO emission in this region, the weighting function in equation

(IV-4) is just noise and <v( / )_co is not well defined. Aside from this

direction, however, the magnitude of A<V( / )HV_>iS generally less than

5 km s-t, quantifying both the agreement of the COand H I terminal

velocities and the similarity of the large-scale kinematics of the two

species. (The possibility of differences between the small-scale

kinematics of the two species is not precluded by the foregoing

computation.)

51

In the outer Galaxy (v > 0), the H I is more widespread in velocity than

the CO,but by far the strongest H I feature is the Carina arm. A striking

resemblence between the CO and H I pictures of the outer Carina arm can be

seen by comparing the CO /,v diagram to an H I /,v diagram produced by

setting all spectral channels below 50 K to zero before integrating in

latitude. Such a map, shown in Figure IV-8, emphasizes the strongest H I

features. Nearly every H I peak in the outer Carina arm has a corresponding

peak or complex of peaks in the COmap, each of these CO peaks being a giant

molecular cloud (see Chapter V). Note especially the features at: / = 303",

v = 32 km s-t; /= 311", v = 35 km s-t; and /= 329", v = 30 km s-1.

The shapes of these objects, as can be seen, are generally simllar In both CO

and H I. The dominant features in neutral hydrogen, then, appear to be

closely associated with giant molecular clouds.

The tangent reglon ls a strong H I feature, but from the H I data alone It

ls not obvious that the far side of the arm ls continuous wlth the tangent

feature. This uncertainty of the far side-tangent connection is partly due to

the apparent continuity of far side at / > 280" with the H I at about the

same veloclty at ! < 280" (e.g., the concentration at / = 273",

v = 35 Km s-1 ln Flg. IV-6). Recently, Henderson ete/.(1982)examlned

H I In the outer Galaxy by considering emlsslon only at klnematlcally-

determined galactocentric radl! greater than 1I kpc. Intentionally omitting

the inner Galaxy from their analysis to avold the problem of kinematic

distance ambiguity, they excluded the tangent reglon, and Interpreted the

far side as continuing to / = 265" (as lnferred from their map of H I

projected surface denslty In galactlc plane). There are two properties of

the H I /,v map (especially the clipped /,v map) that do suggest that the far

side of the arm does not continue to longitudes less than 280". Flrst,

52

between v = 15 and 45 km s-i, there is a sudden rise of the H I contours

in the direction of increasing / between / = 279" and 280" which is

uncharacteristic of the more gentle slopes of the contours between the H I

concentrations at / > 280" in the far side. Second, a deep trough in the

emission centered at / _ 277", v _. 35 km s -1 that separates the far side

at /> 280" from the feature at /= 273",v = 35 km s-1 is un]ike the

shallower depressions between the other far side concentrations. The best

evidence against the interpretation that the far side of the Carina arm

extends to longitudes less than 280", however, comes from the CO /,v

diagram: the strength of the tangent and the clear continuity of the near and

far sides with the tangent. Without the CO data, extension of the H I

counterpart of the far side to / < 280" cannot be convincingly ruled out.

An interesting feature in the near side of the arm noted earlier is the

2" wide gap in the CO high velocity ridge centered near / = 290". This gap,

the existence of which argues against a widespread distribution of small

molecular clouds throughout the Carina region, can reasonably be attributed

to the line of sight between two large molecular clouds. In H I, a

corresponding feature near / = 290" appears as a shift of the high velocity

ridge toward more positive velocities and a spreading out in / of the

contours. This detour of the H I high velocity ridge was interpreted by

Humphreys and Kerr (1974) as evidence for a large-scale shock at the inner

edge of the Carina arm, but if the claim that we are just looking between

molecular clouds at / = 290" ls correct, and if CO and H I concentrations

are related, as appears to be the case in the far side of the arm, then this

notch in the H I high velocity ridge near / = 290" may just reflect a true

lack of neutral hydrogen near the terminal velocity at this longitude.

Nonetheless, it is possible that the absence of CO and (perhaps) H I in this

53

direction is the result of an energetic event or a large-scale disturbance

having cleared out the gas This region clearly deserves further study.

Aside from such Indirect evidence for correlation of H I and CO in the near

side, the general strength of the H I high velocity ridge makes it difficult to

trace the near slde of the Carina arm in the H I /,v map, an aspect of the H I

emission that, perhaps more than any other, masks the Carina "loop" in the

H I /,vmap

2. The 5patialMaps

The H I spatial map of the total emission between -I00 and I00 km s-i

displayed in Figure IV-9 is qualitatively similar to the CO total emlssion

map (Fig II I-6). The tangent region is recognizable, as is the general

latitude-shape of the layer at / > 280", although most of the individual

peaks are washed out The more diffuse appearance of the H I relatlve to the

CO is only partly due to the lower spatial resolution of the 21-cm

observations, since even when smoothed to the 48' resolution of the Parkes

survey, the COretains more definition than ls evident in the H I.

H I spatial maps of the near side, tangent reglon, and far side of the

arm made with the same veloclty windows used for the CO spatial maps are

shown In Figures IV-lOa-d. The tangent reglon map (Fig. IV-IOb) shows the

H ! counterpart to the CO tangent, although the H I tangent does not exhibit

as abrupt an outer edge at I = 280" as does the CO tangent, and the

inter"arm region at / > 285" is not as empty in H I as in CO In the near

side, where the high velolcity ridge dominates the H I /,v diagram, an

apparent H I concentration can be seen in the spatlal map (Flg. IV-lOa)

between I = 280" and 288"; the sudden shlft of the H I hlgh velocity ridge

54

toward positive velocities near / = 290" noted above is marked by a relative

trough in the spatla] map between / = 288" and 290", supporting the

interpretation that the notch in the high velocity ridge represents a true

]ack of material. In the far side spatial maps (Figs. IV-lOc, d), although the

latitude extent of the H I is everywhere greater than the CO, the projected

thickness of the H I layer generally decreases from / = 280" to 330", and,

as with the CO and H I /,v maps, the spatial maps of the far side show a

close correlation between H I concentrations and the CO peaks. A strong H I

feature in the far side map at /-_ 273", b = -1.5" could be interpreted as

an extension of the far side of the Carina arm to / < 280". The depression

of the contours separating this feature from the emission that begins

abruptly at / = 280" is, however, deeper than the troughs between any of

the H I concentrations farther along the far side of the arm ( / > 280"),

suggesting (as did the /,v map) that the far side of the Carina arm does not

connect with any feature below ! _ 280" in the outer Galaxy.

3. The z-Distribution

The distributionof H I about the galactic plane in the outer Galaxy has

recently been reinvestigated by Henderson et al (1982). In the 5outhern

Milky Way, their results,in agreement with earlierfindings,show an

increasing displacement of the H I midplane below the b = O" plane with

increasing distance from the galactic center,reaching an extreme value of

z = -850 pc at R = 17 kpc and a galactocentric azimuth of 260" (where 0 °

coincides with I = O" and the angle increases counterclockwise). The width

of the layer increases outward as well, attaininga half-thickness (defined

as the width about the midplane within which the projected surface density

55

equals one-half the total projected surface density) of about 2 kpc near the

outer edge of the Galaxy.

Most of the results of Henderson et el are presented In the form of

contour maps in the galactic plane, making a direct comparison with the CO

in the overlapping region discussed in Section A.3 above somewhat difficult.

For this reason, the same procedure used to obtain the results for the I-I2

was applied to the Parkes H I data. The results are shown in Figures IV-

I la-f (solid line). It is not certain to what extent the high-z wings in the

H I density proflles are real: the large velocity dispersion of the H I

causes some local high latitude material to appear kinematically at

R > 10 kpc and flctlclously high z (note especially Fig. IV-I la), but the

wings persist to R > 13 kpc; stray radiation entering the antenna's

sidelobes also might be partly responsible for the observed broad wings. A

simple Gaussian shape in the outer Galaxy is not necessarily expected,

since, for example, in an analysis of H I in the inner Galaxy, Lockman (1984)

found the layer's vertical shape between R = 4 and 8 kpc is fitted best by

the sum of two Gaussians plus an exponential. On the assumption that the

deviation in the shape of the H I layer from a Gaussian in the outer Galaxy

ls real, the half-thickness and the surface denslty from the flts (dotted llne

in figures) have not been used. Instead, the half-width at half-maximum

was measured dlrectly from the plots of the data (solld line), and the

surface density was taken from the numerical integral (in z) under the same

curves. The symmetry of the curves made it possible to measure the

average midplane directly off the plots as well. Considering the differences

between this analysis and that of Henderson ete/., there is good general

agreement of the derived quantities; in particular, the surface density as a

56

function of galactocentric radius derived here is generally within about 20_

of that found by Henderson et a!

Comparisons of the COand H I z-distribution parameters are shown in

Figures IV-12a-c. (Because or the hlgh velocity dispersion of the H I, the

results at R = 10.5 kpc were omltted from this comparison.) The H I

midplane is within about 25 pc or the COmidplane out to 12.5 kpc, beyond

which very little COemission ls seen. The H I layer thickness is about

twice that of the CO at all radii. Similarly, the H I surface density is much

greater than the H2 surface density in the outer Galaxy, although, owing to

the presence of the Carina arm, the ratio of H2 surface density to H I surface

density is about twice as high as that derived by Sanders et aL (1984) in the

first and second qu3drants. The absence of a counterpart in H I to the peak

in the H2 surface density at 11.5 kpc again indicates the higher velocity

dispersion of the H I.

C. Summary

The Carinaarm has the characteristicsignatureofa spiralarm inthe

CO /,vdiagram. Integratingthe CO emissionovervelocityand latitude

revealsa 13 to 1arm-interarm contrastbetween the tangentdirectionand

longitudesprecedingthe tangent.The continuityof the near side,tangent

region,and farside,and the relativeabsenceof molecularcloudsinthe

interarmregionare seen more clearlythaninany otherCO spiralarm inthe

Galaxy. inthe planeof the sky,the angularwidth of the layer,as itshould,

diminisheswith distancealong the arm. The principalfindingsof an

axisymmetric analysisof the out-of-planedistributionof CO inthe outer

Galaxy are: an increasingdisplacementofthe H2 midplane below the b = 0°

57

plane with galactocentric radius; an increase in the width ofthe layerwith

galactocentricradius;and a lower limitof "_4.5to I for the ratioof surface

densitiesinthe arm tothe interarmregioninteriortothe arm.

A comparison with H Iusing the Parkes 18 m 21-cm survey of the

SouthernMilky Way shows a close correspondenceof the farsideand

tangentofthe arm, althoughtheconnectionof these two featuresinthe /,v

diagram isnot as apparentinH Ias inCO. The nearsideof the arm ismore

difficultto identifyinH I,making theCarinaarm looplessapparentinthe

H Ithaninthe CO /,vmap. Inthe regionof the planewhere the 21-cm

observationsoverlapwith theCO survey,the well-known warping of the H I

layerfollowscloselya similartrendfound here inthe molecularlayer;the

flaringof theH Ilayerwith galactocentricradiuswas alsofound tohave a

molecularcounterpart,althoughthe H Ilayerisabout twice as thickas the

molecularlayer.

58

V. THE CARINA ARM MOLECULAR CLOUDS

To place the Carina arm in the Galaxy, we now turn to a discussion of

the individual clouds that trace the arm in the /,v and /,b maps presented

earlier, focusing on the largest ones: those with linear dimensions of 50 to

100 pc and masses greater than lO 5 M e. The significance of these objects

as galactic spiral tracers, although suspected almost since the discovery of

giant molecular clouds, has become clear only in the last five or six years,

and owes its recognition largely to extensive, well-sample CO surveys made

with the Columbia Northern Millimeter-Wave Telescope. As the study of

molecular clouds associated with such nearby star-forming regions as Orion

began to provide evidence for the existence of large cloud complexes ( e.g.,

Tucker eta/. 1973; Kutner eta/. 1977), the prospect was raised that giant

molecular clouds, as represented by the local examples, are commonplace

throughout the Galaxy. Being closely associated with Population I material,

giant molecular clouds were obvious candidates for spiral arm tracers. A

mass of 106 M e found for the giant cloud complex associated with M 17

(Elmegreen and Lada 1976) further suggested that giant molecular clouds

are among the most massive objects in the Galaxy. Although there was

evidence from early galactic CO surveys that perhaps as much as 50% of the

total molecular cloud mass in the Galaxy resided in a relatively few clouds

more massive than 106 Me ( e.g., Solomon eta/. 1979), the small beamsizes

and resultant severe undersampling of these early surveys all but precluded

the systematic study of such massive clouds as distinct objects, and hence

of their galactic distribution. By 1980, CO surveys undertaken with the

Northern Millimeter-Wave Telescope had covered enough of the first and

second quadrants with sufficient sampling to reveal a string of molecular

59

cloudsthattracethe Perseusarm, as well as to identifythe molecular

counterpartsofthe classic21-cm arms (Cohen eta! 1980). With the

completionof these surveysitbecame possibletosystematicallysearch

the innerGalaxy CO emission fordistinctgiantcloud complexes and to study

theirdistributionon a galacticscale.Using the Columbia CO surveyof the

firstquadrant,Dame (1983;alsosee Dame eta/. 1985) identified25

molecularcloudcomplexes more massive than5 xlOs Me, including13 more

massive than I06 M®. These objectswere found tobe excellentspiralarm

tracers,with even thosecloudsatvery greatdistancesstandingout Inthe

dataas discretefeatures.

The approach takenby Dame isa familiarone inastronomy: toassume

thatthepropertiesof a locally-observedclassof objectscan be used inthe

globalstudy of these objects.We adopt the same approach inthischapter,

usingthepropertiesof locally-observedgiantmolecularcloudsto aid inthe

identificationof the Carinaarm clouds.Prototypesofgiantclouds,such as

thoseassociatedwith W 44 and NGC 7538, have been discussedelsewhere

(see e.g.,Dame 1983 and Dame eta/. 1985),and furtherdiscussionhere of

localexamples isomitted. Itisshown below thatthe Carinaarm cloudsnot

onlydelineatethe arm overnearly25 kpc -- not a surprisingresult

consideringthe prominence of the loopInthe /,vdiagram -- but when

viewed inthe planeof the Galaxytogetherwlth the largestcloudsinthe

firstand second quadrantstheysuggesthow theCarlnaarm connectswith

the arms inthe firstgalacticquadrant.

First,the generalprocedurefor identifyingand locatingthe cloudsIs

described,then,as an example, the largecloud associatedwith the

T1CarinaeNebula Isexamined indetail.Next,from a catalogof43

molecularcloudsidentifiedbetween I = 270" and 336", a subset of those

6O

generally more massive than l O5 M(_ is used to trace the Carina arm in the

plane of the Galaxy, and the implications for large-scale galactic structure

are discussed. Finally, a brief description is given of each cloud in the

catalog between / = 270" and 300".

A. Identification of the Clouds

The Carina arm loop in the /,v diagram consists of about 35 strong,

fairly isolated emission features that resemble the largest clouds in the

first and second quadrants, with velocity widths of _,10 km s-1 and linear

sizes (from their angular extents and estimated distances) of _,100 pc.

Based on these discrete features picked out from the /,v diagram, a

preliminary list of cloud identifications was compiled. In the far side of

the arm most of the clouds are not connected even at the lowest contour

level; usually each such isolated feature was considered a separate cloud.

In the near side of the arm collections of peaks, as seen for example

between / = 291" and 296", were tentatively considered as cloud

complexes, pending identification of associated optical objects with known

distances. Cloud identifications in the tangent region were least certain

and still remain subject to revision. Clouds interior to the loop, except for

clearly local ones, were included in the preliminary list as well.

Cloud identifications were also made using the full resolution spatial

maps in Figures IV-3a-d and a set of spatial maps smoothed to 0.25" (Figs.

V-- I -..J_,,',l _ TI_^I _ U,. I I1_ smoothed maps provided higher signal-to-noise, and

highlighted large clouds in the near side. Again, emission features were

considered clouds or cloud complexes if they resembled in spatial

appearance giant clouds in the first and second quadrants. In general, the

61

same cloudsand cloudcomplexes were identifiedinboth the /,vdiagram and

the spatialmaps, supportingthe initialidentifications.Ina few cases the

spatialmaps showed thatseparatecloudsat the same longitudehad been

combined Inthe /,vmap as a resultof integrationacross the plane.For

example,at I _ 283" the two peaks atb = +1"and b = -1.5"inthe near

sideofthe arm form a singlepeak at I = 283", v = -15 km s-iinthe /,v

map. Comparing FiguresV-la and b indicatesthatthe featureatb = -1.5"

iscontinuouswith the tangentregionemission,whereas the featureat

b = +I" shows no continuationintothe tangentregionmap; these two

featureswere thenconsideredtobe distinct.

The frequentassociationof giantmolecularcloudswith H Ifregions,

young starsand OB associations,and otherPopulation Imaterialprovided

an importantcriterionforrefinementof preliminarycloud identifications,

particularlyinthe nearsideand the tangentregion.The associationof

theseyoung objectswith molecularcloudswas determined on the basisof

closespatialand velocityoverlap.Occasionally,clearevidenceof

interactionbetween themolecularcloudand an adjacentH IIregion

providedan additionalargument for association.Insome cases,such as the

TlCarinaemolecularcloud(discussedbelow),an apparentgroupingof CO

peaks inthe /,vand spatialmaps couldbe identifiedas a singlecloud

complex based on associationwith variousopticalobjectsknown to be at

the same distance.At thesame time, theseopticalobjectswhich have only

theirsimilardistancesincommon, couldbe shown to be physicallyrelated

throughassociationwith a parentcloud.

The finallistof identifiedcloudsisgiven inTable V-2 and their

runningnumbers are indicatednear theirlocationson the spatialmaps in

FiguresV- 1a-d.

62

Distances:

Distances to the clouds were usually determined either klnematlcally

or, when possible, by association with optlcal objects of known distance,

preference being given always to optlcal distances. It was possible to

assign optical distances to two of the tour clouds identified in the near

side; the other two were placed klnematlcally on the subcentral locus.

About halt" the clouds In the tangent reglon of the arm could be glven optical

distances; for those glven far kinematic distances, the near-far amblgulty

was resolved by one of two ]lnes of evidence: 1) foreground absorption or an

associated H II reglon where the absorption line veloclty Is more extreme

than the H II reglon velocity, Indicating that the H II region (and the cloud)

is on the far side of the subcentral polnt; or 2) the implled radius of the

cloud at the far distance was clearly favored over that at the near dlstance

by the power law relation between cloud radius and cloud velocity width

derived by Dame eta/. (see "Masses" below for the definitions of cloud

radlus and veloclty wldth). In the far side of the arm where there Is no

kinematic distance ambiguity, all but two clouds (placed optically) were

given kinematic distances. A few clouds near zero veloclty at longitudes

above the tangent reglon were placed according to the radius-line wldth

relation, the proximity to the b = 0" plane, or by the probable association

wlth local dust clouds.

63

Masses:

The mass of each cloud, Mco, was determined from. its CO luminosity,

using expression (IV-!) to convert from integrated CO intensity to H2

column density, and a mean molecular weight per H2 molecule of 2.76 mH

(Allen 1973). Denoting the total Integrated emission over the face of the

cloud in units of K km s-1 as Ico, and the heliocentric distance to the cloud

In kiloparsecs as r, the total mass of a molecular cloud (including helium)

can be expressed as:

Mco = 1.9x 103 Icor2 Me. (V-I)

Icoisobtainedby integratingthe emission over the fullvelocitywidth of

the cloudas deduced from the /,vdiagram,and over the faceof the cloudas

definedinthe spatialmaps.

Forcomparison,a virialmass, M_r, foreach cloudwas computed by

assuming the cloudtobe Invirlalequilibrium,supportedagainstgravityby

Internalmotions. Inthe case ofa uniformdensitysphere wlth radlusR,

totalmass M, and 3-dimensional(Isotropic)velocitydispersion(_,the virial

theorem can be writtenas:

M(52 - 315 GM2/R - O, (V-2)

assuming magnetic pressureand tidaldisruptionare negligible.5inceM Is

the mass of a cloud invirialeqilibrium,we write M = M_r; for thecloud

radiuswe take R = Rerr-=_'(A/Tr),where A isthe projectedarea ofthe cloud

(inpc2).The isotropicvelocitydispersion,O, and the observedvelocity

64

width of the cloud (in km s-+), Av, as measured from the FWHM of a Gaussian

fit to the sum of all spectra covering the cloud, are related by:

= [3/(2/n2)]1/2 AV/2.

Solving equation (V-2) for M_r and substituting more convenient units then

gives:

M_r = 210 Rerr AM2, (V-3)

where M_p ls in solar masses, Rerr ls In parsecs, and AV ls In km s-;. If the

observed velocity width includes contributions due to expansion or

contraction of the cloud, the expression for o' gives an erroneously high

velocity dispersion, and M_p will then be an overestimate of the actual

mass. Under the assumptions above, the viriai mass is thus an upper limit

to the cloud's true mass.

B. The TI Carinae Molecular Cloud

I. Identificationof the Cloud Complex

The generalprocedureused foridentifyingmolecularcloudsinthe

survey isillustratedby consideringthegiantmolecularcloudassociated

with the TtCarinaeNebula,one of thebrightestgiantH iiregionsinthe

Galaxy,and certainlyone of themost interestingobjectsinthe Carinaarm.

InFigureV-la, a stringof fivecloudsisseen lyingapproximatelyon a line

from I = 285",b = 0.5"to I= 288",b = -I" Similarinspatial

65

appearance to, for example, a 106 Me complex in the Scdtun, arm designated

[22,53] in Dame et el., this grouping of clouds can also be seen in the /,v map

(Fig. 111-7) bewteen ! = 285" and 288" in the near side. (The cloud at

! - 288", b = 1.5" in Figure V-la blends with the rest of the group in the

/,v map.) To determine if it is indeed part of a single cloud complex, known

optical objects in this region with distances on the near side of the arm

were identified, and evidence for the association of these objects with the

molecular emission was sought.

Figure V-2 shows a blow-up of the near side of the arm (full resolution

from Fig. IV-3a) overlaid on a mosaic of the ESO J plates of this region. The

Carinae Nebula, also known as NGC 3372, is the bright object between

/ = 287" and 288" in the figure. Its position at the edge of the cloud is

similar to that of many other H I I regions associated with giant molecular

clouds, such as Orion ( e.g Kutner et aZ 1977), W3, W4, and W5 (Lada et el.

1978) and the Rosette nebula (Blitz and Thaddeus 1980). The positional

coincidence is strong evidence for an association of the molecular cloud

with the nebula. Radio recombination line measurements of the nebula

indicate that its mean velocity is -20 km s-1 while the mean velocity of the

molecular cloud from its CO emission in this region is -19 km s-1, making

the association almost certain. The optical distance to the Carina Nebula

being _2.7 kpc ( e.g., Walborn 1973), this is taken to be the distance to the

molecular cloud. The relationship of the cloud to the nebula is discussed in

detail below.

At / = 286.2", b -- -0.2" the cluster NGC 3324 can be seen, its location

between two CO peaks and along a CO ridge suggestive of association with

this molecular gas. The cluster's age is _ 2.2 x 106 years (Clarla 1977) and

it contains the 06-7 star HD92206 (Goy 1973). The H_ region G 31, also

66

seen inthisdirection,apparentlyisionizedby the brightstarsinthe

cluster(Gum 1955). NO directvelocityinformationisavailableforG 31,

but Humphreys (1972) gives -21.2km s-ias thevelocityofthe cluster

based on measurements ofstellarvelocities(usingthe notationafter

Hoffleit(1953),Humphreys referstoG 31 as H 31).The good agreement in

velocitybetween the clusterand the molecularcloud,coupledwith the

spatialcoincidence,againindicatesthatthe two are associated.Various

distancestoNGC 3324 and (531 range from 1.9to3.28kpc (Humphreys

1976; Hoffleit1953;Georgelin1975; Turner eta/.1980; Claria1977;

Moffat and Vogt1975), the averagebeing2.7kpc,which isthe distanceto

the CarinaNebula.A connectionbetween the CO emission seen toward the

CarinaNebula and the emission toward NGC 3324 seems likely,since in

each case the opticalsourcesareassociatedwith the coincidentmolecular

gas and both sourcesare at the same distance.

Another cluster,NGC 3293, iscoincidentwlth the Ho_regionG 30 and

sitson a steep ridgeofCO emissionat I= 285.9",b = O.1°.This clusteris

olderthan NGC 3324 -- about 5- I0 x106years accordingtoTurner etaL

(1980) and 5tothers(1972).The velocityof the clusteris-25.5 km s-i

(Humphreys 1972),ingood agreement with the molecularcloud'svelocity.

Distanceestimates againaveragearound2.7kpc (e.g_ Humphreys 1972;

Turner eta/.1980),and we concludethatNGC 3293 isalsoassociatedwith

thesame cloudas theCarinaNebulaand NGC 3324.

Based on Itspossibleassociationwith the clusterIC 2581, againat

about 2.7kpc (Turner1978),theCO cloudat I= 285.2°,b = 0.4"may alsobe

partof thissame cloudcomplex. At I = 284.7°,b = 0.I',IC 2581 sits

near theedge of thlscloud;the clusterhasan age of about IOTyears

(5tothers1972). The velocityof the clusteris-1:3I<ms-i(Humphreys

67

1972) whereas the strongest emission from the clump lies between -23 and

-21 km s-i (see Fig. V-4d), so the agreement isnot so good as inthe three

cases justconsidered.Nevertheless,inview ofthe cluster'sdistanceand

proximityto a CO cloud atthe same velocityas the restofthe cloud

complex,itseems likelythat IC 2581 isassociatedwith the CO cloudand

thatthecloud ispartof thesame complex.

Allthe emission from / = 284.7" to289" alongthe plane,then,

apparentlyforms a singlegiantmolecularcloudcomplex. At a distanceof

2.7 kpc,itsprojectedlengthis~150 pc,typicalforthe largestcomplexes

foundinthefirstand second quadrants.Turner etaL (I980) suggested

IC 2581, NGC 3292, NCG 3324, and the clusterswithinthe CarinaNebula

(Tr 14,15, 16,and Cr 228),are allgeneticallyrelated,based on the

similardistances,the sequentialorientationnearlyalongthe galactic

plane,and the apparentage gradientfrom theyoung clustersinthe Carina

Nebulatothe olderIC 2581. The largecloudcomplex we have identifled

confirms thispictureby revealingthe common parentmaterialof these

clusters.

Mass:

Using expression(V-I),theCO mass of the cloudcomplex was found to

be 6.7x 105 Me, somewhat smallerthan the largestmolecularcomplexes in

the firstand second quadrants.With a fullvelocitywidth,AV, of9.9km s-i

and an effectiveradius,Reinof 66 pc,thevirialmass of the cloudcomplex

from expression(V-3) is i.4x i06 Me.

68

2. The T1 Carinae Nebula and the Molecular Cloud

We now compare the distribution and kinematics of the molecular gas

just in the vicinity of the T1Carinae Nebula with what Is known about this

spectacular object from observations at optical, radio, infrared, ultraviolet,

and X-ray wavelengths. Taken together, these data suggest a simple,

preliminary model for the geometry and interaction of the gas and stars in

this region. In the following discussion we first establish the spatial

relationship and relative motions of the H II region and its constituents, and

the molecular cloud, showing that a portion of the cloud is apparently

expanding away from the main body. Then giving brief consideration to the

posslble dynamical relationship between the H II region and the expanding

cloud fragment, we show that sources within the H II region can supply

sufficient mechanical energy to drive the expansion.

The TI Carlnae Nebula covers about 4 deg2 centered near / = 287.5",

b = -0.5" (Fig. V-2); dark dust lanes are seen to cross the bright central

portion of the nebula. In the immediate vicinity of the bright gas the dust

lane is vee-shaped, but it extends beyond the H II region in the direction of

NGC 3324 and NGC 3293. For the purposes of this discussion, the

apparently connected dust lanes are divided into four pieces as follows (see

the schematic diagram in Fig. V-3): 1) eastern leg, extending from

I = 287.8", b = -0.4" on the eastern side of the bright gas to / = 287.6",

b = -0.7" at the vertex of the vee; 2) western leg, extending from the

vertex of the vee to / = 287", b = -0.5", just beyond the bright gas to the

east of this dust (the eastern leg and the western leg comprise the vee); 3)

western extension, the continuation of the western leg to I = 286",

69

b _, -0.3°,the region below NGC 3324 and NGC 3293; 4) northern

extension, passing between NGC 3324 and NGC 3293.

Near the nebula'sbright center is a large collectionof early type stars

making up the young clusters Tr 14 and Tr 16. Tr 16 (I = 287.61 °,

b = -0.65°) iscentered just above the vertex of the vee-shaped dust lane,

and Tr 14 (I = 287.42 °,b = -0.58") sits about 5' east of the western leg.

A far-infraredcontinuum peak in the western leg is likelydue to the heating

of the dust by Tr 14 (Harvey et al 1979). Among the many young stars

found in these two clusters are at least 16 0 stars, Inlcuding five classified

by Walborn (1971; 1973) as 03 V. Another young duster, Cr 228

( I = 287.52", b = -1.03°),seen toward the bright gas beneath the vee,

contains 6 0 stars (Walborn 1973). All three clusters are at about 2.7 kpC

(Turner eta/. 1980; Feinstein et aL 1973, 1976; Walborn 1973) and have

ages less than 3 x106 years, perhaps as young as 106 years (Feinstein eta/.

1976; Turner eta/. 1980). Tr 15 (! = 287.40 °,b = -0.36°),a cluster north

of Tr 16, also at about 2.7 kpc, may be slightlymore evolved than the

others (Feinstein et aL 1980; Walborn 1973). This large concentration of

young stars,the coincidence with the bright H IIregion,and the

identificationof an associated molecular cloud provides strong evidence for

the true spatial localizationof these clusters in a massive star-forming

region.

A good correlation is apparent between the obscuring dust and the

observed molecular cloud. A small CO peak can be seen in Figure V-2 at

l = 287.8", b = -0.8 ° coincident with, and having the same general shape,

as the eastern leg. A bright peak at / = 287,5 °, b = -0.6" marks the

boundary between the bright gas and the western leg. 5ome of this intense

CO emission overlaps with the western leg, indicating a connection between

7O

the CO and thisdust,but a largeamount ofthe moleculargas isspatially

coincidentwith the brightgas to the leftof the western legand must

thereforecorrespondto molecularmaterialbehindthe nebula.The CO

emission at ! < 287" mimics thegeneralshape of the western and the

northern extensions. Physical contact between the ionized gas and the

western leg is apparent from the existence of bright rlms along the

projected boundary. This boundary is also marked by an enhancement of the

diffuse X-ray emlsslon that pervades the entire nebula (Seward and

Chlebowskl 1982). The COpeak seen In thls direction provides further

evidence for the interaction between the lonlzed gas and dust, and so

between the ionized gas and the molecular cloud.

Two radio continuum sources, Car I and Car I!, are observed in the

nebula. Observations at 3.4 cm, 6 cm, 1! cm, and 21 cm (Huchtmeler and Day

1975; Gardner et al 1970; Beard and Kerr 1966) confirm that both are

thermal. Car I peaks at the interface of the brlght gas and the western leg,

about :3.5' from TR 14. High resolution observations at 1415 MHz show

Car I to be elongated parallel to the western leg dust lane, suggesting the

source marks an ionization front at the gas-dust boundary (Retallack 198:3).

Car II peaks about 6' west of Tr 16, above the vertex of the vee. Radio

recombination lines throughout the nebula show a mean velocity of about

-20 km s-I. In the immediate vlclnlty of Car II, double lines wlth

separations of up to 45 km s-1 are seen; the overall distribution of

recombination lines suggests the presence of an expanding shell of lonlzed

gas (Huchtmeier and Day 1975; Beard and Kerr 1966; Wilson eta/. 1970).

The OH and H2CO absorption line measurements of Gardner et a/ (197:3)

and Dickel et al (1973) identified the vee-shaped dust lane as the molecular

cloud In the T1 Carinae Nebula. Dickel and Wall (1974) demonstrated the

71

physicalassociationof the dust(inthevee) with the moleculargas by

comparinga map of Av inthe nebula(derivedfrom the ratioof the 5 GHz

continuum intensityto the Ho<intensity)to theOH opticaldepth map of

Gardner etaL The mean dustvelocityof -24 km s-ifrom theOH

measurements shows the neutralmaterial inthevee isblueshiftedwith

respectto thebulkof the ionizedgas behindIt.A somewhat more extensive

molecularcloudwas revealedby the CO (J = 2 -_i)observationsof de

Graauw etal (1981),who found two CO sources,one associatedwith what

we have calledthe easternleg,the othercorrespondingto the western leg

plusmaterialbehindthe ionizednebula,east of the western leg.They

proposedthatnear the lineof sightto Car If,the molecularcloud lies

below and on the nearsideofTr 16 (correspondingtothe easternleg),and

inthedirectionofCar I,the cloudstretchestothe west ofTr 14 and bends

aroundtothe farsldeof the nebula.Itwas evidentto de Graauw eta/.that

the molecularcloudextendedbeyond the limitsof theirmap, making some

of theirconclusionstentative.The CO observationspresentedhere confirm

the essentialfeaturesof theirmodel and place itinthe contextofthe large

cloudcomplex inthisregion.

The CO emission as a functionofvelocitythroughthe cloudfrom -31

to -I0 km s-iisshown ina set of eightspatialmaps inadjacent,2.6km s-i

(two channels)wide velocitywindows (Figs.V-4a-h). Inconjunctionwith

the optical,OH absorption,and recombinationlineobservations,thesemaps

demonstrate thatradialvelocityisa good indicatorofposition(alongthe

lineofsight)inthe cloudinthe vicinityof theCarinaNebula.The most

intenseCO emission liesbetween -20 and -18 km s-i(Fig.V-4e),the same

as themean velocityof the H IIregion.Inparticular,the emission between

I = 287" and 287.5"being spatiallycoincidentwith the brightgas,must lie

72

behind the H II region. The CO counterpart of the vee, seen most strongly

between -28 and -23 km s-1 (Figs. V-4b,c), clearly represents only a small

part of the whole cloud complex (accounting for less than l O_ of the total

mass, as shown below). This molecular feature or filament, as it wlll be

referred to here, corresponds to the structure identified by Gardner et ai.

(197:3) in OH absorption. As we approach the mean cloud velocity of

-19 km s-1 from -30 km s-I the portion of the filament corresponding to the

eastern leg disappears, while, between -26 and -20 km s-l, the COpeak near

the western leg shifts from a region of hlgh optical obscuration to a line of

sight coincident with the brightest nebulosity. Thus, the filament on the

near slde of the nebula Joins the more massive portion of the cloud on the

far side in the region to the west of Car I. The most negative velocities

correspond to material on the near side of the cloud, 1:e.,the obscuring dust

lanes, while more positive velocity material lies next to, and behind the

nebula. The difference between the mean velocity of the filament and that

of the rest of the molecular cloud is ~7 km s-1.

A schematic representation of the molecular cloud and its surroundings

is shown in Figure V-5. The expanding H II region sits at the eastern edge

of the cloud, wlth a portion of the cloud seen In projection behind the H II

region (near Tr 14). The filament passes in front of the ionized gas and,

west of Tr 14, wraps around the nebula to connect wlth the main body of

the cloud. The far-infrared peak to the west of Tr 14 arises in this region

where the filament joins the rest of the cloud. This picture of the

molecular cloud cradling the nebula was also deduced by de Graauw et a/.,

but because most of the cloud lies beyond the boundaries of their map, they

could not recognize that the filament represents only a small portion of the

total cloud. Since our observations show that the mean velocity of the

73

entirecloudisthe same as the H IIregionwhile the filamentisblueshifted

with respectto the restofthe cloud,itislikelythatthe filamentis

expandingaway from the main body ofthe cloud.The situationresembles

thatinthe Pelicannebula(Ballyand 5coville1980),with an H Ifregion

forminginsidea molecularcloudand then breakingout intothe intercloud

medium when the expanding5tomgren sphere rupturesthe edge ofthe cloud.

The questionarisesas towhether the motion of the filamentcan be due to

sourceswithinthe nebula.BriefconsiderationIsnow given totwo possible

mechanisms: stellarwinds,and the rocketeffect.The rough calculations

made below placeusefulconstraintson our preliminarycloudmodel and are

not intendedto be a rigoroustreatmentof the dynamics within the cloud.

StellarWinds:

Observationsofopticaland ultravioletInterstellarabsorptionlinesIn

the directionof severalstars Inthe nebulashow velocitiesrangingover

550 km s-i(Walborn 1982; Walborn and Hesser 1982; Laurent eta/.1982),

indicatingthatthe starsare injectinga lotofmechanical energy intothe

surroundingmedium. Assuming the absorptionlinesariseinstellarwinds

and an age of --3 x 106 years for the clusters, Walborn (1982) estimated a

total energy output of :3 x 1051 ergs from the known 0 and WN-A stars. The

observation of diffuse X-ray emission throughout the Carina Nebula can

likewise be interpreted as a result of stellar winds with a similar energy

input (Seward and Chlebowski 1982). To compare the mechanical energy

from stellar winds with the kinetic energy of the expansion, the COmass of

the filament is determined by integrating lts emission over velocity. This

integration, from v = -31 to -24 km s-1, yields a COmass of

74

2.2 X104 Me, only 3% of the total COmass found above for the entire

complex, so the filament is really only a small part of the whole cloud.

Taking the expansion velocity to be 7 km s-I and a mass of 2.2 x104 Me

yields a kinetic energy of ~1049 ergs, well within the energy available from

stellar winds.

The energy supply being sufficient, a further constraint is the

momentum or the filament, Pnw,me,t = 3.1 x1043 gm cm s-1. For a single star

with a constant mass loss rate, all'l/dr, and a constant wind veioclty Vw, the

momentum supplied directly from stellar mass loss to the surrounding

medium over a time _: is simply Pin -- (dtl/dt) vw_:. Waiborn (1982) tabulated

the numbers of 0 and WN-A stars in the Carina Nebula along with the mass

loss rates and wind velocities (taken from the literature) for the various

spectral types. Following Walbom, we take the age of the clusters to be

3 x106 years and assume the WN-A and luminosity class I stars have existed

as supergiants for 105 years. The total momentum input from stellar winds

is then found to be P_n-- 1.9 x 1043 gm cm s-l, only marginally enough to

account for Prilament.The momentum that can actually be transferred

directly from the wind to the filament ls P_nreduced by the fraction, f, of

41Tsteradians subtended at the stars by the filament. From the spatial map

(Fig. V-2) the projected area of the filament is approximately 1000 pc2;

taking this to be its true area and assuming a distance of 20 pc between the

stars and the filament (the projected separation between the tip of the

eastern leg and the COpeak west of Tr 14) then gives f = 0.2. Therefore

the filament could have acquired a momentum of 3.8 xlO 42 gm cm s-I from

stellar winds, about a factor of ten below its observed value.

The effect of a strong wind from a star on the surrounding medium has

been investigated by Castor et a/ (1975). They show that an expanding

75

cavityor bubbleforms aroundthe star,bounded by a thinshellof material

swept up by theexpansionintothe ambient medium. Between the shelland

the cavityisa layerof hot,shockedgas which acts likea pistondrivingthe

shelloutward. The momentum ofthe shellcan be greaterthan thatsupplied

directlyby the wind. To examine thispictureinthe contextof the T1

Carinae molecular cloud, the ambient medium with density Po is taken to be

the molecular cloud, with the filament corresponding to the shell. Castor et

eL give for the radius of the shell:

Rs(t) = 0.76 [(dM/dt)vw2/(2po)] 1/s t3/5.

Differentiatingwith respectto time,and Identifyingthevelocityof the

shell,vs,with thatof the cloudfilament,vc,we have:

vc= dRs(t)/dt= 2.7xlO3 [(dMldt)vw2 no-i_{-2/5km s-i,

where dM/dt is in units of Me yr-I Vw is in km s-1, t is in years, and no is

particle density in cm-3; a mean molecular weight per particle of 2.76 mH

(Allen 1973) has be assumed. As a lower limit on no we take 8 cm-3, the

average density in the entire cloud obtained from Mco and R.rr (Section B. 1

above). 5ince the density in regions of the cloud where stars are forming

will be higher, an upper limit for no is taken to be the density in the

filament. Assuming the filament is sheet with area 1000 pc2 and thickness

5 pc, and mass 2.2 x ! 04 Me, we have no = 80 cm-3. The tabulation in Walborn

(1982) is used to estimate an average mass-loss rate, <dM/dt>, and average

wind velocity, <Vw>,for the young clusters in the Carina Nebula, giving

<dM/dt> = 1.1 x lO -5 Me yr-1, and <Vw>= 2900 km s-l. Substituting these

76

values Into the expression for the velocity of the fllament yields:

v¢ - 7 - 11 km s-1, In good agreement with the observed velocity of the

filament re]atlve to the mail_ body of the T1 Carlnae molecular cloud.

We conclude that, while direct transfer of stellar-wind momentum to

the filament cannot account for the fllament's observed motlon, the

expansion of a wind-dMven bubble in the cloud easily explains the moton of

the filament with respect to the main body of the cloud.

Rocket Effect:

As discussed by Bally and 5covllle ( 1980, and references therein),

when an H II region bursts through the edge of a molecular cloud from

within, the resulting depressurlzation wlll tend to Increase the flux of

lonizlng radiation at the remaining boundary between the molecular cloud

and the Ionization front, but the density of Ionlzed gas between the stars

and the cloud will be essentially unchanged. Ionized molecular gas at this

boundary wll] stream away from the cloud, accelerating the cloud llke a

rocket ( e.g., 5pitzer 1978). If the cloud has mass M, velocity re, and loses

mass at a rate dM/dt, then It accelerates according to

ve (dM/dt) = M (dye/dr), (V-4)

where ve, the exhaust velocity of the freshly ionized gas from the cloud, is

taken to be the Isothermal sound speed in the H II region, ~ 10 km s-1.

Integrating this equation gives

v¢= ve In(Mo/M)÷ Vo, (V-5)

77

where Mo and Voare the initial mass and velocity of the cloud. Assuming

Vo = O, taking M to be the presently observed mass, and estimating I"1o,we

can evaluate the rocket effect for the fl]ament by comparlng the predicted

cloud velocity with the observed velocity.

The Initlal mass of the cloud can be estimated as follows. The flux or

ionization off the back of the filament is nil, %, where nil, is the density of

the ionized gas in the H II region at the filament. The filament then loses

mass at a rate

dMldt = AnH. %,

where A = !000 pc 2 is the area of the filament. As noted by Bally and

5coville, nHi I is about the same before and after the H II region bursts

through the edge of the cloud and, at radius r of the H II region, is given by

nHiI = [3Q/(4Tfo_2)r3)]l/2,

where Q Is the emlsslon rate of Lyman continuum photons from the lonlzlng

stars, and o42) Is the recomblnatlon coefflclent to all levels wlth n > I. For

the Carlna nebula Smlth etal (1978) glve Q = 13 xlO 49 s-i for the

continuum sources Car I and Car II. Considering only ionlzed hydrogen and

assuming a temperature for the H II reglon of ]04 K then, at the fl]ament

(r = 20 pc, as above), nil, _ 21 cm-3, and

riM/tit= 5.3xl0-_M_ yr-I

78

Assuming this rate to be constant, then in3 x106 years the filamenthas

lost_ 1.6x104Me, and itsinitialmass was thereforeMo = 4.7x104Me.

Equation(V-5) thengivesvc = 4.I km s-i,which iscloseto the filament's

presentlyobservedvelocityof 7 km s-1relativethe restof themolecular

cloud.We concludethatthe rocketeffectisalsoapparentlycapableof

explainingthe observedmotion of the filament.

The actual H il region-molecular cloud interaction is undoubtedly more

complicated than so far assumed, but the basic picture of the H II region

breaking through the cloud's surface and ejecting neutral material (the

filament) outward offers a plausible explanation for the observed motions

of the molecular cloud and the ionized gas. It is interesting to note that for

the parameters used above, r = 20 pc and v¢ = 7 km s-1 the expansion time

scale is about 3 x106 years, in good agreement with the estimated age of

the young clusters that power the H II region. The possibility that the

expansion of the filament is driven by a supernova was not considered here

because no confirmed SNR exists in the vicinity of the Carina Nebula.

Although the small nonthermal radio source G286.5-0.5 is claimed to be a

supernova remnant (Jones 1973; Becker eta/. 1976; Elliot i 979), Seward

and £hleblowski (1982) pointed out that, at the distance of the Carina

Nebula, the source's X-ray luminosity ls too low for a SNR.

3. Star Formation Efficiency In the 11Carlnae Molecular Cloud

The interaction between the TI Carinae Nebula and its associated

molecular cloud offers an outstanding example of the destructive effect

that massive stars can have on the cold, quiescent gas from which they

79

form. By dispersing the molecular cloud, massive stars can disrupt star

formation in their Immediate neighborhood, leading to a low overall star

formation efficiency in the cloud. In thls section the star formation

efficiency,5FE - M.I(M. + Mcloud),isdetermined forthe entire

T[Carinaemolecularcloud.The result,5FE = 0.02,Illustratesthatthe

efficiencycan Indeedbe low inlargecloudsthatspawn massive stars,and

providesa check on the starformationefficienciesrecentlydetermined for

InnerGalaxy cloudswhere starformationIsgenerallyhighlyobscured.As

definedhere,the starformationefficiencydepends on the totalmolecular

cloud mass, Mdoud , and the total mass of stars associated with the cloud, M..

For Mdoudthe CO mass determined in Section B. 1 above is used. The

determination of the total stellar mass Is the maln focus of the following

discussion.

The initial mass function (IMF) of Miller and 5calo (1979),

t,( logm) = (exp[-1.09( logm + 1.02)2], (V-6)

where ( is a proportionality constant, can be used to estimate M,. The main

drawback of this approach ls that, being derived from field stars, the

Mlller-Scalo IMF Is least certain at the high-mass end, so Its appllcatlon to

the young clusters in the T1 Carinae Nebula may not be appropriate. For

example, Garmany et a/ (1982) find that the slope of the IMF for early-type

0 stars is less steep than the the Miller-Scalo IMF, with a higher proportion

of massive stars in young clusters than in the general field. It is possible

too that the IMF varies from cluster to cluster. However, because the IMF

method is the only way at present to account for the Intrinsically faint, low

mass stars which (collectively) contain most of the stellar mass, we adopt

8O

thatapproach here,making some attemptto alleviatethe uncertaintyatthe

high-mass end.

The unusuallylargenumber ofmain sequence0 starsobserved Inthe

CarinaNebula suggeststhata substantialfractionof the existingmassive

starscan be seen,and theirtotalmass obtainedsimply by countingthem.

We assume thisto be the case and relyon the IMF onlyfor the lessmassive

stars.Specifically,the observedstarsarebinnedinlogarithmicmass

intervalsevery/klogm - O.I (where m isinsolarmasses) beginningwith

the bincenteredat /Ogmrr_;themass, /ogmc,at which the countsappearto

fall off is taken as the dividing line between those stars (m 2 mc) which are

completely tallied and those (m < mc) which are not. A discontinuity in the

slope of tiN/d(Iogm) indicates where the counts become incomplete clue to

selection effects since, if all the stars present could be seen, then the

counts would continue to rise with decreasing mass. The IMF contribution

to the total mass is obtained by integrating the IMF between logmc and

lOgmmin, where mmin is taken to be O.1 Me, and the proportionality constant

in the Miller-5calo IMF follows from fixing the computed number of stars in

A/ogm about logmc to the observed number. The total stellar mass is then

the IMF contribution plus the total observed mass for stars with m > mc.

Table V-1 lists all the known early type main sequence stars in the

clusters Tr 14, Tr 16, and Cr 228. The primary references are Walborn

(1973), and Levato and Malaroda (! 981; 1982); these sources include all

cluster members with known spectral type tabulated elsewhere in the

literature. To convert from spectral type to mass, a graph (not shown here)

of log(M/Me) versus logTef r was constructed using the empirical relation

between mass and effective temperature given by Habets and Heintze (1981)

for spectral types later than (and including) 08.5 V. The graph was extended

81

to 03 V, the assumed most massive type in the Carina Nebula, by connecting

the points [ IogTerr, log(MIMe)] for the 08.5 V and later types and a single,

corresponding point for an 03 V star with a smooth curve. Conti and

Burnichon (1975) give IogTerr = 4.74, and M = 120 Me for an 03 V star; this

mass is highly uncertain, but probably reasonable for the present purposes.

Using the effective temperatures for spectral types 08.5 V and later from

Habets and Heintze, and from Contl and Burnlchon for earlier types, the

masses of the stars in Table V-I were read off the logTef r - log(M/Me)

graph.

The mass spectrum of the stars In Table V- 1 ls shown In Figure V-6;

the solld line shows the logarithm of the number of stars In each mass bln,

while the dotted line shows the (log of the) cumulative number as less and

less massive stars are considered. If the five 03 V stars [ log(M/Me) = 2.08]

are excluded for the moment, a gradual (albiet uneven) rise in number with

decreasing mass can be seen between log(M/Me) = 1.85 and 1.15. With the

stellar data available It Is not possible to say whether the apparent drop In

the counts for log(M/Me) < 1.15 represents the expected turnover as

Intrinsically fainter stars are observed or Just a fluctuation slmllar to the

ones seen at log(M/Me) > 1.15. Since member stars that are much less

massive than log(M/Me) = 0.95 would be difficult to distinguish from field

stars, it is likely that the turnover does occur at or near log(M/Me) < 1.15.

Therefore, we assume that all the existing stars in the Carina Nebula for

which log(M/Me) 2 1.15 (Including now the five 03 V stars) are accounted

for, and take Iogmc = 1.15.

From the IMF, the number of stars with mass between ml and m2,

N(mi,m2), is just

82

N(mi,m2) - [_(/ogm)d/ogm, (v-7)

and the total mass between ml and m2, M(mi,m2), is

M(mi,m2) = i'm((/ogm)d logrn, (V-8)

where the integrals extend from ml to m2.

quantities can be written,

For theMiller-ScaloIMF these

and

ml

N(ml,m2) = 0.85( err[1.04(logm+ 1.02)]

m2

ml

M(ml,m2) = 0.27 ( err[1.04/ogm-O.04]

m2

(V-9)

(V-lO)

where erf is the error function. As mentioned above, t, is set by

fixing N(m_,m2) to the number of stars actually observed between

/ogml = /ogmc+ (A /ogm)/2 and /ogm2 = /ogmc- (A /ogm)/2. In this

interval 12 stars are observed, yielding ( = 1.g x 104, and the IMF

contribution to the stellar mass, M_rF, is then:

MiME --M(mc,O.1Me) = 104 Me.

The total mass observed with m > mc, Mobs,is 1.6 I03 Me, SOthe total mass

in all stars, M T ---MIME + M_s, is:

83

MT = 1.2 xlO4M®.

For comparison with the observed numbers of stars, the values of /ogN

predicted by the IMF in the mass intervals with /ogm < logmc are also

shown in Figure V-6 (filled circles). In the Carina Nebula the massive stars

appear to exhibit a flatter distribution than that implied by the Mtller-$calo

IMF, supporting the slmllar flndlngs of Garmany et al. from a more general

survey of early type stars.

Taking Mcloud = 6.7 xl 0s Me (Section B.I, this chapter) and M. = MT, the

resulting star formation efficiency is:

5FE = 0.018.

A relative uncertainty of a factor of 2-3 is estimated for SFE, with

approximately equal contributions from Mdo_ and M.. Improper choice of

the cloud boundary and the uncertainty in the W(CO)-N(H2) conversion lead to

a relative uncertainty of --2 in the cloud mass. The estimate for M. may be

influenced by a number of factors. By using the mass of the entlre cloud we

have made the assumption that the mass present In the clusters whlch are

not part of the Carlna Nebula (NGC 3324, NGC3293, and IC 2581 ) ls

accounted for in the preceeding stellar mass estimate. This assumption ls

reasonable because the stars in these clusters, primarily later types than

those in the Carina Nebula, lie in the regime of the IMF calculation. A more

accurate mass might be obtained by considering these clusters separately.

From an analysis of NGC 3293 Herbst and Miller (1982) derived a mass of

~ 1500 Me; If approximately the same amount of mass is associated with

84

NGC 3324 and IC 2581, M. could be increased by about 40% More critical is

the assumption that all stars with m = mc are observed, since M. ~ M_ and

M_r_ depends linearly on the number of stars in the mass bin centered at me;

this number could be off by a factor of 2-3 owing to obscuration by the dust.

A similar factor probably applies to the number of stars with m > mc, but

the total mass of these stars, Mobs, is only about 15% of M.. (We note also

that the number of ionizing photons available in the Carina Nebula as

estimated from radio continuum measurements [Smith et al. 1978] is

reasonably consistent with the observed numbers of early-type stars,

indicating that the star counts are probably not far off.) Finally, even if

Mo_ correctly measures the total mass in stars more massive than mc, no

allowance has been made for 0 stars which are no longer present. However,

judging from the effects of the _1 Carinae Nebula on the molecular cloud, it

is not likely that the number of such stars is much greater than the present

day value of N(m>mc) since the molecular cloud remains largely intact in the

vicinity of the older clusters, and near the _1 Carinae Nebula the motions of

the cloud are consistent with the energetics of the present star-forming

epoch.

The star formation efMciency derived here for the _1 Carinae molecular

cloud agrees well with the efficiencies for giant molecular clouds in the

inner Galaxy recently derived by Myers et aL (1985). To obtain M. for each

molecular cloud in their sample, Myers et al. used the measured radio

continuum and far infrared fluxes of H II regions associated with the clouds

to infer the mass, m_, of the most massive star present in each H !1

region. The Miller-5calo IMF, normalized to one star of mass mr..., was then

used to calculate the mass of a single cluster containing just one such star,

and mass-luminosity relations from the literature were used to predict the

85

total luminosity of the cluster. With the assumption that the total stellar

luminosity equals the observed FIR luminosity or each H II region, the total

stellar mass associated with each H II region followed from the number of

identlcal clusters required to produce the observed total luminosity. For a

given molecular cloud, M, was then just the sum of the total stellar masses

in each H II region associated with the cloud. An important principle of

this method is that, for a given H II region, the ratio of the observed FIR

luminosity to the Lyman o<luminosity (inferred from the radlo continuum),

denoted IRE for infrared excess, is an indicator of the amount of nonionizing

stellar luminosity present. If IRE is too small, as turns out to be the case

with the TI Carinae Nebula, the method doesn't yield consistent results.

From their sample of about 50 giant molecular clouds, Myers et el. found a

median 5FE of 0.02. Aside from the use of the Miller-Scalo IMF, the method

of Myers eta/. is quite different from the one used here for the _1Carlnae

molecular cloud, and the good agreement between the star formation

erflciencies found here and in the inner Galaxy, then, probably indicates that

the results are reasonable.

4. Summary

A glant molecular cloud complex was found to be associated with the

_1Carlnae Nebula, NGC 3324, NGC 3293, and IC 2581. The linear extent of

the cloud is ~ 150 pc (Rert = 66 pc) and its total mass is --7 x lOs Me, both

values typical of giant molecular clouds found elsewhere In the Galaxy. In

the vicinity of the Carina Nebula, the interaction of the young stars, Ionized

gas, and the molecular cloud can be understood wlth a simple model In whlch

the prominent dust lanes crossing the race of the nebula trace a fragment of

86

the molecular cloud that is expanding away from the bulk of the cloud.

Sufficient energy is available from sources within the nebula to drive the

expansion. The main body of the cloud sits beside the H II region and

extends along the galactic plane in the direction of NGC 3324, 3293, and

IC 2581. By summing the mass In the observed early type stars and using

the IMF to obtain the mass in the late type stars, a star formation

efficiency of 0.018 was derived for the entire molecular cloud. This number

agrees well with the star formation efficiencies for giant molecular clouds

In the Inner Galaxy.

C. The Carlna Arm in the Galaxy

How does the Carlna arm connect with the rest of the Galaxy? Thls

question goes back to Bok, whose original idea was a single spiral arm from

Carlna through Cygnus. The early hopes that 21 cm line studies of neutral

hydrogen would reveal global spiral structure were never realized because

of the ubiquity of H !, the complications arlslng from nonclrcu]ar motions,

the difficulties In comparing different surveys, and the different

Interpretations by workers uslng the same data. One of the maln polnts or

controversy has been the way In whlch the Carlna arm connects wlth the

rest of the Galaxy.

Weaver (1970) presented a model in which the Carina and Saglttarius

arms form a single major splral arm wlth a pltch angle of about 12.5".

Alternatively, Kerr (1970) favored Bok's model which joins the Carina arm

with Cygnus in a low-pitch arm; the low density of Population I beyond the

Sun In the directions of Carina and Cygnus suggested a localized reglon of

low density where the arm passes through the solar neighborhood (51monson

87

1970).Kerr and Kerr (1970) pointedto a gap from / = 292" to 305" inthe

i1 cm continuum and H109o< fluxesas evidenceagainsta Carina-

Sagittariusconnection,arguingthatsuch an arm would be expectedto pass

justinward of the Sun inthislongituderange.They maintainedinsteadthat

the onlyH Ifregionsseen inthisgap were distantand could not representa

connectingstretchbetween Carinaand Sagittarlus.

Usinga varietyof spiraltracers,Humphreys (1976) tracedthe Carina

arm intothe firstquadrantand,likeWeaver, connecteditwith the

5agittariusarm. Similarly,Georgelinand Georgelin(1976),using optical

and radioH IIregionsas tracers,proposed a Carina-Sagittariusarm.

However, theirCarina-Sagittariusarm isleastwell-definedinthe region

connectingthe two arm segments,and between /= 30" and 45" inthe

5agittariusarm thereisa 6 kpc gap,which isdifficultto reconcilewith the

claim of large-scalecontinuity.

The evidenceofferedby the largestmolecularclouds-- those more

massive thanroughlyi0S Me -- stronglysupportstheCarina-Sagittarius

connection.FigureV-7a shows alltheCarlnacloudsgenerallymore massive

than IOs Me locatedinthe planeof theGalaxy;alsoshown are similarly

massive cloudsidentifiedinearlierCO surveysmade with the Columbia

millimeter-wave telescopeinNew York City.The dominant featureisthe

Carinaarm. Itistracedover a 23 kpc path lengthby 37 clouds.Spiralarm

segments delineatingthe Perseus and Sagittariusarms are alsoreadily

apparent.From the figure,theCarinaand Sagittariusfeaturesevidently

form a continuousspiralarm. The wedge from I = 300" to 12",a regionfor

which the data have not yet been fullyanalyzedforcloud identifications,

representsa path lengthof "_I Kpc alongthe arm, onlyslightlylargerthan

theaverageintercloudspacingof the Carinacloudsof700 pc. The dip inthe

88

continuum and H109o( fluxes between / = 292" and 305" noted by Kerr has

no counterpart in reduced CO emission. Rather, the /,v and spatial maps

show the near side of the arm continuing into the inner Galaxy emission,

where it becomes difficult to trace.

A large gap can also be seen between the inner-most clouds in the

Carina arm and the clouds in the direction of Cygnus. But while the

unanalyzed wedge between the Carina and Sagittarius arms is bridged

optically by young clusters (Vogt and Moffat 1975b), giant stars (Humphreys

1976), and weak H II regions (Gerogelin and Georgelin 1976), as well as a

tentatively identified molecular cloud (Bronfman, private communication),

no similar link can be found between the near side of the Carina arm and

Cygnus. The Carina arm would have to spiral outward from / = 300" to

~85" to meet Cygnus, making further unlikely any Carina-Cygnus connection.

The linear mass densities of the CaMna and Sagittarius arms are the

same, also supporting the hypothesis that the two are connected. The total

cloud mass in the Cartna arm, 58 x106 Me, extends over 23 kpc, for a linear

mass density of 2.5 xlO 6 Me pc-l; in the Sagittarius arm, 39 xlO 6 Me

extends over 16 kpc, again for 2.5 x 106 Me pc-l. By comparison, in the

Perseus arm wlth 9.8 x lO 6 Me extending over 8 kpc, the llnear density is

much lower, only 1.3 x IOGMe Pc"1

In a plot of galactocentric angle versus the logarithm of

galactocentric radius (Fig. V-7b), in which logaritmic spirals will appear as

straight lines, the continuity between the Cartna and Sagittarius clouds is

even clearer. All of the Carina and Sagittarius clouds are seen to fall close

to a 10" spiral with a tangent at /= 281" (the best-fit inclination is

9.75"). Figure V-8, which shows the clouds in the plane of the Galaxy with a

10" logarithmic spiral superimposed, illustrates the conclusion well: the

89

Carinaand the Sagittariusarms form a singlespiralarm nearly40 kpc long

wrapping atleast2/3 of the way aroundthe Galaxy.

D. Notes on Individual Clouds

Table V-2 is a catalog of all the clouds identified between / = 270"

and 300 °, as well as all the clouds in the far side of the Carina arm beyond

I = 300" Identified in the COsurvey of L. Bronfman (1985). The catalog is

ordered in increasing longitude and Includes, with the coordinates (/,b,v),

distances, velocity widths, effective radii, and COand virlal masses of the

clouds.

All the clouds identified between ! = 270" and 300" are described

briefly in the notes below, which summarize cloud identifications, distance

determinations, and identification of associated objects. For a description

of the Carina arm clouds beyond ! = 300", see Bronfman (1985).

1) / = 270.g', b = -0.5", v = 52.5 km s-i

There isno kinematicdistanceambiguityfor thiscloud,itsvelocity

placingitwell beyond the solarcircle.The clouddoes not appear tohave

any associatedobjects.Itslongitude,about I0" ahead of the Carinatangent

(at /= 280"),and itsdistanceindicatethatthe clouddoes not lieinthe

Carinaarm. Itmay be relatedto theH Ifeatureinthe outerGalaxy noted In

FiguresIV-6 and IV-8.

90 C

2) l=279.9, b=-1.6",v=35.1kms-1

This very weak feature has no associated objects.

distance, beyond the solar circle, is unambiguous.

Its kinematic

3) 1=281.4, b =-l.l',v=-5.1kms -1

In the heart of the tangent region of the Carina arm, this feature is

probably a blend of more than one cloud. The spatial maps of this region

(Figs. IV-lb and V-lb) and the integrated /,v map (Fig. I I1-7) exhibit several

peaks between / = 280" and 283". Spatial maps in adjacent velocity

windows (Figs. V-ga-j) show a fair degree of continuity in the emission

between 1 = 280" and 283" as we progress from about -18 to 8 km s -1,

although the centroid of the emission shifts from about / = 282.7",

b = -1.7" to / = 281.6", b = -0.7". Because of the confused nature of the

emission from / = 280" to 283", no attempt was made to subdivide this

emission further (with two exceptions noted below), any such division being

arbitrary.

This cloud complex was placed at :3.2 kpc, based on the optical distance

to G282.2-2.0 (Blgay et aZ 1970), an associated H II region. With an H_

velocity of -12.2 km s -1 (Bigay eta/), G282.2-2.0 sits blueward (in

velocity) of a CO peak in this direction.

Three other H Ii regions between / -- 280" and 283" may also be

associated with various components of this cloud; they are: RCW 45,

RCW 46, andReW 47. RCW 45(/= 282.2",b = -O.l') sits at the edge of

the CO peak at / = 282.3", b = -0.5"; its He<velocity, -9.8 km s-1 (Bigay et

al), places it to the blue of this peak in velocity. No optical distance is

91

available for RCW 45. RCW 47 ( / = 283.0", b = -2.7") is situated at the

low latitude edge of the cloud where the emission ls relatively weak; its Ho<

velocity of -11.6 km s-1 (Bigay eta/) shows that this region, too, is

blueward of the the cloud's velocity. Georgelin (1975) gives a distance of

2.7 kpc for RCW 47. (The /,v maps at b = -2.0" and -2.75" indicate that the

association between the cloud and G282.2-2.0 ls probably more certain than

the association between the cloud and RCW 47; for this reason the distance

to G282.2-2.0 was used as the cloud's distance.)

The other H !1 region, RCW 46 ( / = 282.4", b = -1.3"), has an Ho(

velocity of -10.6 km s-1 (Georgelln 1975) and slts between two COpeaks,

one, at I = 281.7", b = -1.5", near the center of the tangent region under

discussion, the other at / = 282.75", b = -1.25". In the Integrated /,v map

and the /,v maps at each latitude between b = - !.5" and O" (Fig. B- 1), the

higher longitude peak appears as a distinct feature and was cataloged as a

separate cloud, #6 in the llst. It is not clear whether RCW 46 is associated

with cloud #3 or #6.

The other exception to the decision not to subdivide the tangent region

emission between / = 280" and 283" is cloud #5, which blends with #3 In

the integrated /,v map giving the impression of a continuous feature. The

spatial maps of the near slde of the arm (Flgs. IV-3a and V-la) clearly show

#5 as a distinct cloud at / = 282.9", b = 1.3", with little spillover into the

tangent region.

After excludingthe emission from #5 and #6, the remainingemission

for_3 yieldsa CO mass of 2.3x106 M e. Alhoughsome localemission Is

probablymixed in,the derivedmass isnot atypicalofother largecloudsin

theGalaxy.

92

4) / = 282.0°,b = -0.8°,v = i7.3km s-_

This cloud is apparently associated with the H109o< recombination line

source 282.0-1.2 at a velocity of 22.4 km s-1 (Wilson etaL i970). Bigay

et aL (1970) report an Ho<velocity of 21.6 km s-1 for the same source, but

no optical distance determination is available. The cloud was therefore

placed at its kinematic distance, which has no ambiguity since the velocity

is positive.

5) / = 282.9", b = 1.3", v = -18.7 km s-!

No known H II regions, continuum sources, OH or H2COemlsslon or

absorption features, or apparent optical obscuration are seen toward this

cloud. It has not previously been detected in CO. Its velocity places it at

the tangent point.

6) / = 282.9", b = -0.7", v = -4.5 km s-1

This cloud appears as a distinct feature in the /,v map at / = 282.9",

v = -5 km s-1. The emission near thls longitude and latitude varies

continuously in the spatial maps in adjacent velocity windows

(Figs. V-ga-j) between -10 and -2 km s-l; the strongest emission appears in

the -5 km s-! map at /= 283", b = -I". It was therefore considered to be

separate from cloud #3. Although possibly associated with RCW 46 at

1.8 kpc (Georgelin i975), a connection is not completely convincing. The

cloud was assigned the far kinematic distance on the basis of the radius-

93

linewidth relation(Dame eta/.1985),which clearlyfavorsthe far

distance.

7) I= 283.8",b = 0.0°,v = -5.4l<ms-i

Thiscloud Isprobablyassociatedwith RCW 48 and RCW 49, placingIt

at about3 to 5 kpc. RCW 48, at I = 283.5",b = -I.0",iscrescent-shaped,

both inthe opticaland inthe radiocontinuum,Indicatingthatthe concave

sideofthe opticalcrescentisnot due to obscurationbut to an obstruction

-- a molecularcloud -- adjacentto the crescent'sinneredge. There Is

littleotherevidence,such as a brightCO peal<,of directcontactbetween

the ionizedgas on the concave sideof the crescentand the molecularcloud.

The mean cloudvelocityof -5.4l<ms-iisclose tothe mean Ho_velocityfor

RCW 48 of -8.2l<ms-i(Bigay etal 1972),and the angulardisplacement

between the nebulaand the cloud'sedge Issmall,leadingtothe conclusion

thatthe two are associated.

RCW 49 consistsofan opticallybrightcentralportioncoincidentwith

a strongcontinuum sourceat I = 284.3",b = -0.3",and a regionofmore

diffuseHo_emission extendingroughlyhalfa degreeabout the center.The

center of RCW 49 liesmidway between two CO peaks Inthe cloud,and the

mean H_ velocityof -7.8l<ms-i(BIgayetal} compares well with the mean

cloudvelocity,so RCW 49 alsoIsbelievedto be associatedwith the cloud.

The HI09o<recombinationlinevelocityof RCW 49 measured onlytoward the

continuum source Is-0.7l<ms-_(Wilson eta l),a valuenot toodiscrepant

from the CO and Hc_velocities,consideringtheseare mean velocitieswith

spreadsof about _+5Km s-i

94

Bigay et e/suggest that RCW 48 and RCW 49 form a single H II region

complex, citing as evidence both the similar velocities, and at about the

same velocity, a third, more diffuse Ho(emission region (designated

283.9-0.6) that ]inks the two. RCW 48 is at about 3 kpc, based on the the

distances to two exciting stars (Georgelin 1975). RCW 49 lies between

3 kpc, based on the distances to two exciting stars (Georgelin 1975), and

5 kpc, based on the distance to the apparently associated cluster Wd2

(Moffat and Vogt 1975). Here a distance of 4 kpc for the cloud is adopted.

Although this distance could be off by a kiloparsec, such an error has little

effect on the large scale picture of the Carina arm since this cloud is

certainly near the tangent of the arm.

8) / = 284.5", b = -0.2", v - 11.6 km s-i

This cloud lles beyond the solar circle, so its kinematic distance is

unambiguous. The radio continuum source G282.0-1.0 sits near the edge of

one of the cloud's two COpeaks; the velocity of the source from its H1090(

recombination line ls 4.5 km s-1 (Wilson eta/1970), placing It near the

edge of the cloud in velocity space; the radio object is very likely to be

associated with the molecular cloud. The weak Ho(source H 8 is also

coincident with the radio H II region, but its association with it, while

probable, is not certain; no optical distance is available to H 8.

9) I = 285.3", b = 0.0", v = 0.0 km s-1

The velocityof thiscloudputs iton the solarcircle,eitherlocalor

quitedistant(5.3kpc forthlslongitude).The farkinematicdistanceis

95

chosen here not only because this compact cloud lies at b = 0", but, more

important, because H I absorption of a bright continuum source coincident

with the cloud is clearly due to nonlocal, intervening gas (Goss et aZ, 1972).

The small Ho<source H 18 is the apparent optical counterpart of the radio

H II region.

I0) I = 286.4",b = -0.3",v = 14.3km s-i

This cloud was assigned a kinematic distance that places it beyond the

solar circle. It has no associated radio or optical objects.

11) / = 287.5",b = -0.5",v - -19.4km s-i

This is the large cloud complex associated with the _1 Carinae Nebula,

NGC 3324, NGC 3293, and IC 2581. Its distance was taken to be 2.7 kpc,

the distance to the associated objects. A detailed discussion of this cloud

is presented in Section B of this chapter.

12) I = 288.6 °, b = 1.5", v = -21.9 km s-i

The kinematic distance to this source places it at the subcentral point.

Although the filamentary H_ source RCW 54b lies at the edge of this cloud,

no convincing association can be deduced because no information regarding

velocity is available for the Ho<source. No continuum, OH or H2COabsorption

or emission sources are observed toward this cloud.

96

13) / -- 289.3", b -- -0.6", v -- 22.4 km s-1

This is one of two clouds in the far side of the Carina arm that can be

assigned an optical distance. The associated H II region, RCW 54a

( 1 = 289.7", b = -1.3"), is situated near the edge of one of the cloud's two

COpeaks. The H109o< recomblnatlon llne velocity (Wilson eta! 1970) and

the H_ velocity (Georgelin and Georgelin 1970b) of RCW 54a are 21.9 and

20.7 km s-1, respectively, placing the H II region slightly to the blue of the

associated COpeak in velocity space, and implying that ionized gas is

streaming away from the molecular cloud that lies partly behind the H II

region. That RCW 54a is observed optically is consistent with the cloud

forming a backdrop to the bright gas.

Another H II region, 6289.1-0.4, also associated with the molecular

cloud, is seen directly toward the other COpeak, its H109o_ recombination

line (Wilson etaD coinciding with the COpeak in velocity, as well.

6289. I-0.4 was first identified as nonthermal (Milne eta/1969), but was

subsequently determined by Shaver and Goss (1970) to be thermal.

Two other objects are seen close to the smaller £0 peak. One is the

supernova remnant MSH11-6/A at / = 290. 1", b = -0.8", which is

extremely bright in the radio continuum (Shaver and Goss 1970) and exhibits

a faint optical shell (Kirshner and Wlnkler 1979, hereafter KW; Elliot and

Malin 1979, hereafter EM). Although the close spatial coincidence of

MSHI 1-6/A with the cloud suggests an association between them, the

supernova's distance, between 3.2 and 5.8 kpc (KW; EM) argues against such a

connection. The distance to MSH11-6/A, however, may be substantially

greater than 5.8 kpc (KW; EM), so an association between the molecular

cloud and the SNR cannot be ruled out. The other object, the H II region

97

G28g.g-0.8, has an HlOga_ velocity of 5 km s-! (Dickel 1973) making its

assocation with the cloud unlikely. Given the evidence available, no strong

arguments can be made regarding the possible relationships between these

two objects and the molecular cloud.

14) / = 2g0.2", b = -0.2", v = -1.4 km s-i

The far kinematic distance was chosen for this cloud based on its

small angular size, its proximity to the galactic plane, and the radius-line

width relation which favors the far distance. No optical obscuration is

apparent toward this cloud, and any possible connection with the optical

H II region G 37 (RCW 54(:), near the cloud's edge, is ruled out by the Ho(

velocity of about -22 km s-I for G 37 (Georgelin and Georgelin lg7Ob).

15) / = 290.6", b = -0.2", v = 15.4 km s-1

The composite spectrum (the sum of all the spectra over the face of a

cloud) of this feature shows two velocity components at about g and

18 km s-_. From the /,v and spatial maps, though, the feature would appear

to be a single cloud. Individual spectra in the sum exhibit wide, single lines

(near the velocity of the feature) offering little evidence for a second peak

other than a mild asymmetry, and so this feature was considered to be a

single cloud. The supernova remnant MSH11-62 at / = 291.0", b = -0.1",

near the edge of the cloud, is at an estimated distance of 9.9 kpc (Milne

1979), in good agreement with the kinematic distance to the molecular

cloud of 8.7 kpc, although this does not confirm an association between the

cloud and the SNR. The kinematic distance is adopted for the cloud.

98

Another weak, nonthermal continuum source, G290.4-0.9, offset

slightly from the cloud's edge, ls probably extragalactic (Shaver and Goss

1970).

16) I - 291.4", b = -0.2", v = -7.0 km s-i

The coincidenceofthisfeaturewith a dark dustcloudon the E50 J

plateinitsdirectionindicatesthattheCO emission Islocal.On an opacity

scaleof I-6 with 6 correspondingto theapparentlydarkest,5andqvist

(1977) ranked the dustcloud(number 127 inhisTable 1)class .5.

Formaldehyde absorptionobserved Inthedirectionof the dustcloudhas a

velocityof -6.5km s"i(Goss eta/1980), furthersupportingthe connection

between the molecularcloudand theobscuringdust. The virtualabsence of

starsnear the dustcloud'scoreimpliesthatthe dust,and thereforethe CO,

isquitelocal.

17) I = 291.6", b - -0.4", v = 14.7 km s-i

This cloud ls associated with the giant H II region NGC 3603 seen

directly toward the COpeak and Just at the blue end of the cloud in velocity.

The optical dlstance of 7.2 kpc (van den Bergh 1978) was assigned. This

cloud coincides spatially with cloud #18 but has a velocity 14 km s-i higher.

A composite spectrum of the region containing clouds _'17 and _18 gives the

impression that these two may be different velocity components of a single

cloud complex, but the vlrlal mass of the two-cloud system ls about 10

times the sum of the CO masses of each component, so clouds #17 and #18

were considered to be two separate clouds.

99

18) I = 291.6°,b = -0.5",v = 28.8km s-i

This cloud was has a kinematic distance which places it beyond the

solar circle. It is associated with the H II region H 58 at / = 291.9 °,

b = -0.7 °. H 58 has an H109o_ recombination line velocity of 25.5 km s-1

(Wilson eteZ 1970) and an Ho_velocity of 22.3 km s-i (Georgelin and

Georgelin 1976). No optical distance is available for H 58.

The possibility that this cloud and #17 might form a single complex is

discussed in the notes to #17, where it is concluded that clouds #17 and

#18 are two separate clouds.

19) I = 292.'6 ", b = -0.3 °, v = 4.0 km s-i

Thisweak featurehas no counterpartatany otherwavelength. Itwas

placedat the farKinematicdistancebased on theradius-linewidth relation.

20) I = 293.3 °, b = -1.4 °, v = -25.1 km s-1

This cloud complex was placed at 2.4 kpc based on its association with

the bright H II region RWC 62 (also referred to as IC 2944, after the young

cluster containing the ionizing stars), one of four associated H II regions.

RCW 62 has an HlO9ocveloclty of -20.9 km s-1 (Wilson eta/. 1970) and

lies at one end of the cloud, near I = 295 °. Based on similar distances and

comparisons of the Ho_and radio continuum morphology, Georgelin and

Georgelln (1976) considered RCW 62 wlth RCW 60 and RCW 61 as a single

H II region complex. The average Ho_velocity of these three is -27.6 km s-1,

100

ingood agreement with both theradiorecombinationlineand the molecular

velocities.The common molecularcloudprovidesfurthersupportfor the

connectionof these threeregions.Of thethree,the best established

distanceisto RCW 62 (IC 2944) and,followingGeorgelinand Georgelin

(1976),itsdistanceisadoptedhere forthemolecularcloud.The fourthH If

region,NGC 3576, has an HlO9o(velocitgof -23 km s-i(Wilson eta/.1970),

and issituatedimmediatelynext toa strongpeak intheCO emission near

/ = 291.5",atthe otherend of the cloud.Variouspublishedoptlcal

distancesto NGC 3576 place itbetween 2.5and 3.3kpc (Georgellnand

Georgelin1970b, 1976; Humphreys 1978),the spreaddue inpartto

uncertainidentificationof the excitingstars(Georgelin,private

communication). Withinthe distanceerrorsand giventhe apparent

connectionby a common cloud,NGC 3576 may be consideredto be at the

same distanceas RCW 60, RCW 61, and RCW 62. At 2.4kpc,the cloudhas a

projected length of about 160 pc (P_fr = 77 pc) and a mass of 7 x 10s Me,

both values typical of other large clouds in the Galaxy, so the assumption

that the four H II regions are the offspring a single large cloud is

reasonable.

An alternative interpretation ls that we are viewlng two clouds In

projection, one associated with RCW 60, RCW 61, and RCW 62 at 2.4 kpc,

and the other associated with NGC 3576 at 3.3 kpc. Such a picture 1s

suggested by: ! ) the different morphological appearance of the two

possible clouds (see to Fig. V-la), one very bright and compact (NGC 3576),

the other weaker and more diffuse (RCW 60, RCW 61, RCW 62); 2) the

relatively weak link bewteen the two; and 3) a hole in the emission

centered approximately between the clouds near / = 292.5", b = -1.0".

There are no obvious explanations for the emission gap, such as a bright H II

I01

region or supernova remnant. (A similar hole centered near I = 294.5 °,

b = -2.0 ° is partially filled by the ionized gas of RCW 62, indicating that

the molecular gas in it may have been cleared out by the expanding H II

region.) However, even if 3.3 kpc is accepted as the distance to NGC 3576,

a distance error of no greater 15% to this object and to RCW 62 places the

lower limit on their separation of 50 pc, well within the typical size for

large cloud complexes. In addition, the velocities of the "two" clouds,

measured from a composite spectrum of each, are nearly identical:

-25.1 km s-i versus -24.9 km s-i; and spatial maps of the region in

adjacent, narrow velocity wlndows (Figs. V-10a-h) show that the strongest

components fade in, peak, and fade out at the same velocities. The "one

cloud complex" interpretation is therefore adopted here.

Although in Cohen et a/(1985a) we chose the "two cloud" picture (124

and 16u_entries in Table 1), it should be emphasized that our conclusions

about the large-scale structure of the Carina arm, including its connection

with the rest of the Galaxy, remain essentially the same, regardless of

which interpretation is accepted for this cloud.

21 ) I = 294.0", b = -0.9", v = 32.3 km s-1

Thiscloud was placedat Itskinematicdistance.Itdoes not appearto

have any associatedobjects,exceptpossiblythe supernovaremnant

G293.8+0.6at 9.6kpc (Mllne1979).The separationbetween the cloudand

the 5NR, assuming the cloud'sdistanceof 10.7kpc,isabout 90 pc,making

any connectionbetween the two questionable.

102

22) / = 294.4", b - -0.7", v -- -2.7 km s-1

This cloud does not appear to have any associated optical or radlo

objects. Its proximity to the galactic plane and radius-line width relation

imply it is at the far kinematic distance.

23) / = 295.1 ", b = -0.8", v = 26.0 km s-1

With multiple velocity components, this feature has a ragged

appearance in the integrated /,v map, making its classification as a single

molecular cloud (or cloud complex) suspect. Four reasons can be suggested,

however, to support its being one object. First, with a distinct peak at

/ = 29125", b = -0.75", its spatial appearance resembles that of many of

the other clouds in our survey. Second, the individual /,v maps at

b = 0.625" and -0.75" (Fig. B-l) show that all the emission near

/ = 295.25", from v = 20 to --40 km s"1, is connected. It seems unlikely

that within such a narrow range of longitude and latitude a chance

coincidence of clouds would be spread out over these velocities. A more

probable explanation for the wide velocity extent is the occurence of a

violent event, such as a supernova, in a single cloud. Third, the H II region

G295.2-0.6 ls seen almost directly toward the cloud's peak. The H l09o(

recombination line velocity of this source is 51.1 km s-_ (Wilson eta/); on

the /,v map at b = -0.625" this H II region lies about 15 km s-1 beyond the

highest velocity COpeak in the cloud. Although such a large velocity

discrepancy would usually be considered evidence against an association

between a cloud and an H II region, in this case the velocity displacement

may be consistent with the cloud's already large velocity width. If the large

1O3

velocityextentof the cloudisindeedrelatedtoenergeticphenomena, then

perhapsdisagreementbetween theH IIregion'svelocityand the cloud's

velocityisnot surprising.Fourth,at leastone otherexample of such a wide

velocitymolecularcloudcomplex exists:the cloudassociatedwith the

supernovaremnant W 44 inthe firstquadrant.The W 44 molecularcloud

has been shown to be a singleobjectaccountingforthe emission over nearly

40 km s-iwithin a 2" wide longituderange (Dame 1983).

Inview of theseconsiderations,thisfeatureisconsideredtobe a

singlecloudwith a kinematicdistanceof 10.5kpc.

24) I = 297.4",b = -0.5",v = 21.5km s-i

Itisdifficulttoestablisha clearseparationbetween thiscloudand

#26. Ifallthe emissionbetween I = 297" and 299.75" representeda single

cloudcomplex,itsprojectedlengthwould be unreasonablylarge:about 500

pc atan assumed (kinematic)distanceof 1I kpc. From the integrated/,v

and spatialmaps of thisregion,I = 298" would appear a reasonable

dividinglinebetween thiscloudand cloud#26. The radiocontinuum (Shaver

and Goss 1970a),which exhibitsa clusterof sourcesbetween I = 298" and

299" thendrops offJustbelow 298", lendingsupportto thlssubdivision.

Evidenceforthe physicalconnectionofthe emission between I = 297" and

298" atvelocitiesgreaterthanabout I0 km s-ican be found by comparing

the spatialmap (Fig.IV-3c)and the /,vmaps (Fig.B-I) between b = -1.0"

and 0.25".Two components Inthe spatialmap at I = 297.25",b = -1.0"

and I= 297.375",b = -0.125"appear as distinctfeaturesat:30km s-iand

17 km s-i,respectively,inthe /,vmaps at those latitudes.At intervening

latitudesthe /,vmaps show these featuresjoinedby a bridgeof wide-

104

velocity, low-level emission. The dividing line between this cloud and _26

is taken to be 1 = 298".

This cloud is placed according to its kinematic distance. The

supernova remnant G296.8-0.2 at 8.7 kpc (Mllne 1979) sits near its edge and

may well be associated. At the cloud's assumed distance of 11 kpc, the

projected separation between It and the SNR Is about 50 pc. No other

associated objects are apparent.

25) / = 298.6", b - O. I', v = -34.9 km s-1

This feature may be a blend of more than one cloud, but there are no

associated objects that aid in the placement or identificationof possibly

separate components. In the absence of further evidence the kinematic

distance is adopted, placing the cloud at the subcentral point. This distance

should be regarded as highly uncertain,given the cloud's location along the

high velocity ridge. The adopted distance makes this the only major cloud

between / = 280" and 300" that appears not to fit into the Carina arm. Two

obvious explanations are: 1) the cloud represents part of a real feature

interior to the Carina arm, perhaps a spur (such a picture of the Inner edge

of the Carina arm has been discussed by Humphreys ( 1976)); or 2) the

adopted distance to the cloud is too big, and the cloud actually resides in

the near side of the Carina arm. With regard to the latter possibility, two

other major clouds in the near side of the Carina arm, _'11 and 4'20, have

been assigned optical distances quite a bit closer than their implied

kinematic distances on the subcentral locus. No attempt has been made here

to "correct" for streaming motions when computing kinematic distances,

although has Humphreys (1970) reported evidence for such motions in

105

supergiantsinthe Carinaarm. Ifthe velocityresidualsfor the starsare

used toadjustthe observedvelocitiesof clouds#I 1 and #20, their

"corrected"kinematicdistancesagree with theiropticaldistances.A

similaradjustment couldbe appliedtocloud #25, but seems unwarrented

without a more systematic comparison of stellarand molecularcloud

velocities.

26) ! = 298.8", b = -0.2", v = 24.9 km s-i

The threepeaks between I = 298" and 300" inthe farsidespatialmap

(Figs.IV-3c and V-I c)are groupedtogetherand assigneda kinematic

distanceof 11.9kpc. (The establishmentof / = 298" as the dividingline

between thiscloud and #24 isdiscussedinthe notes to#24.) The

classificationof allthisemission as a singlecomplex was suggested in

partby theclusteringofdistantH IIregionsand supernovaremnants

between I = 298" and 300". A feature at 1 = 299.5", v = 27 km s-1 in the

/,v map was included because its kinematic distance is nearly the same as

that of the rest of the complex. H109o( recombination line velocities of

30.6 km s-1 and 24.2 km s-i for G298.2-0.3 and G298.9-0.4 (Wilson eta/

1970), respectively, show that the H II regions are closely associated with

cloud components at the corresponding spatlal and velocity coordinates.

G298.2-0.3 is apparently an extremely bright H II region. Infrared

continuum observations of thls object yield the highest measured 1-20jJ

lumlnoslty for any galactic H II region (Frogel and Persson 1974), and from

infrared emission line measurements Lacy et a/(1982) estimate that four

05.5 V stars are required to provide the ionlzlng radiation for this H II

region. A third HlO9c(source, G298.8-0.3 (v = 25.0 km s-i), is also

106

associated with the cloud, although this H II region may be part of

G298.9-0.4 (Wilson eta/. 1970).

Three supernova remnants are also seen in the direction of this cloud

complex: 6298.5-0.3, 298.6+0.0, and 299.0+0.2 at distances 16.1, 17.2, and

10.6 kpc, respectively (Milne 1979). Assuming distance errors of 30% to

these SNRs, it is possible that all three are related to the cloud; given the

spatial coincidence with a cloud that appears to be the site of ongoing,

massive star formation, the association of at least one of these $NRs with

the molecular cloud seems quite likely.

27) / - 299.4 °,b - -0.I',v = -6.0 km s"_

The far Kinematic distance for this cloud is favored by the radius-line

width relation. A closer distance (but not the near kinematic distance) of

2.3 to 3.5 kpc ls possible if a small He<source at I = 299.9", b = 0.4" is

associated with the cloud. Georgelin and Georgelin ( ! 970) give an optical

dlstance of 2.3 kpc and an Hc_velocity of about - 10 km s -i for the source,

but subsequently (Georgelln 1975) the distance was revised to 3.5 kpc and

the source excluded from a list of measured Ho(velocitles (Table V in

George]in 1975). Since the evidence for an association of the Ho_source and

the molecular cloud is not very compelling, the far kinematic distance is

chosen for the cloud.

107

Vl. SUMMARY

The distribution of molecular clouds in the Carina arm was determined

by surveying the J = 1-_0 line of COin the Southern Milky Way with the

Columbia University Millimeter-Wave telescope at Cerro Tololo. Ranging

from ! = 270" to 300", and covering more than 60 deg2 about the galactic

plane at O. 125" resolution and 300 deg2 at 0.5" resolution, the survey

provides the first large-scale CO observations of this region, one of the

most interesting in the Milky Way. Various representations of the data were

presented, including latitude-integrated _v diagrams, /,v maps at individual

latitudes, velocity-integrated spatial maps, and b,v maps at each observed

longitude.

The Carina arm stands out with the loop-like signature of a spiral arm

in the 7,v diagram. Its abrupt tangent near ! = 280" at zero velocity

connects with the near side of the arm, at negative velocities (within the

solar circle), and the far side, at positive velocities (beyond the solar

circle). Extending toward higher longitudes, the near and far sides become

separated by as much as 60 km s-1, with only weak or local emission in the

velocity gap between them. When the emission is integrated over velocity

and latitude a 13-fold jump in intensity is seen as ! crosses 280" from

below, indicating an arm-interarm contrast of at least 13 to 1. The near

side, tangent region, and far side of the arm were viewed in the plane of the

sky by considering the emission within the velocity ranges of these

kinematically defined features. In the resultant spatial maps, the thinning

of the CO layer with kinematic distance, which is an expected projection

effect, supported the kinematic interpretation of the data.

108

At galactocentric distances beyond the solar circle the COand H I are

well-correlated in both space and velocity, tracing the same large-scale

segment of the arm and exhibiting coincident concentrations of emission

along lts length. Within the solar circle, the CO and H I define similar

terminal velocity curves, but the near side of the arm is more difficult to

dlscerh as a distinct feature In the H I than In the CO. The relative

emptiness of the interarm region in the CO /,v diagram likewise has only a

weak counterpart In the H I /,v diagram. In general, the Carlna arm loop, an

obvlous feature In the CO /,v dlagram, ls riot outstanding In the

corresponding H I map. The absence of apparent contlnulty between the

near and far sldes of the 21-cm arm may partly account for the different

Interpretations by Kerr (1970) and Weaver (1970) of the Carlna arm's

connection with the rest of the Galaxy.

The radial dependence In the outer Galaxy _f the average CO mldplane,

molecular layer thickness, and H2 surface density were determined by

averaging the H2 density at each observed positlon with R > Ro over

longitude. There being no kinematic dlstance ambiguity for emlsslon arlsing

at points beyond Ro, a unique distance, z, from the galactic plane could be

assigned to all such points. For comparlson with the H I, a parallel analysis

of the recent Parkes 18 m 21-cm survey data was carried out. The CO

midpiane bends downward increasingly from the b = O" plane wlth distance

from the galactic center, dropping from z = -48 to -167 pc between

R = 10.5 and l2.5 kpc. A similar warp has been recognized in H I ever since

the earliest 21-cm surveys of the southern galactic plane, and the

treatment here of the Parkes data shows the H I midplane to be within

about 25 pc of the molecular mldplane at all radll considered. Again, the

half-thickness of the CO layer, expanding from 112 to 182 pc between 10.5

109

and 12.5Kpc from the galacticcenter,mimics the longestablishedflaring

of theneutralhydrogenlayer,althoughthe scaleheightof the H Iisabout

twice as greatatthatof theH2 overthe same range of radii.Three or four

very largemolecularcloudsinthe CO survey thatliekinematicallybetween

11 and 12 kpc from the galacticcentercause an apparentpeak of43 M® pc-2

inthe H2 surfacedensityatR = 11.5kpc. No similarpeak isseen inthe

neutralhydrogensurfacedensity,a resultdue inpartto thehighervelocity

dispersionof theH I.Comparison of the molecularsurfacedensitiesinthe

arm and interarmregionsyieldsan arm-interarm contrastof about4.5 to I

fortheCarinaarm. Thls ratioislikelya lower limitsince I) Itfollows

from ananalysisthattends towash out nonaxisymmetric (spiral)structure

by assigninga distinctdistancetoevery point(atR > Ro) in(/,b,v)-space

and averaging over longitude, and 2) a ratio of 13 to I ls Indicated by the

step at I = 280" in the total (b- and v- Integrated) CO Intensity dlagram.

To place the Carlna arm in the Galaxy, a catalog of individual molecular

clouds that trace the arm in the /,v and spatial maps was compiled, the

clouds at longitudes greater than 300" having been Identified In an adjoining

CO survey made with the same telescope. The catalog lists the positions,

distances, linear dimensions, and masses of the clouds; the masses were

calculated from an assumed proportionality between Integrated CO line

intensity and H2 column density. The identification of each cloud within

/ = 270" and 300" is discussed briefly, including its distance determination

and possible association with other radio and optical objects. One cloud,

that associated with the 11 Carinae Nebula, was studied in some detail. The

giant H II region NGC :3372 (_1 Carinae Nebula) is severely disrupting its

immediate surroundings, driving a fragment of the associated molecular

cloud away from the main body of the cloud. The star formation efficiency

110

in the Tl Carinae molecular cloud was found to be "-0.02,in good agreement

with the recent results of Myers et el (1985) for inner Galaxy molecular

clouds.

By locating the cataloged clouds inthe plane of the Galaxy, clouds more

massive than 105 M e were shown to trace the Carina arm over a length of

nearly 25 kpc. From I = 280" to 300", where the Carina arm had previously

been traced optically to distances as great as 12 kpc, the close agreement

between the molecular arm and the opticalarm emphasized the importance

of giant molecular clouds in the study of spiral structure on the galactic

scale With the largest clouds identifiedin earlierColumbia CO surveys of

the first and second quadrants added to the picture,the Carina and

Sagittarius arms appear to form a single l O'-spiral arm 40 kpc long,

covering at least 250 ° in galactocentric angle.

111

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5her, D., 1965, Ouart. J. R. A. Jr 6, 299.

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Smith, L.F., Biermann, P., and Mezger, P.G., 1978, Astron. Ap., 66, 65.

5olomon, P.M., Sanders, D.B., and 5coville, N.Z., 1979, in /AUSympos/um 84,

The Large-Scale Characteristics of the Galaxy,ed. W.B. Burton

(Dordrecht: Reldel),p.35.

5olomon, P.M.,5anders, D.B.,and Rivolo,A.R.,1985, Ap. J. (Letters_ 292,

LI9.

5pitzer,L.Jr.,1978, Physical Processes in the InterstellerMedium,

John Wiley and 5ons, New York.

5tothers, R.,1972, Ap. J.,175, 43 I.

5undman, A., 1979, Astr. Ap. Suppl.,35, 327.

I18

Tammann, G.A.,1970, in /AUSymposium o'8,The SpiralStructureofour

Galaxy,ed.,W. Becker and G.Contopoulos(Dordrecht:Reidel),p.236.

Thomas, B.,and Day,G.A.,1969, Austra/ianJ.ofPhys.Supple.,II,3.

Tucker,K.D,Kutner,M.L.,and Thaddeus,P.,1973, AD.J.(Letters),186, L13

Turner,D.G.,1978, A.J.,83, 108 I.

Turner,D.G.,Grieve,G.R.,Herbst,W.,and Harris,W.E.,1980, A.J.,85, 1193.

vanden Bergh,5.,1978, Astr ,_o_63, 275.

Vogt,N.,and Moffat,A.F.J.,1975, Astr.Ap, 39, 4?7.

Walborn,N.R.,1971, ,_.J.(Letters),167, L31.

Walborn,N.R.,1973, Ap.J.,179, 517.

Walborn,N.R.,1982, ,_.J.Suppl,48, 145.

Walborn,N.R.,and Hesser,J.E.,1982, Ao.J_ 252, 156.

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F.P.Israel(Dordrecht:Reidel),p.31.

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364.

119

APPENDIXA

TELESCOPEPOINTINO

Telescopetrackingwas carriedout under computer controlby

continuoustransformationofsource rightascensionand declinationto

azimuth and elevation,the telescope'spointingbeingmaintained by an

alogrithmthatutilizedpositionand velocityfeedback.The pointingmodel,

described in detail in Cohen (1977), was based on the assumption that, for a

perfectly vertical azimuth axis and a mechanically perfect mount, all

pointing errors can be corrected by applying constant offsets in azimuth and

elevation only. Atllt of the azlmuth axis with respect to the vertical is

equivalent to a shift in the true geocentric latitude and longitude of the

telescope and can be accounted for by using the apparent latitude and

longitude in the transformation from right ascension, declination to

azlmuth, elevation. Nonperpendlcularity of either the altitude and azimuth

axes or the altitude and optical axes is easily corrected by including an

elevation-dependent term for each in the azimuthal pointing. In order to

point the telescope, then, a total of six parameters must be determined: one

offset each for the elevation position encoder, the azimuth encoder, the

latitude, and the longitude; and two constants describing the degree of

mount imprecision (nonperpendlcularlty terms). The determination of these

parameters is described briefly in this appendix, and the pointing accuracy

of the telescope is discussed.

120

A. Determination of Polntlng Parameters

Because the planets and other small continuum sources are not

sufficiently bright at millimeter wavelengths to be readlly detected by the

1.2 m antenna, the polntlng parameters were determined wlth a small

optical telescope mounted on the back of the antenna. First, with rough

alignment of the optical axes of the radio and optical telescopes, and with

approximate values for the latltude and longitude of the mount, the optical

telescope was pointed at the Sun to obtain approximate azimuth and

elevation encoder offsets. Next, using these offsets, the radio center of the

Sun was located to -0.3' by finding the symmetry points of radio scans (in

azimuth and elevation) across the Sun's llmb; more accurate encoder offsets

were derived in this way. Then, with the antenna tracking (under computer

control) the radio center of the Sun, the optical telescope was mechanically

adjusted until the solar image was centered, to within a fraction of an arc

minute, in a circular reticle that has the same apparent diameter as the Sun.

This last procedure assured good alignment of the optical axes of the radio

and optlcal telescopes. The two nonperpendlcularlty parameters were

assumed to be small and were taken to be zero in the pointing model (see

Cohen 1977 for the procedures for the determination of these parameters);

the assumption that these terms could be ignored was later justified by the

results of the pointing tests.

Having collimated the radio and optical telescopes, Improved

parameter valueswere determined throughan optical"starpointing'"

procedure.With the encoderoffsetsderivedfrom the Sun pointingand the

approximate latitudeand longitudeinplace,but no correctionsforpossible

nonperpendicularityof themount axes,thetelescopewas made totrack,

121

under computer control, a number ofbrightstarsspread across the sky.

Each starwas centeredinthe opticaltelescsopeby using a paddleto offset

the automatictracking,and the deviationof the truepositionfrom that

predictedby the pointingmodel was recorded.The computer then makes a

least-squaresfitofthe model to the data,yieldingthe new parameter

values.

B. PointingAccuracy

I. ShaftEncoders

Azimuth and elevationaremeasured with Baldwin 16 bitopticalshaft

encodersconnectedto the azimuth and elevationaxes by flexiblecouplers.

Each bitcorrespondsto I/2i6revolutionsor0.33 arc minutes;the specified

precisionby Baldwin ofthese encoderswas _+Ibit.The angularoffset

between the absolutezeroof each encoderand zerodegreesazimuth or

elevationwas determined from the starpointingprocedure.

2. Starpointing

A second starpolnting,againwithoutany correctionsfornon-

perpendicularityofthe mount axes,was carriedout using the encoder

offsetsand telescopecoordinatesdetermined from the previous

starpointlng.The peak pointingerrorfrom thisnew testwas 0.48'and the

RM5 errorwas 0.19'.These numbers compared with the 8.8'beamwidth of

the antennaindicatedthatthe mount was sufficientlypreciseto ignorethe

nonperpendicularityterms inthe pointingmodel. FigureA1 shows the sky

122

coverage of the 37 stars used in this test, and Figures A2a-d show the

errors as a functlon of azlmuth and elevation. A quantlzatlon of the points

in error results from the discrete step-size (//-half bits) of the offsets

commanded from the paddle.

Periodic starpointlngs were performed to check the pointing. The peak

and RM5 errors from a third point done about two weeks after the second

were 0.64' and 0.35', respectlvely. After about one year of operation a drift

of the azimuth axls wlth respect to the vertical resulted In peak errors of

1.6', and new parameters were installed.

3. 5unpointing

A daily check on the pointing was made by measuring the deviation

between the observed position of the radlo center of the 5un (located by the

method described above) and the expected position. These tests Indicated a

systematic elevation error of about I' with respect to the starpolntlng

parameters, the observed position of the 5un almost always being lower (in

elevation) than the expected position. The source of the error could not be

determined, although a slow drift of the azimuth axis may have been a

contributing factor since these errors, as well as smaller azimuth errors,

appear to have generally worsened with time (Fig. A-3). For 74

sunpointings, the peak total error [(Se2+6a2.cos2e) !/2] and RM5 of the total

errors were 1.7' and I. l', repectlvely (excluding one pointing at 6"

elevation).

123

TABLE II- I

CO-FREEREFERENCEPOSITIONS

I(') b(')

272.00 -5.00

273.00 -5.00

274.00 -4.00

275.00 -5.63

276.18 -4.95

278.95 -5.04

282.24 3.71

283.50 2.20284.12 -3.43

284.50 0.88285.00 3.00

288.00 5.00

288.47 -3.09291.00 0.75291.70 3.70

292.30 4.00292.67 3.01

292.76 - 1.18293.00 5.00294.71 1.46295.00 5.00297.00 4.00

124

TABLE IV- 1

Z-DISTRIBUTION OF H2 IN THE OUTER GALAXY TOWARD THE CARINA ARM

Radius < Z0 > Zl/2 p(< Zo >) Ofit Omeisure d

(kpc) (pc) (Me pc-3) (M@ pc-2)

10.5 -48 ± 18 112±21 0.0078_+0.0015 1.88±0.50 2.18±0.08

11.0 -73 ± 16 120± 16 0.0077±0.0008 1.96±0.34 2.11 ±0.06

11.5 -109t 19 128t25 0.0104±0.0017 2.79t0.71 3.00t0.04

12.0 -145t20 141 ±26 0.0060±0.0008 1.78t0.41 2.02±0.04

12.5 -167±25 182±31 0.0034±0.0004 1.32±0.28 1.40±0.04

13.0 -113±70 277±86 0.0017±0.0014 0.95±0.38 1.02±0.04

125

TABLE V- 1

MA551VE MAIN 5EQUENCE 5TAR5 IN THE _1 CARINAE NEBULA

HDINo. 5p.Type ref Iog(M/M e) Cluster

93161 06.5V((f)) 2 1.58 Tr 16

93204 05V 2 1.76 Tr 16

93205 03V 2 2.08 Tr 16

93250 03:V((f)) 2 2.08 Tr 16

93343 08Vn 2 1.42 Tr 16

303308 03V((f)) 2 2.08 Tr 16303:31 I 05V 2 1.76 Tr 16

1 09.5V 2 1.25 Tr 16

2 B 1.5:V: 2 1.02 Tr 16

3 O9:V: 2 1.41 Tr 16

5 B2:Vn 2 0.96 Tr 16

8 B 1.5Vb 2 1.02 Tr 16

9 09.5V 2 1.25 Tr 16

10 BOVn 2 1.19 Tr 16

13 B2Vnn 2 0.96 Tr 16

16 B2Vb 2 0.96 Tr 16

19 09.5V 2 1.25 Tr 16

20 BI:V 2 1.08 Tr 16

23 07Vn 2 1.54 Tr 16

31 BOVn 2 1.19 Tr 16

34 08109:V: 2 1.36 Tr 16

64 B 1.5V:b 2 1.02 Tr 16

94 B IVn 2 1.08 Tr 16

IO0 05.5V 2 1.69 Tr 16

104 07:V: 2 1.54 Tr 16

1I0 07V 2 1.54 Tr 16

112 04.5V((f)) 2 1.84 Tr 16

115 ogv 2 1.41 Tr 16

305536 08.5V I 1.36 Cr 228

305522 BO.5V I I.12 Cr 228

305534 BO.5V:+B IV I I.12 Cr 228

93056 B IVb I 1.08 Cr 228

305521 BO.5V I I.12 Cr 228

21 07.5Vn I 1.46 Cr 228

305437 BO.5V I I.12 Cr 228

126

TABLE V-1 (continued)

MASSIVE MAIN SEQUENCE STARS IN THE _1 CARINAE NEBULA

HDINo. 5p. Type ref log(M/Me) Cluster

305438 07.5V I 1.46 Cr 228

305535 B2.5V I 0.92 Cr 228

93208 08.5V I 1.36 Cr 228

305543 B 1V+B IV 1 1.08 Cr 228

30 B 1.5V I 1.02 Cr 228

305516 BO.5Vb I I.12 Cr 228

36 BO.5:V:+BO.5:V: I I.12 Cr 228

37 B2Vb 1 0.96 Cr 228305532 05V I 1.76 Cr 228

39 08V I 1.42 Cr 228

43 B2Vb 1 0.96 Cr 228

305515 B 1.5Vsn 1 1.02 Cr 228

305533 BO.5:Vnn+shell I I.12 Cr 228

48 B 1.5Vb I 1.02 Cr 228

93146 06V I 1.61 Cr 228

66 09.5V I 1.25 Cr 228

67 ogv I 1.41 Cr 228

68 B 1V 1 1.08 Cr 228

305528 B2V 1 0.96 Cr 228

81 BO.5Vb 1 1.12 Cr 228

305538 BOVb I I.19 Cr 228

89 B2V 1 0.96 Cr 228

93576 09Vn 1 1.41 Cr 228

305539 07V 1 1.54 Cr 228

95 BOVb 1 1. I 9 Cr 228

97 05V 1 1.76 Cr 228

305525 06V I 1.61 Cr 228

127

TABLE V-I (continued)

MASSIVEMAIN SEQUENCESTARS IN THE T1 CARINAE NEBULA

HD/No. Sp. Type ref log(M/M e) Cluster

93027 og.5v 3 1.25 Cr 228

93128 03V((f)) 3 2.08 Tr 14

g312gB 03V((f)) 3 2.08 Tr 14

-58 2620 06.5V((f)) 3 1.58 Tr 14

Referencesforspectral types:

I. LevatoandMalaroda(1981).2. LevatoandMalaroda(1981).3. Walborn(1973).

128

TABLE V-2

CARINA ARH MOLECULARCLOUDS

No. ] b v AV dist Refr Mco M_p Notes

(') (kin s-i ) (kpc) (pc) (10 s Me)

1 270.9 -0.5 52 7 6.8 57 2.2 5.1 a,d,g,n

2 279.9 - 1.6 35 5 7. ! 37 1.0 2.1 a,d,g3 281.4 - 1.1 -5 13 3.2 101 22.5 37.5 a,d,h

4 282.0 -0.8 17 5 6.1 88 2.7 4.6 c,e,g5 282.9 1.3 -19 6 2.2 26 .7 2.2 a,d,g,k6 282.9 -0.7 -5 9 3.2 31 2.8 5.6 a,d,g,i7 283.8 0.0 -5 10 4.0 65 6.3 13.1 b,e,h

8 284.5 -0.2 12 8 6.6 123 20.3 14.9 b,e,g

9 285.3 0.0 0 10 5.3 88 4.5 17.4 b,e,g,j10 286.4 -0.3 14 8 7.5 84 8.3 9.9 a,d,g11 287.5 -0.5 - 19 10 2.7 66 6.7 13.6 a,d,h

12 288.6 1.5 -22 7 3.2 56 3.5 5.8 a,d,g,k13 289.3 -0.6 22 15 7.9 132 31.2 64.9 a,d,h

14 290.2 -0.2 -1 5 6.8 55 2.7 3.2 a,d,g,i15 290.6 -0.2 15 10 8.7 80 4.3 15.1 c,e,g16 291.4 -0.2 - 7 4 ........ a,d,o17 291.6 -0.4 15 10 7.2 73 4.1 14.1 b,e,h

18 291.6 -0.5 29 6 10.3 105 12.5 6.7 a,d,g19 292.6 -0.3 4 4 8. I 31 12.0 9.1 b,e,g,i20 293.3 -1.4 -25 8 2.4 77 7.1 9.2 a,d,h

21 294.0 -0.9 32 8 11.3 102 12.2 13.1 a,d,g

22 294.4 -0.7 -3 10 8.0 109 12.2 22.0 a,d,g,i23 295.1 -0.8 26 11 11.0 64 4.5 16.3 a,e,g24 297.4 -0.5 22 18 11.2 154 32.1 102 a,d,g25 298.6 0.I -35 10 4.7 139 26.5 26.3 a,d,g,k26 298.8 -0.2 25 16 12.0 157 30.8 83.5 a,d,g

27 299.4 -0.1 -6 9 9.4 66 4.6 12.0 b,e,g,i28 300.3 -0.2 31 9 12.9 61 7.0 10.4 g,l,m29 300.6 -0.2 10 7 1I. 1 61 4.2 6.4 g,!,m30 301.8 0.0 24 7 12.7 44 4.2 4.5 g,l,m31 302.3 -0.7 32 11 13.6 97 29.4 24.6 g,l,m32 303.9 -0.4 29 13 13.7 144 46.2 5 I. 1 g,l,m

129

TABLE V-2 (continued)

CARINA ARM MOLECULAR CLOUDS

No. / b v AV dist Rerr McO M_r Notes

(') (kin s -1) (kpc) (pc) ( 105 Me)

33 306.9 -0.5 25 7 14.2 50 5.6 5.2 g,l,m

34 308.0 -0.7 32 11 15.1 113 21.0 28.7 g,l,m

35 311.3 -0.3 27 17 15.5 210 109.2 127 g,l,m

36 313.2 -0.3 42 10 17.6 100 18.2 21 g,l,m

37 314.0 -0.I 28 7 16.4 59 4.2 6.1 g,l,m

38 315.3 -0.3 14 I0 15.4 72 11.2 15.1 g,l,m

39 318.0 -0.3 30 15 17.6 148 2.8 69.9 g,l,m

40 320.5 -0.5 26 17 17.8 155 12.6 94.1 g,l,m

41 325.3 -0.1 28 12 19.3 115 19.6 34.8 g,l,m

42 328.5 -0.1 30 6 20.4 55 5.6 4.2 g,l,m

43 335.5 -0.5 27 5 22.0 24 >0.6 1.3 g,l,m

NotesonTableY-2:

a) YelecityfromOaussianfittocompositespectrumb) Velocityfromhand-drawn"eyeball"fittocompositespectrumc) Yelacltyfrom /,v mapd) FWHMfrom eaussianfit to compositespectrume) FWHMfrom hand-drawn "eyeball" fit to compositespectrumf) FWHM from /,vmapg) Kinematicdistanceh) Opticaldistancet) Distanceambiguity resolved with radius-line width relation (Dame eta/. 1985)j) Distanceambiguity resolved with foreqr'oundabsorptionk) Yelocltyplacescloudat subcantralpointI) Cloudidentfication from Bronfman(1985)m) Cloudparameters from 8ronfman ( private communication)n) Thiscloudis probably not in theCar'inearm -- see"Noteson IndividualClouds"in ChapterVo) Associatedwith localdust; distance unknown-- see "Noteson IndividualClouds" In ChapterY

130

FIGURECAPTIONS

Chapter II

Figure !1-1: Schematic diagram of telescope mount and antenna. The

housing shown on the base of the mount actually corresponds to the Northern

Millimeter-Wave Telescope, but otherwise the Northern and Southern

telescopes are mechanically Identical. Individual components are discussed

in the text.

Figure 11-2: Block diagram of telescope system. Analog and digital signals

are drawn in thick and thin lines, respectively. The main components are

discussed in the text.

Chapter III

Figure III-1: Survey coverage and sampling. Observed full resolution

positions are marked by circles of 8.8' diameter (one beam); spacing is

O.125". The entire area within the map was observed every 0.5" in / and b

In the 0.5" Superbeam survey; a few squares indicate the 0.5" beam sampling

pattern.

131

FigureIII-2:Sample spectrafrom the fullresolutionsurvey.Allspectra

coverabout 330 km s-iwith 256 channels,eachl.3km s-iwide. A straight

line,from a fitto the firstand last40 channels,was removed from each

spectrum. Typicalintegrationtimes were 5 minutes,yieldingRMS noiseof

about O.14 K per channel.The temperaturescaleon the rightisinunitsof

radiationtemperature.

FigurellI-3:Spatialmap from the 5uperbeam survey showing allemission

between v = -50 and +50 km s-i.Contoursare at6, 12, 18,..K km s-i.

Figure 111-4: Spatial map combining both the full resolution and Superbeam

surveys showing all emlsslon between v = -50 and +50 km s-i. The full

resolution data are shown withln the dotted lines, the 5uperbeam data

beyond the dotted lines. Contours are at 6, 12, 18,... K km s-1.

FigureIII-5:Spatialmap from clipped5uperbeam datashowing emission

between v = - IO0 and +I00 km s-i.Allspectralchannelsbelow 0.5K (_,3d)

were set tozero beforeintegrating.Contoursare at 3,6 12, 18,...K km s-i.

FigureIII-6:Spatialmap combiningclippedfullresolutionand clipped

5uperbeam datashowing emission between v = -I00 and + I00 km s-_.All

specatralchannelsbelow 0.5K (_3d) were set to zerobeforeintegrating.

Contoursare at3,6, 12, 18,...K km s-_.

Figure 111-7: Full resolution integrated /,v diagram. The CO emission has

been integrated over all latitudes where data were taken (see Fig. II I-1 for

outline of survey coverage). Contours are at 0.35, 0.7, 1.4, 2. I,... K deg.

132

Figure 111-8: 5uperbeam integrated /,v diagram. The COemission has been

integrated over all latitudes where data were taken (b = +5" to -5").

Contours are at 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5,... K deg.

FigureIII-9:Integrated/,vdiagram of fullresolutiondata smoothed In / to

0.5"forcomparison with the 5uperbeam Integrated/,vdiagram (Fig.III-6).

Contours are at 1.0,1.5,2.0,2.5,...K deg.

Chapter IV

FigureIV-l: (a) FullresolutionIntegrated/,vmap; identicaltoFigureIII-5

but on a smallerscale.(b) Key. Approximate heliocentricdistancesare

marked off alongthe Cartnaarm. The darklinesare schematic and not

derivedfrom a model. The regionsenclosedIndottedlinesand labeled4 4

6;and d show the velocitylimitsused inthe spatialmaps ofthe near side,

tangentregion,and farsideof the Carinaarm (Figs.IV-3a-d and V-I a-d).

Figure IV-2: COemission Integrated over all covered velocities and

latitudes (in units of K km s-1 deg) as a function of longitude. Tylcal RM5

noise (lo) per longitude point ls 2.2 K km s-1 deg.

133

Figure IV-3: Spatial maps of COemission integrated over the indicated

velocity ranges. Part a contains the near side of the Carina arm; part b the

tangent region; parts c and d the far side. Full resolution data are shown

inside the dotted lines in the maps covering / = 270" to 300" (a-c);

Superbeam data are shown beyond the dotted lines. At 1 > 300", only full

resolution data are available. The contour interval is 5 K km s-i.

FigureIV-4: Galactocentricringsof radii10.5,11.0,11.5,12.0,12.5,and

13.0kpc are shown transformed to the /,vplaneusinga flatrotationcurve,

V(R) = 250 km s-i.An outlineof thedata isalsoshown (shadedregion).

FigureIV-5: Volume densityofH2 as a functionofverticaldistance,z,from

the galacticplane atfixedgalactocentricradiibeyond the solarcircle.Each

pointinz representsan averageover20 pc binsinz and 500 pc ringsinR

(seeSectionIV.A.3forprocedure).Solidlineshows the data;dotted lineis

the best-fitGaussian.The radiiindicatedinparts a - f mark the centerof

the 500 pc rings.

Figure IV-6: Longitude-velocity map of H I emission integrated in latitude

from b = +2" to -2". Data, from the Parkes 18 m 21-cm survey of the

Southern Mllky Way (Henderson et al 1982), are In units of brightness

temperature. Contour interval is 25 K deg.

134

Figure IV-7: Comparison of CO and H I high velocity ridges. The difference

between the mean CO high velocity ridge and the mean H Ihlgh velocity ridge

Is plotted. The mean high velocity ridge at each I is defined as the

velocity-weighted emission (CO or H I)within +25 km s-I of the expected

rotation-curve velocity at that L The solid llneshows the result using the

rotation curve of Burton and Gordon (1978), and the dotted lineshows the

result using a simple straight line drawn in the /,vplane from

v = -85 km s-I, I - 330", to v = 0 km s-I, I = 270".

Figure IV-8: Longitude-velocity map of c11pped H Iemission integrated In

latitude from b - +2" to-2". All spectral channels with Tb < 50 K were

set to zero before integration.Contour intervalis 25 K deg.

Figure IV-9: Spatial map of H Iemission integrated from -I00 to

+ 1O0 km s-i. Contours are at 500, 2000, 4000, 6000,...K km s-i.

Figure IV-lO: Spatial maps of H Iemission in the Carina arm integrated

over the indicated velocity ranges. These maps correspond to the CO spatial

maps of the near side, tangent region, and far side of the Carina arm

(Figs.IV-3e - d ). Contours are at I00, 200, 400, 600,...K km s-I.

135

FigureIV-II- Volume densityofH Ias a functionof verticaldistance,z,

from thegalacticplaneatfixedgalactocentricradiibeyond the solarcircle

(analogoustoFigs.IV-5a -f). 5olidlineshows the data;dotted lineis

best-fitGaussian.The radiiindicatedinparts a - f mark the centerof the

500 pc rings.FollowingHenderson etaL (1982),an opticaldepth correction

was appliedincalculatingthe number densityat each /,b,and v:

nHi(_b,v)= i.823xiO 18T5 _'(/,b,v)Idv/drlatoms cm -2(km s-i)-i

where r isthe (kinematic)distanceto the point,Ts (= 125 K) isthe

(assumed uniform)spintemperature,and _(/,b,v)isthe opticaldepth;

_(/,b,v)= - In[i- Tb(/,b,v)/Ts].Each pointinz representsan averageover

50 pc binsinz and 500 pc ringsinR (seetextforprocedure).

FigureIV-12: Parameters of theverticaldistributionsofH2 (circles)

and H I(diamonds)intheouterGalaxybetween R = 10.5and 13.0kpc:

(a)averagemidplanes,Zo; (b)thicknesses,zl/2;and (c)surfacedensities,

(_(notethatthe H Isurfacedensityisdividedby iO to fiton the same

scaleas the H2 surfacedensity).For H2 theparameters are taken from

Gaussianfits(dottedlinesinFigs.IV-5a -f) to the data(solidlinesin

same figures).Errorbars on theH2 parameters representthe formal errors

from the fitineach ring(ofaverageradiusR) multipliedby a galactocentric

dependentcorrectionfactor,_T(N),where N isthe number of resolution

elements (/,b,and v)subtendedby a typicalcloud(50 pc diameter,6 km s-i

wide) atthe averagedistancetothe ring;the correctionfactor

approximatelyaccounts forcorrelationof thedata over the emission volume

of discetemolecularclouds.Because ofthe uncertaintyof the trueform of

theH I layerdistribution,no attempt has been made to estimate the errors

on theparameters.

136

Chapter V

Figure V-1: 5patlal maps of COemission integrated over the Indicated

velocity ranges. Part a contalns the near side of the Carina arm, part b the

tangent region, parts c and d the far side. Inslde the dotted llnes In the

maps coverlng I = 270" to :300" (a-c) and at I > 300" (d), full resolution

data are shown smoothed to 0.25" resolution. Beyond the dotted lines in

parts (a-c), where 0.5" 5uperbeam data are shown, all spectral channels

with T < 0.5 K were set to zero before integration. The contour interval is

3 K I<ms-1. The bold-face numbers on these maps ldentlfy the molecular

clouds in the survey according to their running numbers in Table V-2. For

extended clouds, a palr of llnes radiating from the ID number indicates the

cloud's extent; where the identification may appear ambiguous, a single line

from the ID number points to the cloud. A pair of numbers separated by a

comma indicates that two clouds with nearly the same spatial coordinates

have been blended together in velocity by the integration. The parenthetical

"3" in the near side map (part a) refers to a portion of cloud #3 that spills

over from the tangent region map (part b).

Figure V-2: Optical mosaic of the 11Carinae Nebula and its surroundings

from ESOJ plates of the region. The CO contours overlaid on the mosaic are

from a blowup of the region shown In the near side spatial map (Fig. IV-3a);

the emission ls integrated from -50 to -9 km s-i, and the contour interval is

5Kkm s-1.

137

Figure V-3: Schematic representation of the dust, ionized gas, star

clusters, and COemisslon In the _1Carlnae Nebula.

Flgure V-4: Variation of COemission wlth velocity through the TI Carlnae

molecular cloud. Each spatial map shows the emission integrated over two

spectral channels (2.6 km s-iX The eight maps ( a -h) are contiguous in

velocity and cover the emission from -31 to -10 km s-1. The contour

intervalis 1.4K km s-i.

FigureV-5: 5chematlc illustrationof the giantmolecularcloudassociated

with the _lCarinaeNebula.From righttoleft,the starclustersrepresent

IC 2581, NGC 3293, NGC 3324, Tr 14,Tr 15 (top),Tr 16 (center),and

Cr 228 (bottom).The featurelabelled"wisp"correspondstothe filament

discussed in the text; the arrow indicates its direction of motion with

respect to the main body of the cloud.

Figure V-6: The distribution of massive main sequence stars in the clusters

Tr 14, Tr 16, and Cr 228. All observed early-type stars with spectral

classifications have been binned In O.1-decade wide logarithmic mass

intervals centered at Iog(M/M e) = 2.15, 2.05, 1.95,... 0.95. (See :Section

V.2.C for a description of the stellar mass determinations.) The solid line

shows the logarithm of the number of stars In each interval, and the dotted

line shows the logarithm of the number in each interval plus the sum of all

higher-mass intervals. The number of stars predicted In the indicated mass

intervals by the Miller-Scalo (1979) IMF is shown by the filled circles show.

138

Figure V-7: (a) Face-on view of the Ga]axy with the locations of the

largest molecular clouds. The cloud shown wlth a dashed circle has a very

inaccurate distance and may actually lle In the Carlna arm (see notes to

cloud "25 in Section V.D.). (b) Same as Figure V-8 a replotted in

rectangular semi]og coordinates. The ]lne follows a 10" logarithmic spiral

with a tangent at / = 281"

Figure V-8: Same as Figure V-7a with a I0" logarithmic spiral with a

tangent at /= 281" drawn in.

Figure V-9: Variation of COemlssion wlth veloclty through the tangent

reglon of the Carina arm. Each spatial map shows the emission integrated

over two spectral channels (2.6 I<ms-i). The ten maps (a -j) are contiguous

in velocity, and cover the emission from -18 to +8 km s-1 (see notes to

cloud #3 in Section V.D.). The contour Interval ls 1.4 K km s-_.

Figure V-10: Variation of COemission with veloclty through the molecular

cloud associated with NGC 3576, RCW 60, RCW 61, and RCW 62 (see notes

to cloud _20 in Sectlon V.D.). Each spatial map shows the emission

Integrated over two spectral channels (2.6 km s-_). The eight maps (a -h)

are contiguous In velocity, and cover the emission from -31 to -10 km s-i.

The contour interval Is 1.4 K km s-l.

139

Appendix A

A-I: Azimuth and elevationsof the 37 stars used inthe finalstarpointing

testused to check the pointingaccuracy of the telescope.

A-2: Pointingerrorsof the37 starsfrom the finalstarpointingtest.

(a) Elevationerrorsas a functionof azimuth;(b) azimuth errorstimes

cosineof the elevationas a functionazimuth;elevationerrorsas a funciton

of elevation;and (d) azimuth errorstimes cosineof the elevationas a

functionof elevation.The quantizationinerrorresultsfrom the discrete

stepsizeof the appliedpointingoffsets(seetext).

A-3: Sunpointingerrorsplottedagainstday of 1983. The verticalaxis

shows the totalerror,[Sel2+ 8az2cos2(el)]i/2.

APPENDIX B

FigureB-I: Fullresolution/,vmaps ateach latitudebetween b = 2.5"and

-4.125"(Z_b= 0.i25").At Ibl> i',where longitudecoverage was not

uniform,pairsof dottedlinesmark the longitudeintervalssampled;an odd

number of dottedlinesindicatesthata dottedlinenearestthe top or bottom

longitudeboundaryof the surveyispairedwith thatboundary.Contours are

at 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0,.. K.

I40

Figure B-2: Full resolution b,v maps at each longltude In the survey

(270" _ I _ 300", NI = 0.125"). The latitudeboundaries of the maps show

the maximum range observed in the fullresolutionsurvey. In general, pairs

of dotted lines mark the latitude intervalssampled; an odd number of dotted

lines indicates that a dotted linenearest the top or bottom latitude

boundary is paired with that boundary. Contours are at 0.5, 1.0,2.0,3.0,...K.

Figure B-3: 5uperbeam /,vmaps at each latitudein the Superbeam survey

(b = +5" to -5", Ab = 0.5").Contours are at 0.5, 1.0,2.0,3.0....K.

Figure B-4: 5uperbeam b,v maps at each longitude in the survey

(270" _ / _ 300", A / -- 0.5"). Contours are at 0.5, !.0, 2.0, 3.0,... K.

141

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I.O-

m

0.8-

0.6!

m

0.4-

m

0

Number per

------- Cumulative

• IMF

bin

|mmm

IDllm _IIIDI

!I

gp,=. =.I

II

_D a,=, J

!_=,mA •I

mmo

III

i--- III!I

m m lill

II

|mu |

IIII!

mm m

Im, .,,. |

I I I1.6

I

2.0 .8I I I I I

1.4 1.2 1.0

log M/Mo

0.8

FIGURE V-6

182

180"

ORIGINAL PAGE t3

OF POOR Q_ALITY

a

270" ........................... 90"

z

_ UNANALYZED

• =0 °

_ OBSERVATIONSINCOMPLETE

15 :_ _ii_:._,ii_.i!!ii.i_i_!i:i ili i!iiiiiiiiiiii_izii!iTiii:i: _!i!_:!,

_i:,i::::,i_i • • _ _!i_,:_i.ii_-i_il.i:,i: 4R_:I: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ...............

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l_i:i-:i:::i:i:i:::!:!::!:i:i:i:i::i:!:i:i:!:i:i:_:3:::!:3::::: i:i::i:i:i:iii:i!!ii_]i!i:iiiii!!i!:i::ii!_i!jiiii_iil]iiiii[:i:i:_ "r//,_ i:i:i::!:i:!.!:i:i.

--" .i:::.:.:!::-.:.::i:::.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.:.:.:.:i.i._i...::.:.i::.::/:i.:i:::..ii:::::ii_:._i::.:i:ii::_• ,_. .i.::::i:::.:!::1'_ :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::• • _,_1_, :::::::::::::::::::::

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[)_::'!_':,_: iiii:i!'_!ili_'ii',i_,, _ ,I°'_" I"180 e "90" 90 °

b

0 °

8180 •

FIGURF V- 7

183

oRtGINAL PAGe. _

or pOORQUAL_

10" Spiral

:iiiiiiii!iiiiiiii!iiiiii!.iiiii!i!i!!ii!iiii!iiiiii:

.iiii fiiiii!i::::::,.:.....!i::::::.....

_ UN_ALYZED

,_=C, •

_ OBSERVATIONINSCOMPLETE

90 •

FIGURE V-8

184

]O

01

L,Jr',

I"

-1"

f,._)

f.Jrr..I

-2'

-3 °

V • -18.2 TO -15.6 KH S"_

(_ 0 RESOLUT ]ON

.0

Q"; O

0 .

n °'* _'°°*

RESOLUT|ON ..... , ,

.°

......... I ......... I ......... I ...... ,,,I ......... I ........

285' 28_ I 28S" 282 a 28 ] • 280 o

GRLRCT 1C LONGITUDE

.

i ....... :ot

a

2798

V - -15.6 TO -13.0 KH S"

|e

......... I ........ I ' ' ' '_.y ' I ...... '''1 ......... I ........

o' O

LIJ

-1' O

G0

_2 ° "",,,,,(_ ta........

o

:•. ..... "Do ° - **" •..*

-3' ..... ,

......... I ......... I ......... I ......... ! ......... I .........

285' 28L1° 280 °

b

283 = 282 = 2B] °

GRLRCTIC LONGITUDE

279 =

FIGURE V-9

185

0 8

W

¢...

-I e

...¢

_-_-2e

-3*

V - -13.0 TO -I0,_ KH 5"_

,, __ _ :........

@ '

.... _t _mo

i|,ll.,,I ......... I ......... I.,,ILIIII ] ......... ) .........

285 ° 20_I ° 200 °

i

c

2831 282 ° 281 m

GRLRCTIC LONGITUOE

279 m

1 I

01

we_

.-J

,,.p

-2 e

-3*

V " -10.4 TO -7.8 KH 54

4m,

285 m 283 m 282 a 281 m

i o °

28u, m 280 m

d

279 °

FIGURE V-9 (continued)

186

1 I

0 =

..J

t-,-

-2'

-3'

V • -'/.8 TO -..= 2 KM $°'

.

i °) 0 "

G

......... t ......... t ......... I ......... I ......... I ...... nil

285 ° 28q" 283 ° 282 = 28 ! ' 2800 279 °

e

GRLRCTIC LONGITUDE

1 I

01

-1 =.-I

,.,t

g -2'

_3 =

°

285' 283 = 282 = 281 =

GRLRCT IC LONGITUDE

V • -5.2 TO -2.6 KM $"

..... ''''1 '_u" ...... I ....... ''1(_ ..... ''1' ........ I ......... .

....... ......,,.............., ,_

....... ,I,,, ...... I ..... ",',*,*,'I , , , , , _ , , , I ......... I ........

284' 280 = 2780

FIGURE V-9 (continued)

_' _ 187

1 I

0"

wJ

"1 I

...J

tI

-2'

-3'

V • -2.6 TO 0.O KM S"

i

I

lililll.,I ..... ,,,,I,,,,,,,,,I ......... I,,,,,,,,,I ...... ,,,

!85 = 28_ = 2800

g

283 = 2820 281 m

GALACTIC LONGITUDE

2790

1 I

0 =

N

7= -1'

-21

-3'

V = -O.0 TO 2.6 KM 5"

(27

...... , o'> _ _ •

i i

= .o

:• ....... .-.

i

: . .......... o=

,, ...... I .... , .... I ....... ,_1, ........ t,_ ....... I,_ .......

285 = 28_" 280=

h

283 = 282 = 281 =

GRLRCTI£ LONGITUOE

279 =

FIGURE v-g (continued)

188

V - -31.2 TO -28.6 KM S"

1l ....... ''1 ......... i ......... I ......... I' ........ I .........

0 °

uJ

I--

..J

¢.)

-2 =

-3'

0 R[$OLUTION

o oii

, ®0

,'rl'rrrrf*, ,, . t'_-.-,-,-, .............. 1_,

@0

oo

RI[$_LU11 ON

.--;---,:I i i i * I i I i I I i i

,ll,,,,

296 = 295 = 29_ = 293 = 292 = 291 =

GRLRCTIC LONGITUDE

a

290 =

1'

P,

=1

I.-.m

_|e

{.JN

(J

-2"

-3'

V - -28.6 TO -26.0 KM S"

' ........ I ......... I .... '''''l ......... I ..... ''''l ........

f ;i #--o_

........ "rl-rrrrt, ,_ Jt','_'i',', ..... I ......... I!,

296 =

.--..... , ,,;'":, ....

b

i

295' 29'; = 293 = 292' 291 ' 290'

GALACTIC LONGITUDE

FIGUIRE V- I0

189

I!

0 °

u=

a: -i °

¢T-

g -2'

-3'

296'

V ', -26.0 TO -23.u, KM 5 "1

......... _0_"_'......° '......... ' ......... ' ......... '_-_ .... l_c

i

°-° ° .....

........ •r_ ..... ;,, "._,-,-,-.- ...... * ......... i:...... (., i, , ,': ....

;=95" 29_ = 293 ° 292 = ;=9 ! = 290 e

GRLRCTIC LONGITUDE

11

0 g

I....-

..J

_ -2"

V - -23.4 TO -20.8 KM S"

..... ,'"L ......... i''"' .... i'''' '"''' I""'" ''I'" ......

-3'

0

° " ° _i

°.

0 d

J

-<2

i

296 = 295 = 29_ m 2930 2920 291 o 290 I

GRLACTIC LONG!TuBE

FIGURE V- 10 (continued)

190

1 =

01

MJ

-! =

e.r..I

-2 °

_3 =

V - -20.8 TO -18.2 KH 5"

'''''''''1 ......... I ......... I ....... ''1 ......... I .... _''

0®o

i

i

e

o-o . ..... •......... "r_'r rr, f; , o ,'l-I-,-,-,-, ...... | ......... I_ ...... t', , I .... '. .....

296 = 295 = 291 = 290029q = 293' 2920

GRLRCTIC LONGITUDE

V • -18.2 TO -15.6 KH S"

|e '''''''''1 ....... ''1 ......... I ......... I'''''''''l .........

D e

uJ

I,--N

_l =

i.r

-2 e

_3 =

296'

........ "-_..... :"';1 ............. , ......... ,'...... ,"T;_'"'. ....295= 29_* 293' 2920 291 *

GRLRCTI C LONGITUDE

©0

290 °

FIGURE V-I 0 (continued)

191

11

0 O

I,,,,,

a: -I I..-j

_ -2 o

_3 =

V ,, -15.6 TO -13.0 KH $"

'''''''''1 .... ''"''¢'''' ..... I ...... '''1 ...... '''i'''''''''

"0_, _ o

°0i

, ..o

296 m 295 m 29_ ° 293 m 292 ° _9!m

GALACTIC LONGITUDE

i

0 :

g

290 =

1 I

01

7=-I'

(.J

_2 =

-3'

v = -l_.O TO -IO.q XM $-m

©

Q

00

,. °, %

o

) o ............. .

......... "r I" r r r r | I i i , t.-=-=-¢-_-.

296 m 295 = 29_ =

h

.... ! ......... I! ...... $',, I, , ,;; .....

293 = 292 = 29] = 2900

GALACTIC LONGITUDE

FIGURE V- I0 (continued)

192

V = 2.6 TO 5.2 KI'I S"

|O _; ..... _1 ......... I ......... I ......... I ......... I ........

O° .

_ O

_ ,.,......

i ..... .............._3e '. !

........ I ,.,,I .... ' ..... f,,, ...... l. ,._j,_,

285' 28_' 280 o

i

i

283' 282* 281* 279 o

GRLRCTIC LONGITUDE

1 I

.=m

-1' 0-J

(.,I

I,--

-3'

V - 5.2 TO ?.O KH S'_

''''"_'l; ...... ''1 ......... I ......... I ......... I ........

• o ......

• iIi

i .ii i

• ...... • .o_ |I o°. .°oo*i._.°_ i

I i

i • ...... °°°--• ..... o

......... I ......... I ......... ! .... ,,,,,I, ........ I .........

285'

!

J

28_' 283" 282= 28 ! ' 280" .>?9=

GRLRCTIC LONGITUDE

FIGURE V- 10 (continued)

193

SKT COVERRGE

90 °

5O

Z

0

_Jw

o

¢ •

0@

@

o

O

0 °

0 °

I I

60 ° 1200

I

16)0o

AZIMUTH

I I

2LtO° 9000 8_0 °

FISURE A- 1

194

ORIGINAL P;_.;I/; ;:-_

OF POOR QU.ALi'__,/

_===m

,,4

0::

_3

E:

C_

I i I

o

o

$

II •

e

e

I-!

0

%

J r i %

i

(NIW 7Hl:l) (73) 0

I l :

0

o

i

I

"o

"o

"o

I%

$

J

$

I I I

(73) S03 X (ZU]O

i I I

I

(NIW 3UU)

|

$

@

$

I :

(731S{}3 X (Z_}C]

p.,

Ze_

%

%N

I

%

.=

%

FIGUREA-2

195

SUNPOINTING ERRORS vs. DAY of 1983

rt-O

rrLU

2.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.000

X X

:,._. :x'.

:._:_X :X ×X x X

x × :'_.X

X X

::kx:x:

XI I I I I I

80 100 120

DAY

×

;(.,.<

x :'::

.x.-'._

>×:x:

...× . .X

x ._ .:_:. ;_.X ':.:_

:x: .X >X '"

X X X

I I ! I

140 160 !80 200

FI6URE A-3

196

OF POOR QUALITY

tlJ

ZID.=I

t=)

I-.¢_)CZ:

n"

300 o

295 o

E90 °

E85 o

280 °

275 o

I I i i i i i i i i i i i i i i 1 i i i i i i i i i i i i i..... J ...... I......... J .......... L L J I................. ......... .... ::::::::::::::::::::::::::B • 2".5

• RESOLUT ]ON

. ......... .... ...... ...%. .... . .......... . ...... .° ............

=

-.. ..... oo..° ...... ..°°.o. ........... . .... °..o... .... . .........

,,,I,,,I,,,I,,,I,,,I,,,I,,,I,,,I,l_llll

-80 -60 -LtO -20 0 20 _0 60 80 100

LSR RRDIRL VELOCITY (_M S"]

FI GURE B- 1

197

3DO °

B - 2:375

• RESOLU'T l ON

C_

t-,,

Z

{_1

r,J

rr

rr

295 °

290 o

285 o

280 °

2?5 o

270:

-I00 -80 -60 -_0 -20 0 20 _0 60 80

LSR RADIAL VELOCITT (KM S")

I00

FIGURE B- 1 (continued)

198

300 °

295 °

290 o

hiC_

I"iiq

ZE)

--' 285 o(..)

I.-I.J¢r...I

2800

275 °

' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I '" ' I ' ' ' I ' ' "I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' '

B = 2:25

• RESOLU7 ION

..................... .(_..t ................................. _-

,,,I,,,I,,,I,,, I,,,I,,,I,, ,I,,,I,,, I,,, I

-80 -60 -140 -20 0 :_0 140 60 80 100

LSR RRDIRL VELOCITT {KM S"}

FIGURE 1:3-1(continued)

199

300 ° ,,, I,,,I ,, , I, ,, I, ,, I, , ,I,, ,I ,, ,1, ,_ I,, ,

295 °

2900

U.l

l--

t.2Z0

•-J 285o

t'-'-

rr

280 o

275 o

270 o

-lO0

%. ...... . ............. . ....................................... :

,,,t,,,I ,t , l, , , I, ,, I, ,,I ,, ,I ,,,I ,,, I, i,

-80 -60 -YO -20 0 20 u,O 60 80 100

LSR RADIAL VELOCITT (KH S")

FIGURE B- 1 (continued)

200

U3C3

F.-

X0

t-q

rr

300 o

295 o

290 o

285 o

280 o

275 o

, , , I , , , I ,', , I ,', , I , , , I , , , I , ,', I , , , I , , , I , , ,

S - 2:0

n RESOLUT ION

.......... ....°._ ...................... .°..°. ...............

tlt|llsIil|]tt L]lll]tll_11 tlltt]ttl]tlt

-80 -60 -LlO -20 0 20 u,O 60 80 100

LSR RADIAL VELOCITY (KM S")

FIGUREB-1 (continued)

201

b'-

ZID_.1

I_t

I'-"

n"--I(3:

300 _

295 a

290 °

285=

, _, I _, ,I,, , I, ,, I,,, I, , _ I,, ,I ,, , I , ,, I, ,,

= I'.e7s

,= RESOLUTION

280 °

275 °

2700 , , , I , i i I , , , I i , , l , , , t , , , I , , , I , , , I , , , I , , ,

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 80 80 100

LSR RRDIRL VELOCITY (KH S")

FIGURE B-I (continued)

202

l--

Z0...J

L.J

I.-1..1rr

n-

300 o , , , i , , , i , , , I , i , i , , , i , , , i , , , i , , , i , , , i , , ,

295"

290 o

285 o

280 D

275 °

270 o-100

............................................ . ................

...................... ...................................

',,I,,,I,,,l,,,I,,,Ijz,ltl ,I,,,It,,I,,,

-80 -60 -u,O -20 0 20 ;0 60 80 lO0

LSR RADIAL VELOCITY (KM S")

FIGURE B- 1 (continued)

203

I.=,J

iI

Z

.3

h-

n-

M"L.3

295"

290 =

285 =

280 o

275 o

270 o

-I00

,,,I,,,I,,,I,,,I,,, I,,,I,,._1,,,I,,, I,,,

-80 -60 -ttO -20 0 20 u,o 60 80 100

LSR RRDIRL VELOCITT {KM S")

FIGURE B- I (continued)

204

tkJ

::)I--

LOZE:>,--I

0

I--0(3:..Irr

300 o

295 o

290 o

285 =

280 o

275 =

270 =-100

' *' I '' '1''' I '' '1' '' I ' ' '1 '' '1'''1 ' '' I '' =

.................... _ ....................... B = 1'.5 --

................... ¢_.. ........................ . .nE.S.O.LU! _._......

. ......... ..oo. ........ .o .... . ..... _ ...... . ..... . ...........

,,,I,,,!,,,I,,,I,,,I,,,I,,,I,,,I,,,I,,,

-80 -60 -;0 -20 0 20 t;O 60 80 100

LSR RRDIRL VELOCITT (KM S"]

FIGUREB-I (continued)

2O5

b.Ir-_

..,J

0

l--¢..)rr._1wr(._

300 o ,, , , i , , , 1 , , , i , _ ,'1 , , , I , , , I , , , I , , ,'1 , , , I , , '

295 o _- ........................ :...................................

.............................. .°-° .............. - .............

290 ° --.:- ................................

_ ...,_,.... -.o_.. ..........................

285 o

......................... _-.._-----. ............. . ............

2800

275 o

270 a-I00

,,, I,, ,I ,,, I_, , I,,, I j , ,I ,, ,I ,, , I , , , I , , ,

-80 -60 -u,O -20 0 20 u,O 60 80 100

LSR RADIAL YELOCITT (KM S")

FIGURE B- 1 (continued)

206

1.1.10::3I'-

Z

,_1

(J

I,,-UIT"...Irt-

300 °

* .B = I*.25" RESOLUTION

295 = =.

..... ............ o... ................... . ................... .m

290 = .............................................................

.... _..................... ".._m=................................

285 =

-

o

280 °

275 =

2713o , , , I * , , I , , , I , , , I * i , i * ] _ t _ , i I , , , I , , , I , , ,

-tO0 -80 -60 -_0 -20 0 20 LtO 60 80 100

LSR RADIAL VELOCITT (KId S")

FIGURE B- 1 (continued)

207

hl

I--

300 °

2950

•.J 285 oI,..1

I,,-.

(Z:_,.IO:{.3

B +:12s" RESOLU'I' tON

290 ° .............................................................

" _ *

......................... "_.-.-_ ...... .-........ .................

.......... -+ ....................

_+,_<,+o.......................+_:...............................

280 °

275 o

270 °

-I00

.., , , I , , t I , , , I , , , I , , , I , , , I , , * I , , , I , , , I , , ,

-80 -60 -u,O -20 0 20 LIO 60 80 lO0

LSR RADIAL VELOCITT (I_M 5"4

FIGURE B- 1 (continued)

208

h,f-,

(.3Z0,..I

{_)

I--UE.-1E

300 o

295 °

290 o

285 o

280 °

275 °

270 o

' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' '-' _ I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' l-J ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ''.. • . e " I'.O

4_ a... o RESOLUTION

o,o -

I)Q

0p,.

O

0

I °1"1_

, ,_ I , , , I , ,', I , , , I ,

-I00

, I , , I I., , , I , , ,'I , , ,

-80 -60 -LIO -20 0 20 _I0 60 80 I00

LSR RADIAL VELOCITT (KM S-')

FIGURE B- 1 (c0ntinued)

209

300 o

295"

290 °

WC)

I--

Z

{3

" 2850(,J

l--

I,,J

.../

GE

280 o

275 °

270 _

-I00

'' "I' ' ' I '."___i

Q

Q

I I I I I I I I I '1 I''I I I I I I [ I I I ; I I

0

0

Q,.Z

GI.

• o . _ °

l,, I,, ,I ,, I I_ , , I, , , I ii ,I ,', ,I ,,, I, ,,

-80 -60 -u,o -20 0 20 LtO 60 80 100

LSR RRD]FIL VELOC]TT (KM S"}

FIGURE B- I (continued)

210

hi{3

II

Z0.J

rr.Jrr

300 o

295 o

290 o

285 o

280 o

275 o

' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' '__1 ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ''. " e - 0°.75

w FIESOLUT ]ON

_"

_ i ° D"

.0 ._-_ .

o4 •

-100 -80 -60 -LtO -20 0

,I,,,ll,,I,,,l,,,

20 _0 60 80 100

LSR RADIAL VELOCITT (I_M 5"1

FIGURE B- I (continued)

211

LU

I--

ZO,,..I

I,,--

,.=1mrk.3

30D °

295 =

290 =

285 =

280 °

275 =

' ' I I ' "' I ' ' __ I ' ' ' "1 ' ' !T' ' _ I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ''. " " . " " I BRESOLUl.]ON= 0°'625

o

°

t=,. ,

-_=_"

O

° a

D

,,, I,,,I,, ,I,,,l, , II .... I,, ,I,,_ Ix ,,

-80 -60 -riO -20 0 20 _0 60 80 100

LSR RADIAL VELOCITY (KM 5"1

FIGURE B-I (continued)

212

U./t-,

k,-

Z

--,l

(,J

iI,fJrr,.,.Irr

300 o

2956

290 o

285 o

280 o

275 o

i270 o

-I00

' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' "W_I "' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' j'.

.-0.." RESOLUI' I ON

, , , I , , , I ,, , I, ,,I, ,

'_, eo._o

•.o. T, "

0

°

,I,, II,,,I,,,I,,,

-80 -60 -_0 -20 0 20 _0 60 80 I00

LSR RRDIRL VELOCITT (KM $")

FIGURE B- 1 (continued)

213

I,--

ZD,...I

I.--

,nr-...Jrr

300 °

295 °

285 °

280 °

FIGURE B- 1 (continued)

214

MJC_

I,,-

C_

ZE:3

..J

tJ

tJrr,,..In-

300 o

295 o

290 o

285 o

280 o

'''l'''l''',J,,, rJ3..._=,.i,,,i,q, j,,,i,,,j,,_=E__ o. ,_.

J_O." _' - B - 0=.2s- '= RESOLU'I ION

Q _

Q, .

t

I

o _

275= .'_ "_

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-I00 -80 80-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60

LSR RADIAL VELOCITY {KM 5"1

100

FIGURE B-I (continued)

215

I--

Z{:)

._I

l.-

rr.J1"I-

300 o

295 °

290 °

285 D

280 °

275 o

e = 0'. 125" " _ " RESOLUT ION

o

°_

o" '1'° _0 :

Q

2-70 o , , , I , , , I , , , t , , v I , ,-100 -80 -60 -LtO -20

"_ 0 °l

i I i , , I , , , I', , , I , , ,

0 20 _0 60 80 100

LSR RADIAL VELOCITY (KM S"}

FIGURE B- 1 (continued)

216

LI.I

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Z

-.I

0

iD

rr..,I

300 a

295 °

290 o

285 °

280 o

2.,/5o

270 o

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• _

' 1LI,, ,I ,, , I , , D I = f i"

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LSR RRDIRL VELOCITY (KM S")

8O 100

FIGURE B- 1 (continued)

217

300 °

2g5 °

290 o

L,n

Z

0

- 2850LJ

F-

U

E

E

280 o

275"

I I .,,, I.,, a I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' '

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8

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270 o , ,, I .... I , i , i , I , I .... I ,7 ,

-100 -80 -60 -_0 -20 0 20

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I , , , [, ,_ I , , ,1

_0 60 80 I00

FIGURE B-1 (continued)

218

300 o

295 o

290 o

Z

0

-J 285 o

F',,,

rr

,_J

rr

280 °

0 ° '°q*

LSB RAOIAL VELOCITY (KH S"}

FIGUREB- l (continued)

219

I.-

Z

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l.--_J

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295 °

290 °

285 o

280 °

275 °

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• ._ B = -0'.375

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o

o

qP' _.

-60 -_0 -20 0 20 _0 60 80 100

LSR RADIAL VELOCITY (lIM S")

270" , , , I z i i I , , , I , , , I , _ , *, I , , , 1 , , , I'_ .... I , , ,

-100 -80

FIGURE B- I (continued)

220

ORIGINAL PAGE E

OF POOR QUALITY

I,--

ZO-J

I--

t-r"

300 o

295 o

2900

2850

280 o

2750

270 o-100

I ' ' I ' ' ' I ' I_'_) ' * I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ° I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I'_ ' '

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I VC_t_r'TTY CKH S")ISR RAO,A,.

FIGURE B-I (continued)

221

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rr

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300 °

295 =

290 =

285 =

280 °

275 =

°_

=

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LSR RADIRL VELOCITY (KB $-')

FIGUREB- 1 (continuecl)

222

ORIGINAL PAGE IS

OF POOR QI3ALITY

300 o

295 °

290 a

285of,J

=,

280 °

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LSR RRDIRL VELOCITT (KH $"]

FIGUREB- 1 (continued)

223

LUC_

Z0.J

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300 °

295 =

290 =

285 =

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275 °

270 =-100

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FIGURE B-I (continued)

224

ORIGINAL PAGE

OF POOR QU'ALITY

ILlC_

I--

tOZED,--I

I""

(3:.--ICE(.D

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-100 -80 80

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L$R RADIAL VELOCITY (KM S';)

100

FIGURE B-1 (continued)

225

3000

295"

290 °

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rr

2800

275 °

270 o

-I00

.. ...... . ....................... . .......... . ........... . ....

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LSR RADIAL VELOCITY (KM $")

FIGURE B-I (continued)

226

Z

¢3

_.1

(,..)

I.,',,-

CE

,,--Itr

300 o

295 o

290 o

285 o

2.80 o

275 °

270 o

-100

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ii

s ",o. o

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FIGURE B-I (continued)

227

3000 , , , i , , , i , , , I , , , I , , , I , , , i , , 0 I , , , I , , , I , , ,

2950

2900

I,IJ

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0, 285=

5=,==

280 =

2750

270 °-lO0

a - -_37s

o RESOLU_ION

.................... .......................

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LSR RRD]RL VELOC]'I'T (KPI S"}

FIGURE B-l (c0ntinued)

226

ORIGINAL PAGE

OF POOR QUALITY

1.1.1C_

I--

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ID

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In

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295 =

290 a

285 =

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275 =

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........................... . ._. .............. 9 ...............

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-100 -80 80-60 -_0 -20 0 20 _0 60

LSR RADIAL VELOCITY (KM S")

100

FIGURE B- 1 (continued)

229

300 ° , , , i o , , i , , , I , , o I o , , I , _ , I ' ' ' I ' ' ' i ' ' ' i ' ' '

295 D

290 °

_' 285"

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e - -J:s25

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LSR RADIAL VELOCITY (KM S"}

!

I00

FIGUREB-1 (continued)

230

hiC_

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(a

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29s.: ........................ ......................... ....

285 o

2800

275 o

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-100 80 100-80 -60 -WO -20 0 20 _0 60

LSR RRDIRL VELOCITY (KM S")

FIGURE B-1 (c0ntinued)

23I

295 °

290 o

hlr-i

I-'-

ZE:)

-J 285 o

l,"-

rr

rr

280 °

275 D

270 o-I00

,,,I,,,l,,, f,,,i,,,l,,,J,,,I,,,l,,,l,,,

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FIGURE B-I (continued)

232

,,fr_

iI

ZID..J

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300 o

295 o

290 o

285 o

280 o

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LSR RADIAL VELOCITY HiM S")

FIGURE B- I (continued)

233

300 ° ,,,I,,,I,,,I,*,10,,I,,,I,, ,I,0,1,,,I,',

295 D

290 o

285o

5

280 o

275 °

270 o

-I00

...................... :_L: ......: .......................

, ,, I,, ,I,, , I, ,, I , °, I , , ,I ,, ,I ,, , I, ,, I , ,,

-80 -60 -_0 -20 0 20 _0 60 80 100

LSR RADIAL VELOCITT _l_H $")

FIGURE B-I (continued)

234

t-_

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Z

0

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(,J

II

rr

.,.J

rl-

300 ° , , , i , , , i , , , i , , , I , i , i , , _ 1 , , , i , , , i , , i i , , ,

2950

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2800

2"75o

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LSR RADIAL VELOCITY (KM $"1

FIGURE B-I (continued)

235

UJ£3

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I.-(..)rr,,.Irr.

300 ° ,', , i , , , i ,', , I , , , i , , , i , , , i , , , i , , , i , , 0 i , , ,

295 °

290 o

285 °

280 =

275"

270 °

=°.° ........ ° ........... .° .... ....°......._...°............................................... B - -2'. 3"IS

• RESOLLI_" 1 ON

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.

,,, I,, , I ,, , I, , , I, ,, I, ,, I,, ,I,,, I , ,, I, i =

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LSR RRD]RL VELOCITT (KM S"]

FIGURE B- 1 (continued)

236

¢:3

I--

Z

E:)

-.I

(.J=,-,.e

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rr

300 o

295 =

290 =

285 o

'''1 '' '1''' I' ''1' ''1'' '1'' '1'''1 '''1''_

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275 =

I

' '' I ,, ,I ,, , I,, , I,, , I , ,, I ,, , I ,, j I, ,, I, , ,

-80 -60 -qO -20 0 20 u=o 60 80 100LSR RADIAL VELOCITY (iiMS")

270 =-100

FIGUREB-1 (continued)

237

t,lC:3

t--i1--1

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lit

I,--Urr.--I

rr

300*

295 °

290*

285*

''' I'' '1'''1'''1''' I'''1'' '1'''1'''1'''

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_........°.. ..... ... .... .°.._ .... ....o°..°.. ..... .°... .......0

280 o .............................................................

2750

2700 , , , I , , , I , , , I , , , I , , , I , , , I , , , I J , , I , , , I , ,-I00 -80 -60 -_0 -20 0 20 _0 60 80

LSR RRDIRL VELOCITY filmS")

!

lO0

FIGURE B- I (continued)

238

300 o

295 °

290 °

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".. ......... ......... .......... _ ..... ..... .................... °

• B - -2:'tS..................... ...." ..... _ ................ • BFSOLUIION

..................................................0

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275 o

2?0 o

-I00

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-80 -60 -_0 -20 0 20 _0 60 O0 IO0

LSR RADIAL VELOCITY (KM S")

FIGURE B- I (continued)

239

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3000 ,,,,,I,,,I,, ,I,,, I,,, I,, ,I ,,'¢I,,, I,,, I,,,

295 =

290 =

285 =

280 =

275 =

270 =

-I00

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LSR RRD]RL VELOC]TT (KM S"}

FIGUREB- 1 (continued)

240

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0

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295 D

290"

285 o

/280 o

275 °

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m

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LSR RADIAL VELOCITY (KM S")

100

FISURE 0-1 (continued)

241

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(..)

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295*

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2750

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LSR RRDIRL VELOCITY {KM S"}

FIGUREB-I (continued)

242

(__

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LSR RROII:IL VELOCITT (KM S")

FIGURE B- l(continued)

243

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295 o

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285 o

280 °

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m

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LSR RRDIRL VELOCITY (KH S")

FIGUREB-I (continued)

244

I.i.It-,:DI.D

ZO._J

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295 =

290 °

285 o

280 °

275 °

,,,I,,,I,,, I,, ,I,,, I,,,l,i iI Ii II,,,I,,,

-80 -60 -L_O -_0 0 20 qO 60 80 I00

LSFI RADIAL VELOCITT (KM $")

FIGURE B-I (continued)

245

hi

Z

II

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3000

295 °

290 °

2850

2800

275 °

2-/00 , , , I , , , I , , , I , , , t , , i I , , , I , , , I , , , I , , , I , _ ,

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LSR RRO]RL VELOC]TT (KI4 S")

FISURE B- 1+(cont+nued)

246

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295 °

290"

285 °

280 °

275 D

270 o

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LSR RP,D!RL VELOCITY (Kff S")

FIGURE B-1 (continued)

247

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300 o ,,,1',, ,I,, ,I, , ,I, ,, I,,,I ,, ,I ,,, I ,,,I, ,0

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275 =

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LSR RADIAL VELOCITY {KM 5")

FIGURE B- I (continued)

248

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LSR RADIAL VELOCITY (KM 5")

FIGURE B- 1 (continued)

249

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FIGURE B-1 (continued)

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BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET

1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No.

NASA TM-87798

4. Title and Subtitle

MOLECULAR CLOUDS IN THE CARINA ARM

3. Recipient's Catalog No.

5. Report DateSeptember 1986

6. Performing Organization Code

7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No.David Andrew Grabelsky*

10. Work Unit No.9. Performing Organization Name and Address

NASA/Goddard Institute for Space StudiesNew York, NY 10025

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address

National Aeronautics & Space AdministrationWashington, DC 20546

11. Contract or Grant No.

13. Type of Report anti Period Covered

Technical Memorandum

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. Supplementary Notes

*David Andrew GrabelskyColumbia University, New York, NY

16. Abstract Results from the first large-scale survey in the CO (J = 1 _ O) line of the Vela-Carina-eentaurusregion of the Southern Milky Way are reported. The observations, made with the Columbia University 1.2 mmillimeter-wave telescope at Cerro Tololo, were spaced every beamwidth (0.125 °) in the range 270 ° < /<300 ° and -1 * < b < 1° , with latitude extensions to cover all Carina arm (/> 280*) emission beyond (b I= 1".In a concurrent survey made with the same telescope, every half-degree in latitude and longitude was sampledin the range 270 ° </" < 300* and -5 ° < b < 5* at a spatial resolution of 0.5*. Both surveys had a spectralcoverage of 330 km s-1 with a resolution of 1.3 km s-1.

The Carina arm is the dominant feature in the data. Its abrupt tangent at / _. 280* and characteristic loopin the/,v diagram are unmistakable evidence for CO spiral structure. When the emission is integrated overvelocity and latitude, the height of the step seen in the tangent direction suggests that the arm-interarm con-trast is at least 13:1. Comparison of the CO and H Idata shows close agreement between these two species ina segment of the arm lying outside the solar circle.

The distribution of the molecular layer about the galactic plane in the outer Galaxy is determined. Be-tween R = 10.5 and 12.5 kpc, the average CO midplane dips from z = -48 to -167 pc below the b = O* plane,following a similar well-known warping of the H Ilayer. In the same range of radii the half-thickness of theCO layer increases from 112 to 182 pc.

Between / = 270 ° and 300 °, 27 molecular clouds are identified and cataloged along with heliocentricdistances and masses. An additional 16 clouds beyond 300 ° are cataloged from an adjoining CO survey madewith the same telescope. The most massive (<_ 105 Me) of these clouds trace the Carina arm over 23 kpc inthe plane of the Galaxy. The average mass for the Carina arm clouds is 1.4 x 106 Me, and the average inter-cloud spacing along the arm is 700 pc. Comparison of the distribution of the Carina arm clouds witla that ofsimilarly massive molecular clouds in the first and second quadrants strongly suggests that the Carina andSagittarius arms form a single spiral arm ~ 40 kpc long wrapping two-thirds of the way around the Galaxy.

17. Key Words (Selected by Author(s))

CO, Molecular Clouds, Galactic Structure,Star Formation

19. Security Classif. (of this report)

18. Distribution Statement

Unclassified - Unlimited

20. Security Classif, (of this page)

Unclassified Unclassified

*For sale by the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia

Subject Category 89

21. No. of Pages 22. Price*

358 A16

22161GSFC 25-44 (lO/?l

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