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CHCFC506A: Foster children’s language and communication development

Stimulate the child’s use and understanding of language

Contents

Provide developmentally relevant opportunities for children to listen and respond to language 4

An overview of the stages of language development 4

The fundamental stages of language development from birth to seven years 5

Link language to all interests, activities, routines, and directions8

Opportunities and interactions stimulating language development8

Children’s language experiences contribute to all areas of development 9

Provisions, opportunities and play experiences 10

Using routines as language opportunities 13

Create opportunities for group discussions and exchange of views between children 15

Child-to-child interactions 15

Create a language rich environment that incorporates materials that capture the child’s attention and stimulate a response 18

Immersing children in language 18

A language-rich environment 19

Speak clearly and frequently to children in language that is appropriate to the age of the child 21

Functions of language 21

Caregiver language styles 22

Take time to listen and respond to children 24

What to do when you cannot understand what a child is saying to you 24

Use open ended questions to encourage children to express their thoughts, feelings and words25

2 Diploma of Children’s Services: CHCFC506A: Reader LO 9316 © NSW DET 2010

Questioning skills 25

Model and encourage two way communication by questions and careful listening 27

Interactive two-way communication 27

Caregiver listening skills 27

Repeat and expand children’s words and phrases in a natural style of conversation to model communication skills 32

Extending children’s vocabulary 32

Diploma of Children’s Services: CHCFC502A: Reader LO 9316 3© NSW DET 2010

Provide developmentally relevant opportunities for children to listen and respond to language

An overview of the stages of language developmentThere are specific stages in language development which infants and toddlers must pass through prior to progressing to the next stage. We all know babies start with crying and then somehow they happen soon to be talking! While it may seem that in between the crying and talking they are simply using baby talk, they are in fact progressing through a number of complex stages in their communication development.

Following is a list of the sequential stages through which infants and toddlers pass, with a simple definition succeeding each.

Crying: infant’s main form of communication Makes a motor response: an automatic reflex to a sudden noise which

then advances to the head turning in the direction of the sound. Motor responses are a clear indication that the infant’s hearing is fine.

Cooing: long vowel sounds such as oooo, aaaaah Gurgling: a typically gurgling sound, indicating contentment Smiling: responding positively to human stimuli, eg a touch, a smile Proto conversations: an interaction very similar to a conversation

between two adults, ie the infant and adult are looking at each other and turn taking in their verbalising, eg the adult says something to the infant, the infant then babbles something in return, then stops, adult continues then stops, infant begins to babble again—an extremely positive interaction.

First word-like formations: adding consonants to vowel sounds, eg da, da, da

Repeats sounds: when something they say gains a positive reaction they repeat it, seeking continual praise and attention

Can follow simple commands; for example wave, clap


Holophrastic speech: one word has many meanings, eg ‘ball’ may mean ‘I want the ball’ or ‘there’s the ball’. This one-word statement is called a ‘holophrase’.

Telegraphic speech: usually two or three words put together forming very basic sentences, eg ‘daddy car’ may mean ‘daddy’s gone in the car’.

The fundamental stages of language development from birth to seven yearsThe sequence of language development is very generalised and, while most children follow the same sequence of development, not all will reach each developmental stage at the same age.

Fundamental stages of language development

From birth to two months

Begins with reflexive crying, coordinating mouth, tongue and lip movements, leading to differentiated crying.

Two to three months

Makes eye contact with carer, smiles, responds to sounds with automatic or motor reflex movements, gurgling and cooing, indicating contentment.

Four months

Responds to voice by turning head towards sound.

Four to six months

Babbling emerges. Infant makes a variety of noises that sound more like speech, adding consonants to the cooing vowel sounds; uses a range of non-speech sounds, such as squealing, to gain attention; is able to distinguish between calm and angry voice and indicates in responses of smiling or crying.


Six to nine months

Begins to combine single syllables, eg mumumu, dadada; begins to recognise own name and understand simple, two-word phrases, eg ‘where’s Mummy?’; reaches more complex listening stage; uses simple gestures like clapping hands, imitates ‘bye-bye’ action; babbling becomes more complex. Infants with hearing impairments gradually cease babbling around seven months of age due to their inability to hear words around them.

Nine to twelve months

Copies or imitates sounds made by adults, eg brmm (car); recognises common objects by name; begins to use facial expressions, vocalisation and gestures (reaching, pointing) to communicate, waves and claps hands when asked; complex babbling continues to self and others; communicative interactions take place, eg proto conversations; first sounds resembling a word.

Twelve to eighteen months

Expresses wants with gestures, actions and facial expressions; points to body parts when named; uses single words and naming words, although may not be clearly understood if said out of context; two prominent words are ‘gone’ and ‘no’. A sense of control; contently jabbers to self frequently; reaches holophrase stage. Using one word to represent a need or want.

Eighteen to twenty-four months

Holophrase stage continues and telegraphic speech begins using basic sentences and understanding a large amount of what is said to them.

Two to three years

Vocabulary greatly increases; talks about the here and now; able to take turns speaking and listening; responds to directions and questions; language and communication is easily understood by an adult.


Three to five years

Using complex sentences and correct structure; retells and makes up stories; vocabulary increases; asks many questions and can relay information; can talk about yesterday, today and tomorrow.

Five to seven years

Five to seven years: should be speaking as well as an adult with clear articulation, although grammatical errors may still occur. Vocabulary continues to expand. Questions asked become imperative to a specific topic.

(Derived from Clark and Ireland, 1997; Kaplan, 1991; Nixon and Aldwinckle, 1999 and Smith and Cowie, 1996)

For more information try these websites:

http://childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/language_development.shtml

http://childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/oral_language_development.shtml

http://childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/normaldevelopment.shtml

http://www.tnpc.com/parentalk/index.htm

http://www.pbs.org/wholechild/abc/index.html

http://www.pbs.org/wholechild/providers/index.html

http://www.brainconnection.com/topics/?main=fa/language-acquisition


Link language to all interests, activities, routines, and directions

Opportunities and interactions stimulating language developmentAccording to Machado (1999), the teacher has four distinct roles when stimulating language development. These are as a model, a provider, an interactor and a balancer.

Model—Children learn through watching and listening to adults. The more varied our speech and expansive our responses to children, the more likely they are to become fluent, articulate speakers. Adults need to vary not only the type of speech they use but their non-verbal communication too.

Provider—Children need exposure to a variety of different language experiences from birth onwards. The educator or caregiver needs to ensure that children are exposed to a range of experiences including poetry, stories, instructions, rhymes and songs, listening experiences and so forth.

Interactor—Children need to have constant exposure to people who will talk and listen to them. Caregivers need to be interested in the children and the subjects that interest them and be willing to talk, listen, question and expand their knowledge.

Balancer—Children need exposure to educators who can determine the appropriate amount of input they need to give to encourage children’s language development. It is important to talk to children, but also to allow them the opportunity to talk; to listen, but also to allow the children to listen.


Children’s language experiences contribute to all areas of developmentFrom what we have already discussed you can see that language experiences not only enhance children’s language development but also greatly influence the child’s physical/motor, cognitive, social and emotional areas of development.

Language activities can influence development in the following ways.

Physical skillsLanguage activities:

enhance fine and gross motor development through finger plays and body movements

encourage body coordination through drama and movement assist motor control over facial muscles, mouth, tongue and lips.

Cognitive skillsLanguage activities:

develop listening skills and sound discrimination aid in discriminating fact from fantasy develop concepts of time and space explore the relationships between people, objects and events involve identifying, sorting, classifying and concept development encourage recalling facts and sequencing develop creative thinking.

Social and emotional developmentLanguage activities:

develop communication skills—speaking, listening, conversational turn taking

develop aesthetic appreciation of pictures, words and language rhythms encourage confidence, empathy and positive self-image aid in sharing and turn taking.


Provisions, opportunities and play experiences When working through this section, although there are distinct headings for infants, toddlers and preschoolers, there will also be times when a particular issue raised is of relevance to all age groups. These will be pointed out as they occur.

There are many differences in the ways we can facilitate language development of children within specific age groups and many different activities, opportunities and play experiences we can provide. Following are some simple and practical strategies and play experiences to facilitate language in the varying age groups.

InfantsIt is our role to ensure infants are exposed to appropriate language experiences, interactions and opportunities. As stated earlier, infants do not learn to talk in isolation—they need to hear language and be a part of it in order to learn how to use it. There are many simple strategies and activities to foster an infant’s language development such as:

talking to them, describing what they are seeing going for a walk in the park, talking about the environment surrounding

them labelling objects they can see, touch, feel, smell, hear or taste encouraging the use of their mouth muscles—blowing bubbles, poking

their tongue out, blowing raspberries imitating their cooing and babbling listening to their babble and responding; give them enough time to babble

back to you—this stimulates their hearing, participation and turn taking, forming the basis for communication chains; remember proto conversations mentioned earlier

reciting nursery rhymes, doing finger plays and simple action rhymes: these are fantastic for 1:1 interactions and provide a great source of entertainment for all ages, as well as some comforting rhythms and restful times

playing peek-a-boo—it is wonderful for anticipation and turn taking, with lots of eye contact and laughs

reading books looking at pictures doing knee bouncers (dandling songs and games) provide the anticipation

of ‘what comes next’, stimulating their listening skills as well as their physical development

enacting tickle rhymes—these are essential for body awareness and social anticipation and 1:1 fun


using mirrors—these are wonderful for language—labelling body parts, yours and theirs

making animal sounds.

All the time while you are giving an infant these language experiences remember to give them eye contact and facial expressions, vary your tone of voice and expand on the infant's utterances. Holding, smiling, touching, talking and looking all promote language development in infants.

The above experiences are known as 'active communication times'. While we know these are vital for language development, infants also need opportunities when they are able to learn about their environment, and themselves, in a quiet, ‘sole’ atmosphere. There needs to be a healthy balance of active and passive learning times.

These quiet times are not only important for infants but are also vital for all ages, from children to adults. While we are immersing children in language, we need to be careful not to forget the importance and the value of quiet times, or times when no adult intervention is necessary. When children are tired, or when a quiet time is being created, language stimulation is not necessary. Similarly, when children are absorbed in either small group or sole play, if an adult enters with language input, the potential for the child to lose their concentration is high. Often at the end of the day, or at the end of a big event, some quiet time is needed—time for thinking, time for reflection, and we often deny them this. It is our role to give them opportunities to learn the value of silence and quiet times. We should also note that adults need this time just as children do.

ToddlersPrior to discussing the many language opportunities and experiences appropriate for toddlers, it is important to remember that toddlers are able to understand simple questions and have a verbal vocabulary of approximately 25 words up to the age of two years. They are using sentences of three to five words by the age of three years. These sentences are generally in the present tense, eg ‘me fall down’, but the toddler is beginning to use some grammatical words and endings such as –ing and -s (plural).

Modelling and expanding on a toddler’s language are two important roles of the adult, building on the language the toddler has already mastered.

Modelling occurs when we fill in the gaps of the toddler’s telegraphic speech utterances. For example:

toddler: ‘mummy cat’

adult: ‘yes, there is a cat’


Expanding is when we give another idea to the toddler’s speech utterances. For example:

toddler: ‘mummy cat’

adult: ‘yes, there is a cat and he’s playing with the bell’

Toddler’s language needs and interestsFor toddlers, incorporating their language needs and their interests is vital in order to support and foster their language development.

Language needs include:

opportunities for self-expression opportunities to hear speech opportunities to imitate sounds and repeat words opportunities to explore a range of language and literature experiences opportunities to recall and repeat experiences new but related topics introduced to them time to practice their language time to build upon their experiences and to extend their learning of new

concepts.

Toddler’s interests include familiar things such as:

family members pets animals their immediate environment, eg the beach or the farm foods transport tactile play and sensory experiences.

Reading to a group of children is a good way to facilitate language development


Preschoolers

Extending children’s use of languageAs children reach the preschool age, we can help them to learn more about language by talking to them about the language they are already using. This is called meta language—that is, language about language. We can do this by:

noticing the new words they use. Remember earlier when you came up with alternative words for ‘nice’, ‘good’, ‘big’, etc? As children use these words, if we comment on their usage and say they have chosen an interesting word to describe objects or actions, then we are encouraging them to use different words in their language.

talking to them about the messages their non-verbal language is sending providing suggestions for how they may be able to get their messages

across more effectively. This is particularly useful when children might snatch things rather than asking for them.

Using routines as language opportunities

Incorporate language experiences into routine times

Routines such as toileting, bathing, feeding, resting and dressing form the basis of the day for infants and toddlers, due to their dependence on caregivers. Because of this, many of our language experiences with children of this age need to be incorporated into routine times.

Activity 1


Older childrenAs children get older, their independence and abilities increase so they are often attending to their own physical needs. However, despite older children not needing as much help during their routine times, the routines can still be used as times for language interactions and learning. For example, sitting with children at lunchtime turns it into a more relaxed ‘eat and chat’ time and you can catch up with the children and their latest interests in a friendly, relaxed manner. Preschoolers may not need help washing their hands anymore but while you are supervising the bathroom routine you can use hand-washing time as an opportunity to talk with them about something they did earlier in the day.

Using directions as language opportunitiesDirections are often lost language opportunities, as directions are generally given automatically without much thought going into them. If they are monotonous to us, they probably sound rather monotonous to the children.

I used to work with a teacher who sang or chanted her directions to the children continually. She would choose a song with a very catchy tune and adapt the words of her directions to suit the tune. The children were extremely responsive and readily joined in and usually carried out the direction or instruction at the same time! To have the ability to use language creatively, you need to be comfortable in using it and experimenting with different forms.

Other creative strategies to use when using directions as language opportunities include:

varying the tone or pitch of your voice (whispering is a wonderful way to get children’s attention)

using puppets to give the directions using non-verbal cues giving the directions in another language—either a spoken language or

sign language. This strategy is generally only effective if the children know the relevant words of the language you are using!


Create opportunities for group discussions and exchange of views between children

Child-to-child interactionsIt’s important to not forget the necessity for facilitating communication and language among the children themselves, rather than focusing more so on the adult–child communication.

As an adult has the obvious language development and interactive communication skills, it is often the adult who controls the time, pace, content and outcome of the adult–child interaction. It is our role to relay these skills to the children, empowering them and facilitating their communication among themselves. To do this effectively we must give them the opportunities to interact with one another and to practice their conversational skills with each other.

Strategies to encourage children to communicate with each other include:

modelling adult-to-adult and adult-to-child communications creating an environment for child-to-child communication to occur—give

the children appropriate things to talk about setting up group activities—round tables are great for this—particularly

when age-appropriate sharing has to take place setting up activities designed for the cooperation of two children observing—take note of which children talk easily with peers being responsive to their non-verbal cues assist them in their

communications, particularly those initiating giving the children time to sort out conflicts and to solve problems—don’t

let your hasty intervention take away a language opportunity, but do intervene if necessary

giving them the social words to use, eg ‘ask him if you can join his game’.


Don't forget to foster child-to-child communication

Activity 2

Group discussionsAs children get older, both small and large group times become an integral part of the children’s day, with language being the most vital component. Planning group times can sometimes be perceived as one of the hardest things you have to do. Being able to keep children focused and attentive is an important aspect of this time. In my experience, someone simply reading two or three books one after another and calling that the language group is guaranteed to bore everyone and lead to children being inattentive.

A good language group time has the following components:

It is on a topic of interest to the children. The caregiver has carefully observed the children and planned the experience based on the observations of the children’s interests or focus.

A variety of different types of activities occur within the group time, some singing, listening, opportunities for children to talk, a focus such as a felt-board story, or a treasure box, etc. There needs to be a good balance of active and quiet times in the group.

A clear introduction, main body and conclusion is given. There are clear developmental priorities or outcomes. It is aimed at the age group of the children. Don’t expect young two- and

three-year-old children to be able to sit at the same group time and with the same amount of attention as five year olds. If this is the case, you may be better splitting the group.

It is well prepared. The educator needs to ensure that they have all materials ready and even more importantly know the words to the songs they are going to sing. Being prepared is one of the key rules of presenting language groups.

It can ‘read’ the group. That is, look for the warning signs that the children are becoming unsettled or bored and change the experience to refocus and interest them again.


For a long list of group-time activities fostering language and music development, visit Gayle's Preschool Rainbow website, as well as all the links it gives to other sites and pages. (This site is primarily based on preschoolers, although there are links to other age groups.) http://www.preschoolrainbow.org/ From the home page type in: activities~circle.htm


http://www.preschoolrainbow.org/

Create a language-rich environment that incorporates materials that capture the child’s attention and stimulate a response

Immersing children in languageFrom birth, children are engaged in a process enabling them to build a firm foundation for their language development. Children form systems in their mind and, later, speech, reading and writing will fit into these systems. The form and nature of the systems depends on both the amount and complexity of the speech the child hears and the language opportunities and experiences they have been given.

The ability to use language is dependent on the growth and development of body parts, sensory systems and intellectual capacity and, above all, the amount of human interaction received. We do not learn to talk in isolation. From a very young age we need to be immersed in language in order to learn how to use it effectively.

How do we immerse our children in language? We do this by creating an environment in which children have abundant opportunities to hear and listen to language. An average day in a children’s service consists of many opportunities for a child to listen to language, such as being spoken to by a caregiver, listening to songs, stories, finger plays and rhymes, as well as conversations among other children and adults. Taking part in large or small group activities, planned and spontaneous (both inside and outside) are all opportunities for children to listen to and be immersed in language.

The language in which we immerse our children must be age-appropriate and be relevant to, or extend on, children’s current skills and knowledge.


Opportunities for children to listen to languageLanguage flows around us from the time we are born. Although most of us can hear it, the ability to listen is a skill that we perfect over time. Some people of course are much better at listening than others. As educators we often use many strategies to encourage children to listen to us, for example asking children to look at us when we are speaking so that we can check that they are attending.

Machado (1999) outlines five different types of listening. These are:

appreciative listening—where a child listens to stories and music for enjoyment

purposeful listening—here a child is able to follow instructions and repeat back what they are required to do

discriminative listening—being able to discriminate or distinguish between the different sounds in our speech including tone, pitch and loudness

creative listening—where we encourage children’s imagination through the listening experience

critical listening—the ability to critically analyse the information being received.

It is vital that caregivers provide many different opportunities for children to listen at the different ages and stages.

The following websites are well worth visiting and have further relevant links. The first is titled ‘Nurture your children’s language development’ and covers the value of playing, speaking, listening, reading and writing, addressing children of all ages, particularly preschool and school-aged children. The second is titled ‘Using language to learn’ and is based on preschoolers and has a mass of fantastic ideas for language development.

http://www.grammarandmore.com/tips/homework.htm

http://www.ed.gov/Family/RSRforCaregvr/preschol.html (Yes, there is only one ‘o’ in preschool in this actual web address!)

A language-rich environmentLanguage must not be thought of as being confined to one specific area or location. While there may be set times for structured language group activities, we need to be aware that spontaneous language opportunities take place continually throughout the day. Language needs to be built into the entire environment through the design of space, time and relevant materials.

To be able to model language to children we need to create an environment where children can hear language, be listened to, and be responded to. We need


http://www.ed.gov/Family/RSRforCaregvr/preschol.html

http://www.grammarandmore.com/tips/homework.htm

to be aware of children’s abilities and interests and ensure that the environment reflects these. For example, if we know there is a group of children that is particularly interested in life cycles, the environment can reflect this by way of having tadpoles growing into frogs, or caterpillars and cocoons, silk worms, etc, and books, posters and photos depicting their interest. This in turn allows scope for children to have familiar things to talk and learn about and the carers can extend their learning, teaching new words and concepts as appropriate.

How do we learn about their interests? We make observations and interactions. We don’t need to be involved continually in their conversations. We can learn a great deal by sitting near a group of children and listening to them talking among themselves. You would be surprised by what you discover about their interests, likes and dislikes. Another method of finding out about children’s interests is by talking with parents and extending on home interests.

Quiet, cosy areas just big enough for two or three children are equally as important as areas for larger groups of children. Areas which are designed for quiet activities need to be away from activities with the tendency to be more active, such as block play. Traffic flow paths need to be considered, ensuring that the most obvious path to get from one activity to another is not directly through the quiet and cosy book area.

Make books accessible for children

Books must be attractively displayed and easily accessible to children. Posters at children’s eye level ensure that children will see and possibly talk about them or show an interest in them.

Above all, for a genuine language-rich environment, the children need you and your time. They can have wonderful books, posters and nature tables and have a fantastic physical environment, but to make it whole, they need your time. You need to make time to get to know each and every child. While this sounds relatively easy, it’s easier to overlook some children. We need to make a conscious effort to spend time with all the children in our care in order to build and maintain positive relationships with them.

Activity 3


Speak clearly and frequently to children in language that is appropriate to the age of the child

Functions of languageWe use language in many different ways, such as in order to get our needs met, to seek information, to describe events or to state our thoughts. These ways are called 'functions' and there are seven prime functions of language.

Instrumental: allows us to get our needs, wants and desires met—‘I want … ’ Examples: ‘I want to play’, ‘Can I have a banana?’ ‘Up!’

Regulatory: used to control the behaviour of others, or the environment—‘Do as I say’. Examples: ‘Turn the music up’ ‘Hang your painting up to dry’ ‘Go away’

Personal: used to share information about self, and self-awareness—‘I am … ’ Examples: ‘I’m feeling sad’, ‘I’m scared of that’

Interactional: used in communication between individuals; eg greetings, or responding to someone. Examples: ‘Hello’, ‘I’m well thanks’

Heuristic: the language of learning, used to find out about concepts or important issues such as the what, why, who, when, where and how questions. Examples: ‘How did you make that?’ ‘Why do we have to put the water in?’

Imaginative: used to make up stories, songs, plays and games—‘Let’s pretend … ’ Examples: ‘Wibbly wobble wannabel, an elephant sat on Annabel’, ‘You be the dad, and I’ll be the mum’

Informative or representational: used to seek and share information and knowledge (in the here and now)—‘Do you know … ’ Examples: ‘Where’s the rack to hang the paintings out?’ ‘Yesterday we were on the Internet and we found out ...’ Adapted from Halliday, 1975, cited in Lowe, 2000

Activity 4


Caregiver language stylesWhen addressing the functions of language we also need to consider the actual language styles of caregivers. Two different types of language styles have been identified as used by caregivers, of which ‘responsive’ is the most appropriate for fostering children’s language development.

Responsive language style:

is sensitive to the child encourages the child in their communications and interactions responds to the child’s needs, language and non-verbal cues increases complexity of language as the child’s language progresses asks open-ended questions.

Directive language style:

uses only basic communication concentrates on the do's and don’ts of language—eg corrects children’s

language rather than modelling, extending and expanding limited questioning skills.

Language approximationsLanguage approximations refer to children’s attempts at using adult speech correctly while unconsciously making errors in their learning process.

Examples of ‘errors’ children make while learning speech:

confusing pronouns ‘I’, ‘you’, ‘he’, ‘she’ confusing prepositions such as ‘on’, ‘under’, ‘next to’ using singular plus ‘s’ to denote plural, eg ‘foots’ instead of ‘feet’ adding ‘ed’ to denote past tense as in ‘runned’ instead of ‘ran’, ‘goed’

instead of ‘gone’ overextending—applies a known word to a similar object. For example the

child knows what a cat is, and knows the word ‘cat’. When this child sees a possum for the first time, they call out ‘cat’ because they know that there are similarities between the possum and the cat.

substituting some sounds with others, such as: ‘wiv’ instead of ‘with’, ‘free’ instead of ‘three’.

Rather than setting out to correct these errors, you need to see them as children’s efforts to learn the language surrounding them. We can extend their skills and model the correct language in response, while keeping the communication and interaction flowing. For example, when a child says ‘He satted there’, you can say ‘Yes, he sat there, and what is he making?’ In doing so you are acknowledging the


child’s attempts at language, modelling the correct grammar and keeping the interaction going. Take care to not disempower the child.

Modelling anti-bias languageOur role is to support and enhance the self-esteem and self-concept of each child in our care, to help them become respectful of others and to value difference—whether the difference be in appearance, ability or views. In order to do this effectively, our own biases need to be challenged. Often when reading a story or talking about the lives of others in third-world countries, it is very easy to say ‘poor them, they don’t have cars like us, they have to walk’, or ‘they’re dirty’. Such comments are displaying negative attitudes and applying stereotypes to people from other countries, cultures and societies who simply may have different lifestyles and values to us.

It is not our role to impart our opinions and judgments to the children in our care. It is our role, however, to give the children opportunities to see how others live and to learn a little about a variety of cultures through the use of picture books, posters, music, craft, etc. Rather than point out what a specific culture of people doesn’t have, we can point out the differences in a more positive light, such as the different music and the types of fabrics and craft mediums they use.

To truly model anti-bias language we need to challenge our own biases first. We all have them! While sometimes they may be hard to shake, we need to develop the ability not to impart these biases to children or parents.

Think about things you may have a biased attitude towards, or assumptions you make, which may have the tendency to slip out in your language. List some strategies you could put in place to challenge these biases. Your biases may be related to socio-economic status, family structures, race, culture, different expectations, etc.

Cultural awareness when using non-verbal languageWe need to be aware that in some cultures, children giving eye contact to an adult is seen as showing a lack of respect. Just as in other cultures, adults giving children a pat on the head can be seen as derogatory or belittling. A simple strategy to ensure your non-verbal communication with children is not misunderstood is to read and find out as much as you can about the differences in a particular culture, or ask others who may have information to share with you. If you have developed a positive partnership with the parents, you may feel comfortable enough to ask them how certain behaviours and non-verbal language is perceived in their home culture.


Take time to listen and respond to children

What to do when you cannot understand what a child is saying to youSometimes, due to mispronunciation, it is extremely difficult to understand what a child has said. Rather than get the child to continually repeat what they are saying and disrupting the communication, there are some strategies you can put in place:

ensure you are fully attending to the child—listen to them rather than simply hear them

pick up on the non-verbal cues and body language—try to understand what the child is talking about in the particular context

have them point out the thing they want, or to take you to it consider the activity the child is engaged in to see if there are some links

with what their words sound like reassure the child that you are trying to understand them—children feel

frustration just as much as adults do have them repeat what they have said, but only do this once or twice—

chances are, they will say it the same way over and over again! if you are able to understand part of what they are saying, tell the child

the bits you have understood make your own approximation of what you think the child has said, but

don’t leave it at that—check with the child suggest they use a different word call on other children to assist—often they know exactly what is being said never dismiss the child apologise and acknowledge that you cannot understand them.

Finally, once you have understood what was being said, model the correct pronunciation back to them in a natural style of conversation.


Use open ended questions to encourage children to express their thoughts, feelings and words

A good example of good communication: making eye contact and listening intently to what the child is saying

Questioning skillsWhen asking children questions we must ensure they are genuine and we have to be open to the responses we may receive. A genuine question means that there is something to actually answer. An extremely common question an adult will ask a child is: ‘Would you like to help me pack away the blocks?’ The child’s response is often: ‘No thanks!’ to which the adult responds ‘It is pack-away time and you must help pack the blocks away.’

In this situation the adult asked the child a question and therefore should be prepared for an answer and accept it. If the adult wanted the child to pack the blocks away they should have said something like: ‘It’s pack-away time and you need to help pack the blocks away so the mat is clear and ready for us to read a story.’ This is a direction, not a question.

Open-ended questionsOpen-ended questions are those that are phrased in such a way that more than a one- or two-word answer is required. For example, the answer cannot be simply ‘yes’ or ‘no’. Open-ended questions encourage children to express themselves,


offer opinions and ideas, solve problems, give reasons and describe objects or events.

Here are some examples:

‘How did you get those squiggly lines on the paper?’ rather than ‘Did you use a feather to paint those squiggly lines?’

‘How did you build that bridge?’ rather than ‘Did you build a bridge?’ ‘What did you like about the movie?’ rather than ‘Did you like the movie?’

Open-ended questions are not just beneficial to the adult (as they are gaining more information from the child) but are also extremely beneficial to the child. Children need to be given opportunities to take part in and sustain a conversation and questions such as ‘did you do that painting?’ leaves them no scope at all to share any thoughts or feelings about their painting.

You also need to be careful to not make your open-ended questions so big and broad that the child has no idea where to begin, for example: ‘What did you do on the weekend?’ is far too big a question for many four year olds. You need to narrow the questions down to a specific thing the child can then talk about.

Activity 5

Opportunities for children to ask open-ended questionsIn conjunction with caregivers asking questions and mastering their questioning skills, children also need to be given opportunities to learn about asking open-ended questions. While many of them don’t have difficulty with this, with all of their ‘why’ and ‘how’ questions, they still need to be given opportunities to develop their questioning skills.

A brilliant game to play, which is based around children asking open-ended questions and absorbing the information they receive, is Celebrity Head. In this game children can have a picture of ... anything (eg an apple, a train, a slice of fairy bread, a dog ... rather than a famous person as in the adult’s way of playing it) above their head, so that only the other children of the group can see it. The children now have to ask questions about it, always starting with ‘how’, ‘where’ or ‘what’, until they guess. Another alternative to this, is that the children can only ask questions in a way that they will only receive 'yes' or 'no' answers.


Model and encourage two way communication by questions and careful listening

Interactive two-way communicationChildren’s learning about interactive communication skills and two-way communication begins in the infant stages of babbling and taking part in proto conversations. It develops as we continue to model effective and interactive communication skills. Two-way communication involves interaction between the receiver and the sender of the message. The receiver responds to their interpretation of the message then the sender acknowledges that the correct message has been received.

Without this procedure messages can be misinterpreted or simply not be received. Giving directions to children is often one-way communication where the carer calls out the direction or instruction to a group of children, for example ‘put your shoes on’, or ‘it’s time to go inside now’, and then continues with what they were doing without actually gaining the children’s attention prior to delivering the direction. This also fails to give the children time to respond or to indicate their understanding. As there is no feedback from the children, it is unclear whether they understood, heard or listened to the direction and therefore repetitions will be required and children will invariably be told they ‘didn’t listen’.

Caregiver listening skillsCompetent listeners are essential for effective conversations, discussions and communications, ensuring that the correct message is received and responded to.

Caregivers as skilled listeners help to promote the child’s:

self-esteem curiosity initiative usage of language as a communication tool.


As we have previously discussed, there is a difference between hearing and listening. Hearing is when we simply hear the sounds or the words being said whereas listening is when we are able to respond appropriately to the communication.

There are many barriers to effective listening:

being distracted having your own expectations about what the child will say being wrapped up in your own thoughts and only half taking in the

message having a negative attitude towards either the child or what is being said not being attentive and missing the non-verbal cues.

Using positive languageIt is very easy to tell children what not to do, rather than telling them what to do. Children, particularly toddlers, misunderstand negatives such as don’t, can’t, haven’t and won’t and usually only understand the remainder of the instruction. For example, the words a toddler most commonly understands from the sentence: ‘don’t jump on the chair’ is ‘jump on the chair’. These misunderstandings can be avoided by using positive language and telling the toddler what to do, rather than what not to do, for example ‘chairs are for sitting on’ or ‘let’s go outside and jump on the trampoline’.

Activity 6

Caregiver as a language modelYou need to look at your own language and the way you use it in order to assist children in developing clear communication. Children will copy the language you use, so you need to ensure that your language is a good model for them. It should be clear and positive with varied tones, natural and not forced, patronising or artificial. Do not talk down to children, or at them. Particular aspects of your own language that you need to ensure are appropriate for children to copy are:

correct grammar accurate pronunciation of words appropriate voice tones appropriate use of meaning, eg no sarcasm correct sentence structure suitable vocabulary effective listening skills.


The value of shared experiencesIt is our role as caregivers to develop a sense of belonging for the children and parents within the centre. Sharing experiences and memories are an important part of feeling like you belong and are connected in some way to others who have shared the same experience. Talking about shared experiences contributes to the building and maintaining of positive relationships. Some experiences which may have been shared within a children’s service are an excursion or having a visitor to the centre.

How can we record and make displays of shared memories in order to stimulate language among staff, parents and children? Making books or display boards of shared experiences and memories is one idea. Take photos while on an excursion so they are there for the children to talk about at a later date when they share their memories of the day.

Non-verbal languageNon-verbal communication includes facial expressions, gestures, tone of voice, eye contact, spatial arrangements, patterns of touch, expressive movements and cultural differences. In many ways non-verbal language can hold more meaning than words and at times can contradict the verbal language being used, for example someone nodding their head, ‘listening’ to you, while at the same time being very distracted and looking elsewhere.

Non-verbal language can be a direct form of communication such as a wave goodbye or hello, a pat on the back, a smile or a frown. It can also be a more indirect form of communication, as in a closed door meaning ‘do not come in, we are having a quiet time’. A carer sitting on the mat with a story in their hand, waiting and looking at the children, may mean ‘when you are all sitting quietly, we can begin the story’.

Using non-verbal language as direct or indirect communication for young children means we need to model non-verbal cues and explain them in order to show children how they can pick up on non-verbal cues in their future interactions with others. In conjunction with this, we need to read and pick up on children’s non-verbal cues and what they are communicating to us. Rather than children being labelled as inattentive due to their not sitting and listening to the story being read, perhaps their restlessness or listlessness is non-verbal communication for ‘I am not interested in this story’.

Likewise, if a child is standing back from an activity but clearly showing interest in it, you could respond by giving them encouragement to participate such as: ‘What do you think you could create with this clay?’ If a child ends an activity abruptly, it may be because they don’t know what to do next, in which case you could say: ‘Is there anything else you could add to your construction?’, showing them you are


interested in what they are creating. If a child is looking at a very messy activity and then looking at their clothes, you could say: ‘If you are worried about your clothes getting dirty, you could put an apron on.’ This indicates to them that you have noticed their concern and will assist them in participating.

You can also use children’s non-verbal cues to tell you whether or not to conclude a particular activity. Children’s non-verbal language strongly indicates whether an activity is still being enjoyed or whether they have had enough. You need to be responsive to these cues. You can take this one step further by letting the children know how you knew they were still enjoying the activity. This is giving them a concrete opportunity to learn about non-verbal language and the messages communicated.

Language and conversation stylesSome adults are conversationalists and some prefer to stand back and let others do the talking. The same goes for children. Each of us have particular conversation style. We all generally fit into one of four styles: sociable, reluctant, self-reliant, or passive. Just as being responsive to children’s verbal and non-verbal communication is essential in supporting their language development, so we need to be responsive to the cues the child is giving about their conversational style and in turn assist them to become better communicators.

Following is a brief outline of each conversation style, along with suggested responses.

The sociable styleThe child presents generally as confident in their interactions. They feel comfortable in initiating and participating in conversations, speaking confidently and willingly sharing stories and events.

Response: Listen to the child, respond and show genuine interest in their stories. Extend their language and interests with books, etc. In a group situation be careful not to let a sociable child monopolise your time. Make observations on whether the child is sociable just towards adults or also towards children.

The reluctant styleThe child tends to be less confident in initiating conversations and may need time to warm up in new situations, but does eventually participate.

Response: Make careful observations of the child’s non-verbal language which may indicate that they would really like to be a part of a particular group or conversation. If so, give them the words they need to join a group. Take time, be patient, ensure you have or are developing a trusting relationship with the child to


start with so they are more likely to let you help them. Do not rush a reluctant child.

The self-reliant styleThis style describes children who are happy to initiate conversation and interactions when they want something, or need assistance with something, but otherwise generally get on with whatever they wish to be doing!

Response: You need to observe carefully and make use of appropriate times when you can join in with the activity in which the child is engaged. When the child has received what they want from you, follow up and ask open-ended questions about what they are wanting to do. Bring other children to the activity if appropriate.

The passive styleThe child may rarely initiate or respond to others’ attempts at conversations or interactions. Children may display the passive style when with adults yet may display the sociable style when with children, or vice versa. They may also display the passive style consistently with children and with adults.

Response: Make observations as to whether the child is passive during certain times of the day, during specific situations, with a particular child, with groups of children or with adults.

Understanding conversation styles can assist you further in supporting the child’s language development by giving you a greater understanding of where certain children may be needing assistance with their conversations and interactions. (Adapted from Weitzman, 1992)


Repeat and expand children’s words and phrases in a natural style of conversation to model communication skills

Extending children’s vocabularyA flowing supply of words is a most valuable resource for both children and adults. Our vocabulary enables us to communicate messages, needs, ideas, thoughts and desires. How do we learn new words? The most common way is by hearing (or seeing) others use them in appropriate contexts in order to gain clues to their meaning. Other ways include asking about the meaning, or if able, looking them up in the dictionary—great for school-aged children.

We can support children in extending their vocabulary by giving them opportunities to hear a variety of words and, when appropriate, talk about the meanings of new words. There are words, such as those stated below, which are used extremely frequently and without much thought and hence they've become very ordinary and mundane. It’s a worrying thing that we hear children use these same words all the time—they need some new words now!

Different words for carers to use

Even the colours red, pink, purple, blue, yellow and green deserve some more interesting labels such as crimson, scarlet, indigo, sapphire, violet, lavender, etc. These are obviously not as appropriate for infants and toddlers just learning their colours as it is for preschoolers and older children who are differentiating the many different colour shades.


clips word template - sielearning · web viewholophrastic speech: one word has many meanings, eg...

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