climatic sensitive landscape design - iusd€¦ · the climatic quality of the space in egypt,...

Climatic Sensitive Landscape Design:

Enhancing the Microclimate of Public Schools Courtyards in Egypt

A Thesis submitted in the Partial Fulfillment for the Requirement of the Degree of Master of Science in Integrated Urbanism and Sustainable Design

byWesam El-Bardisy

Supervised by

Prof. Dr. Germin Elgohary

Professor of Architecture and

Landscape Design

Ain Shams University

Prof. Antje Stokman

Professor of Landscape Planning

and Ecology

University of Stuttgart

Mohamed Fahmy Abdel-Aleem

Senior Lecturer of Passive Archi-

tecture and Urban Built Environ-

ment ,Military Technical College,

Cairo

2014

Examiners CommitteeTitle, Name & Affiliation

Prof. Dr. Ayman HassanProfessor of ArchitectureCairo University

Prof. Dr. Mohamed A. SalheenProfessor of Integrated Planning & DesignAin Shams University

Prof. Dr. Germin ElgoharyProfessor of Architecture and Landscape DesignAin Shams University

Prof. Antje StokmanProfessor of Landscape Planning and EcologyUniversity of Stuttgart

/ /

Signature

Climatic Sensitive Landscape DesignEnhancing the Microclimate of Public Schools Courtyards in Egypt A Thesis submitted in the Partial Fulfillment for the Requirement of the Degree of Master of Science in Integrated Urbanism and Sustainable Design

by Wesam El-Bardisy

Supervised by

Prof. Dr. Germin ElgoharyProfessor of Architecture and Landscape DesignAin Shams University

Prof. Antje StokmanProfessor of Landscape Planning and EcologyUniversity of Stuttgart

Mohamed Fahmy Abdel-AleemSenior Lecturer of Passive Architecture and Urban Built Environment Military Technical College, Cairo

Disclaimer

This dissertation is submitted to Ain Shams University, Faculty of Engineering and University of Stuttgart, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning for the degree of Integrated Urbanism and Sustainable Design. The work included in this thesis was carried out by the author in the Year 2014The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others.

/ /

Wesam El-Bardisy

Signature

7

Acknowledgementtext text

9

AbstractThe climatic quality of the space in Egypt, recently, has received attention among climatologist and urban designers. In most cases the Climatic Sensitive Landscape Design (CSLD) is absent on the planning and the site design level. Thus, it is essential to highlight the importance of landscape climatic design and the welfare of the outdoors space, not only among the urban planners, design-ers, but also, students and children in schools, our future generation.Unfortunately, the courtyard design guidelines developed by the General Au-thority of Educational Building (GAEB) is not applied in most of the public schools. This is mainly due to the limited budget set for constructing public schools. This limited budget urges GAEB to design and construct buildings only with considering the courtyard as a leftover space based on priorities. In El-Sherouk primary school, the case study school, the students suffer from a high range of thermal dissatisfaction. Therefore, field observations and various ENVI-met simulation runs and tests were done during elevated temperature in summer times. Through the simulation, different landscape design possibilities were run and analyzed, after setting the boundary conditions for the climate and the possible landscape patterns.

The results revealed that trees among other landscape elements strongly ame-liorate the microclimate. Within the school small size, trees significantly a) at-tenuate the direct solar radiation; b) modify wind speed and direction modifica-tion; and c) fairly reduce temperature and change humidity. Also, it was found that students comfort level is strongly influenced by: a) landscape elements; b) the spatial location; and b) the type of clustering. In addition to the sustaining and benefits dimension. Based on these results, a tailored definition for Climatic Sensitive Landscape Design (CSLD) is proposed for public schools. Subsequently, some recommendations are proposed to GAEB for future incor-poration of CSLD toolbox within the courtyard design guidelines, taking into account the case of constrained fund. Also, CSLD toolbox is recommended to aid the design processes for researchers and landscape designers. At last not least, it is crucial for landscape architects and urban planner to in-clude ENVI-met software as a tool to use in the phases of outdoor spaces design.

11

Table of Contents01 Introduction

1 Climatic Landscape Design ...................................................................2 Landscape Design in Egypt ...................................................................

2.1 The context of schools .............................................................................2.2 The Climatic research in Egypt ...............................................................

3 Research Objective and Questions .......................................................3.1 Research Objectives .................................................................................3.2 Sub.objective ............................................................................................3.3 Research Questions .................................................................................

4 Research Methodology ..........................................................................

02 Building knowledge

Chapter 1: Public Schools Courtyards 1 GAEB courtyard design guideline .........................................................

1.1 Climatic regions ........................................................................................1.2 Courtyard design & landscape pattern .....................................................

2 Guideline versus the status quo ............................................................2.1 Existing landscape pattern .......................................................................2.2 Interested actors ......................................................................................

3 Conclusion .............................................................................................Chapter 2: Outdoor comfort and microclimatic effects1 Microclimate and its Variables ..............................................................2 Outdoor thermal comfort ......................................................................3 Thermal comfort Index .........................................................................

3.1 Outdoor PMV-PPD model ........................................................................4 Conclusion .............................................................................................Chapter 3: Landscape Climatic Control 1 Plantation ...............................................................................................2 Geometry ...............................................................................................3 Trees microclimate ................................................................................

3.1 Shading .....................................................................................................3.1.1 Factors affecting the tree shading ...................................................

233566667

1414151518192021262627282930333435363637

12

3.1.2 Drawbacks .......................................................................................3.2 Evapotranspiration ..................................................................................

03 Interpret Knowledge

Chapter 4: El-Sherouk School – The Case Study1 El-Sherouk City ......................................................................................2 EL-Sherouk Primary School .................................................................

2.1 Climatic analysis of the courtyard ...........................................................2.2 Spatial use of the courtyard .....................................................................

3 Outcomes ...............................................................................................Chapter 5: Simulation Methodology......................................1 Verifying ENVI-met Outcomes .............................................................2 Setting the Boundary Conditions .........................................................

2.1 Landscape Boundary Conditions.. ...........................................................2.2 Setting the Simulation Context ...............................................................

3 Clustering Possibilities...........................................................................4 Simulation patterns...............................................................................Chapter 6:Testing Possibilities...............................................1 Trees setting and the paving materials .................................................

1.1 Wind...........................................................................................................1.2. Mean Radiant temperature TMRT..............................................................1.3 Other climatic factors......................................................................

2 Arranged trees setting vs. Random trees setting ..................................3. Trees vs. Shrubs vs. Green covers.........................................................4. Confiner vs. Deciduous trees.................................................................5. Trees vs. light structure elements.........................................................6.Results and outcomes.............................................................................Chapter 7: Climatic Sensetive Landscape Design1 CSLD in EL-Sherouk School 1.1.Conceptual proposals

1.1.1.Proposal 11.1.2.Proposal 2

2.CSLD in public schools2.1.Sustain Dimension

2.1.1.Site and Soil improvement 2.1.2.Water supply & irrigation

3738

42424650505256584060616667 71717273757676788183

13

2.1.3.Participationand responsibilities 2.2.Benefit Dimension

2.2.1.Cost vs Benefit 2.2.2.Educational standard2.2.3.School Standard

Chapter 8: Conclusion and recommendations1. Conclusion 2. Recommendations 3. Suggestion for further research

References Appendix Arabic abstract

15

List of FiguresFigure 1: Landscape patterns for the courtyard designs in hot arid ................. Figure 2:Landscape design elements in the courtyard of Generalife ............... Figure 3: Percentage of Public schools relative to private schools, statistics of MOE ...................................................................................................................Figure 4:The different landscape patterns between private international school and public governmental schools ...........................................................Figure 5: The methodology of the thesis ...........................................................Figure 6: Case Study Methodology ....................................................................Figure 7: GAEB climatic region .........................................................................Figure 8: Prototypes developed by GAEB in its design .....................................Figure 9: The statuesque of the schools in regard to the courtyard and the surrounding context, adopted from GAEB1990, Author visualization ............Figure 10: Conceptual plantation section proposed by GAEB ..........................Figure 11: the gap between the conceptual proposed landscape by GAEB and the exiting case ...................................................................................................Figure 12: implementation of the design guidelines in case of small sized school plot ..........................................................................................................Figure 13: GAEB development since foundation and its current state quo for CSLD of the courtyards ......................................................................................Figure 14: The governmental structural organization before and after the rev-olution and initiatives boom .........................................................................Figure 15: the frame work for selecting the case study school ..........................Figure 16: Horizontal climatic urban scales and its climatic interactions with-in the urban boundary layer, adapted from Oke 1987 ...............................Figure 17: The complex outdoor radiation that affects the human comfort level, adopted from Jendritzky & Nubler 1981 ..................................................Figure 18: The metabolic rate of different human activities, adopted SKAT, 1993) ...................................................................................................................Figure 19:The insulation values of clothes (1 cloth= 0.155m2K/W), adapted fromSKAT, 1993) ...............................................................................................Figure 20: Outdoor and indoor thermal indices, adopted from Toudert 2005 .............................................................................................................................Figure 21: The bioclimatic chart for Cairo and delta region for the land-scape design strategies to reach to outdoor comfort level , adopted from

22

4

489

1516

1717

19

20

21

2224

26

27

28

28

29

16

(Mahmoud 2011a) ..............................................................................................Figure 22: Tree specification and its benefits in modifying the microclimate, adopted from (EPA 1992) ...................................................................................Figure 23: The canopy silhouette of the trees and the external abiotic factors that infleuences the trees, author .......................................................................Figure 24:Solar radiation conceptualized in infrared radiation and visible ra-diation when it hits the leaf, adopted from (Brown & Gillespie 1995) ..........Figure 25: Illustrative diagram for the factors affecting the shade, adopted from (Kotzen 2003) ............................................................................................Figure 26: New urban communities planned by NUCA, adopted from NUCA website, translated by the author .......................................................................Figure 27:Location of El-Sherouk city relative to Cairo city center and Inter-national Airport, google maps ............................................................................Figure 28:Land use map for EL-Sherouk area, adopted from NUCA ...............Figure 29:Landscape Patterns in Private housing in El-Sherouk, Author ........Figure 30:Landscape pattern in public housing in El-Sherouk, Author ...........Figure 31: Landscape patterns in a gated community, google earth .................Figure 32: The external factors surrounding the courtyard, Climatic input gathered from (EERE, 2012)and analyzed via Ecotect ......................................Figure 33:El-Sherouk school and its surrounding, author ................................Figure 34:El-Sherouk school landscape elements in the courtyard, author .....Figure 35: Plantation phases in El-sherouk school courtyard, author ..............Figure 36: The microclimatic map of the space users towards thermal dis-comfort in the break time, 11:00, compiled with the shading analysis for the courtyard the whole day, Author ........................................................................Figure 37:The spatial courtyard use in El-Sherouk school courtyard the whole day, author ...............................................................................................Figure 38: Structure of ENVI-met software with the required inputs and expected outcomes for assessment, Author .......................................................Figure 39: Verifying ENVI-met simulation results, Author ..............................Figure 40: The matrix of landscape possibilities in the courtyard, Author.......Figure 41: The temperature records during school time, MOE .........................Figure 42: Receptor points locations and the zones for evaluation, authorFigure 43: ENVI-met inputs for simulation , Author.........................................Figure 44: PMV value difference between school and residential block, author..................................................................................................................Figure 45: Clustering the possibilities in order to perform the required tests,

34

35

36

37

37

44

4444454545

46464749

51

52

57 58 59 61 62 63

65

17

Author..................................................................................................................Figure 46: Simulation Patterns for testing, author............................................Figure 47: PMV values difference between different types of trees in case of linear arrangement, Author.................................................................................Figure 48: The overall change in the climatic parameter, author......................Figure 49: simulation PMV index outcomes for linear arrangement of ever-green and deciduous trees in comparison to the case of no trees, author.........Figure 50: Simulation outcomes for Tmrt in case of no trees and case of add-ing trees and its influence in direct solar radiation, Author...............................Figure 51: Change in MRT for different paving patterns, author.......................Figure 52: The temperature change between the case of no trees and the case of trees, Author.....................................................................................................Figure 53: Simulation Humidity results for the case of no tree and the case of trees, Author.........................................................................................................Figure 54: The effect of different arrangement on PMV values, author.............Figure 55: The Change in PMV values with different plantation types,author...................................................................................................................Figure 56:The shading effect of different proposed trees tree models are adopted from google sketch up 3D warehouse, Author......................................Figure 57: shading effect of different proposed trees tree models are adopted from google sketch up 3D warehouse, Author....................................................Figure 58: The difference in PMV in winter and summer time and in case of trees in winter, Author.........................................................................................Figure 59: Shading possibilities in the schools...................................................Figure 60: The status of the trees in El-Sherouk courtyard, photo captured in March 2014, author.Figure 61: The Climatic Landscape matrix for El-Sherouk School, AuthorFigure 62: The virtual alleyways in El-Sherouk school in elevated summer time, AuthorFigure 63: The virtual alleyways in El-Sherouk school in elevated summer time, AuthorFigure 64 Conceptual proposal 1 for enhancing the climatic quality of El-Sherouk, AuthorFigure 65: Conceptual idea of proposal 2, AuthorFigure 66: Composting process that can be applicable in the context of the school, information is adopted from Badr2014 &(CWMI n.d.;Kennedy et al. 2009), and compiled by the author.

6668

71 72

73

74 74

75

76 77

77

79

80

8182

18

Figure 67 The matrix of involved actors in the design process of the school courtyards, adopted from (Foster et al. 2006).Figure 68: Conclusion, AuthorFigure 69: Recommendations to enhance GAEB courtyard design guideline, AuthorFigure 70: CSLD toolbox, AuthorFigure 71: Future suggestion, AuthorFigure 72: Rooftop gardening in Hassan abu-bakr school in Qalyoubeya, Egypt, right side the implemented project, left the further work of the initiative , adoped from Shagara associationFigure 73: The conceptual idea and the implementation in Kods School, Ard el lewa, adopted from (Capres & Pampe2013)Figure 74: Structural organization of QESB and its internal developed design guidelines for implementation, data fromQESP, compiled by the Author.Figure 75: Life span and succesion stages adopted from (Stokman & Bellers 2013;El-Bardisy & Charaf 2013), complied by authorFigure 75: tree canopy parameters, Author.Figure 76: Inputs for the existing trees in the courtyard and new trees added,au-thorFigure 76: Climatic analysis for march, inputs (EERE, 2012) and visualized viaEcotect, Author.Figure 77: Specific humidity calculation via climatic calculator, avaliable at http://www.mm-systeme.de/22_de.htmlFigure 78: ENVI-met winter configuration file,author

20

List of Abbreviations

AUC American University in CairoBEEiE Building Energy & Environmental innovations in EgyptCBA Cost Benefit AnalysisCSLD Climatic Sensitive Landscape DesignDAAD German Academic Exchange Service EEER Egyptian Group for Energy in Buildings and Environmental De sign ResearchEERE Energy Efficiency & Renewable EnergyEPA Environmental Protection Agency in United StatesEW Station ETMY WMO station 623660GAEB General Authority of Educational Buildings Geo GeographicGIS Geographic Information SystemsGMFA German Ministry of foreign affairs GUC German University in CairoIESR Institute of Environmental Studies and Research LAD Leaf Drea Density LAI Leaf Drea IndexLMPG Learn-Move-Play-GroundMOE Ministry of Education NGDC National Geophysical Data Center PMV Predicted Mean Vote QESP Quality Education Support Program RISE Research in Sustainable Environments in EgyptTmrt Mean Radiant TempratureUCL Urban Canopy Layer

22

IntroducatIon

1

01 Introduction

The climatic quality of the space, recently, has received attention among climatol-ogist and urban designers worldwide, especially after the global climate change and Urban Heat Island (UHI) occurrence phenomena. The absence of an efficient landscape pattern, on the planning levels and rapid urbanization, originally are the contributing factors for creating thermally uncomfortable spaces. This alerts urban planners and designers to urgently consider the landscape design, in par-ticular plantation, as an integral part in a comprehensive planning system. This integrates urban and natural environments altogether, respectively. The conse-quence of this integration, not only attain thermally comfortable spaces, but also aesthetically pleasing space. Also, with an excessive noise and glare reduction for those who wish to use the outdoor space (Mayer & Ali-toudert 2000.; Shash-ua-Bar et al. 2011; Georgi & Dimitriou 2010; Setaih et al. 2013). Accordingly, urban designers and planning practitioners, together with climatol-ogist and other interdisciplinary professions, have invented simulation software and climatic assessment tools to aid this design process. Indeed, these climat-ic tools enables designers to enhance the existing climatic conditions, through proper landscape design, and create futuristic comfortable outdoor spaces, which takes into account the time and cost constraint (Ozkeresteci et al. 2003). Each of these softwares have its own distinct advantages, in terms of its physical proper-ties.

2

IntroducatIon

1. Climatic Landscape Design

The basic principles of the climatic landscape design are witnessed historically in the Arab Islamic landscape within the arid regions. Passive cooling design strat-egies were developed, with an adequate choice of landscape elements, creating thermally comfortable outdoor microclimate. (Attia 2006).

This paradigm, especially in hot regions, is widely observed from the enhance-ment strategies in courtyards and open spaces design as in Al-Suhaymi house, Generalife palace, as shown in fig.1 and 2, aiming to reach to comfort outdoor strategies.

Figure 1: Landscape patterns for the courtyard designs in hot arid regions, left: landscape elements in Al-Suhaymi courtyard gardens a. courtyard, b rear garden adopted from (Attia 2006) with own compile.

Figure 2:Landscape design elements in the courtyard of Generalife, adopted from (Attia 2006) with own compile.

1 Al- Suhaymi house, called Bayt al Suhaymi, is an example of a traditional courtyard house design representing the Islamic landscape design in old Fatimid Cairo, Egypt.2 Generalife Palace, a nasrid summer retreat in Granada, Al-Andalus, Spain.

3

2. Landscape Design in Egypt

On contrary with the state quo in Egypt, nearly the climatic landscape dimension is absent on the planning and the site design level as well. Over the last 50 years, most of the Egyptian cities lost its gardens, open spaces and public squares. Also, pedestrian pathways disappeared, and the historical gardens dramatically dete-riorated such as the fish garden in Cairo and the Zoo in El-Giza. The absence of the landscape profession and conspicuous lack of awareness , in the impor-tance of landscape as an infrastructure tool to enhance the climate, originally is the reason for this absence (ElMasry 2014). Also, the common beleif, among the community, that landscape is only a makeup tool for an aesthetic urban context regardless its climatic functioning dimension (Refaat, 2014).

Thus, it is essential to revive the importance of the landscape elements among the society, in particular students and children in schools, the coming future generation. And also highlight the importance of the creating thermally outdoor comfortable space among researchers, landscape architects and planners.

3. The Context of Schools

Two main considerable events affected the educational system and schools’ transformation in Egypt. After the post revolution in 1952, President Gamal Ab-del Nasser began a series of advocacy actions under the umbrella of social reform and modernization in Egypt. He affirmed the “Right in Education” for all mem-bers in the society. This decision pressed the ministry to strongly invest in the ed-ucational infrastructure to fulfill the required demand. The second considerable event was the destructive earthquake in October 1992 (Gado & Mohamed 2009), that collapsed more than 350 school (NGDC 1992). Consequently, an emergency plan for constructing new school was rapidly designed and implemented, aiming to fulfill this demand.Though these schools were poorly equipped with services.

4

IntroducatIon

The Egyptian Education System,in the meantime, is divided to Azharie and Secular system both under the supervision of Ministry of Education (MOE).Secular system is more common , nearly 91 % of the students join the offered public and private schools within this system (Badr, 2010). Although educational quality and services are better in private schools. More than 80% of the egyptian students join public schools, as shown in fig.3, due to the economic situation of the families (UNICEF Egypt, 2005).

With the aim to explore the courtyard’s climatic qual-ity in schools, a private and public schools were ran-domly selected in new cities. Assuming that these new cities passed by planning phase, where schools are equally distributed in the urban block and capable to accept the number of students. The public school, apparently lacked the climatic landscape dimension differently than the private school, as shown in fig.4. The public school nearly had no landscape pattern within its courtyard.Therefore, the climatic quality of public school court-yards will further be investigated and its landscape patterns as well.

Figure 4:The different landscape patterns between private international school and public governmental school, aerial images and private school image adopted from google earth and public school image is by author.

Figure 3: Percentage of Public schools re-lative to private schools, statistics adopted from (MOE 2014), analyzed by author

5

2 The Climatic Research in EgyptIn the meantime, Egypt is witnessing a climatic and sustainable research boom, among urban planners,designer, landscapers, and architects. This boom appears in different forms such as internet based environmental platforms, conferences, and universities’ research units such as BEEIE3, EEER4, RISE5, and many others, beside the individual researchers work as well. Some of these platforms have a wide perspective on creating thermally comfortable spaces and stimulating pub-lic realm in outdoor and indoor spaces.

A number of research incorporate empirical work through simulation programs and comfort assessment tools, with the aid of theoretical research. Although, the quantitative climatic research for indoor thermal comfort outweigh the outdoor comfort research, a quite outstanding pieces of research in the planning and site design level attempt to reach a thermally pleasant environments in Egypt. The research includes: a) landscape design requirements to create thermally com-fortable spaces in park areas (Mahmoud 2011b); a) landscape design guideline matrix in different climatic regions in Egypt (Mahmoud 2011a); c) investigation of the effect of plantation design in the outdoor thermal comfort via ENVI-met software (Kenawy et al. 2010); d) methods for calculating the trees canopy con-ceptual parameters as an input for ENVI-met software in mid latitude region (Fahmy et al. 2010a).

The climatic research in Egypt, also in cooperate research in the context of the schools. Although, limited pieces of research urge the indoor quality of class-rooms within public schools, a set recommendations for outdoor space are dis-cussed that strongly influence indoor thermal comfort quality. Such as, “As-sessment of Thermal Comfort inside Primary Governmental Classrooms in Hot

3 BEEiE: is a platform aiming to effectively share and transfer the knowledge on Building Energy & Environmental innovations in Egypt, further information http://www.bee-ie.org/4 EEER-Group is the official representative of IBPSA-Egypt and it is a voluntary effort of interested and experienced researchers in the related fields of built environment and sustainability, further information http://www.bee-ie.org/5 RISE: multidisciplinary institute dedicated to promoting research in sustainable envi-ronments in Egypt, the Middle East and North Africa. Housed on the New Cairo campus, RISE is carrying forward the legacy of the Desert Development Center (DDC),further information http://www.aucegypt.edu/newsatauc/Pages/story.aspx?eid=1276

6

IntroducatIon

Dry Climates” (Gado & Mohamed 2009); (Wanas 2013) “Assessing the Thermal Comfort of Secondary Schools in Egypt”.

Accordingly ,the outdoor effects of landscape are still an unexplored issues in governmental school. Therefore, this thesis will investigate the Climatic Sensitive Landscape Design (CSLD) in public courtyards.And will extend IUSD researh conducted earlier, in enhancing the thermal comfort of students in classroom in public schools.

3 Research Objective and Questions

3.1 Research Objective

The research’s aim is to investigate the climatic quality of public school’s court-yards using simulation software. And to study the effect of different landscape design possibilities on the students comfort level in courtyards.Also, aims to produce a set of recommendations for Climatic Sensetive Land-scape Design in Public Schools.

3.2 Sub objectives

• Alert young researchers and landscapers with the importance of using simu-lation software in the designing process.

• Raise awareness between students in schools with the importance of land-scape existence, particularly plantation to enhance the climatic quality of the space.

3.3 Research Questions

• What is the suitable assessment tool to evaluate the effect of plantation and other landscape elements on ameliorating the microclimate?

• How to translate the climate landscape knowledge to enhancement strate-gies, in the context of schools, via simulation software?

• What are the strategies GAEB should consider in the process of designing, im-plementation, and sustaining the landscape patterns within the courtyards?

7

4 Research Methodology

To attain the research objectives and questions, a twofold classification was set between empirical research and literature review. Empirical research includes ENVI-met software run,field surveys, and group meetings. The research follow three main research streams: Building knowledge, Interpreting Knowledge, and Applying knowledge. Each stream enrich the other streams with the required information, shown in fig.5,6

The principals of the climatic landscape design, which were historically used in the Arab Islamic landscape, and the climatic situation in Egypt and the landscape pattern status quo framed the thesis outline. The outline of the thesis focuses on the context of public schools and investigate the climatic quality of their court-yards. Also, the outdoor microclimate and how it affects the comfort level of stu-dents through landscape elements.

Exploring the landscape patterns of public schools, reveiwing General Authority of Educational Buildings (GAEB) courtyards guidelines and conducting inter-views with members in architecture department gave a further insight about the landscape patterns in public schools. Also,highlighted on GAEB’s future vision towards designing courtyards and revealed the gap beteen the guideline and im-plementation. Investigating the landscape patterns, also, aided in the selection of the case study,El-Sherouk school.

Initially, ENVI-met software was used as a tool with the aid of field observations and climatic analysis, to assess the comfort level of students within the court-yard. After validating the simulation through comparing the user’s microclimatic map with the recorded PMV index, the comfort indicator avaliable in ENVI-met software, ENVI-met was directly used to run other tests. Afterwards, reviewing the microclimatic effects of landscape elements and the bioclimatic landscape strategies chart has directed the selection of the possible landscape elements. Whereas, they were chosen based on their adequacy in the context of schools cost, safety,functional terms, and the area.

8

IntroducatIon

For suitable design strategies, a methodology was set,shown in fig.6, for: setting the boundry conditions for the landscape and simulation patterns as well; the landscape possibilities and its clusttering; and the simulation patterns. After-wards, these patterns were highly dependable on an iterative process of testing and retesting to reach a better comfort microclimate. The outcome from testing the possibilities, proposes enhancement strategies matrix for El-Sherouk school

Bui

ld K

now

ledg

e

Inte

rpre

t K

now

ledg

e

Get

ting

to th

e co

ntex

t of s

choo

ls

land

scap

e pa

ttern

s

Cas

e St

udy

sele

ctio

n

Ana

lysis

Back

grou

nd

Out

door

mic

rocl

imat

e &

Mic

rocl

imai

tc

effec

ts o

f La

ndsc

pe

ENVI

-met

ENVI

-met

Fe

ild w

ork

Mod

elin

g &

Si

mul

atio

nBa

se C

ase

Lite

ratu

re re

view

Fi

eld

Surv

eyEx

pert

Con

sulta

tion

Best

Pra

ctic

e

Lite

ratu

re re

view

Ex

pert

Con

sulta

tion

Best

Pra

ctic

e

ENV

I-m

et

Fiel

d Su

rvey

Expe

rt C

onsu

ltatio

n Re

sear

cher

virt

ual

netw

orks

App

ly

Kno

wle

dge

Itera

tive

Proc

ess o

f tes

ting

poss

ibili

ties

CSL

D

EL-S

hero

uk

Scho

ol

CSLD

Tailo

red

CSL

D

Tool

Box

C

SLD

G

over

men

tal

Scho

ols

Com

pilin

g IU

SD

Rese

arch

line

Resu

tls

Met

hods

to su

stai

n In

terv

entio

ns

Res

earc

h O

bjec

tive

EM

PR

ICA

L W

OR

K

CSL

D

Bui

ld K

now

ledg

e

Inte

rpre

t K

now

ledg

e

App

ly

Kno

wle

dge

Figure 5: The overall methodology of the thesis, author

9

Microclimatic Map

ENVI-met

ENVI-met Software Selection

Case Study Selection Climatic Analysis

Landscape patterns

El-Sherouk Schoolusers

PMV index

Simulation Landscape Design Day Time Receptor points Assessment tool Microclimatic scale LAI

Plantation Light Structure Pavements

Setting boundary conditions

Clustering Possibilities

Simulation Patterns

Validation - Discomfort range

14th May 2014

Initial Pattern

Pattern1

Pattern2

Iterative process of testing

Testing Possibilities

Checking ENVI-met results Validity

CLSD in El-Sherouk School

CLSD in public school

CLSD Toolbox +

recommondation GAEB

Field observation Structured inter-views ENVI-met software

Landscape elements

Figure 6: Case study methodology

10

IntroducatIon

that can widely be applied in other public school courtyards. Also, the recom-mended CSLD tool box and recommendations for enhancing GAEB’s courtyard design guidelines. 4.1 Methods and Tools

The underlying conceptual structure of the thesis have relied on empirical re-search that outweighed the theoretical part, due to a)the gap between the prac-tical implementation and the design guidelines produced by General Authority of Educational Building (GAEB); b) no available plants database for the surviv-ing trees in the context of the study in ENVI-met database; c) no experience for the researcher in the simulation software so “trail and error” methods were con-ducted.Thus, this thesis to large extend tend to rely on primary data rather than secondary data. and ENVI-met software was the basic tool used to conduct the research.

Initally, the research had followed unstructured observations and interviews, af-terwards, the research have followed a descriptive research method. Structured observations to gain detailed insight about the landscape patterns and its situ-ation in the context of the schools, and checking the best practise. Conclusively focus group interviewing, in case of the limited research time, has brought prob-lems and better findings in an easy way, although in some cases, certain topics discussion creeped in.

Not all the group interviewing are applicable according to the nature of the inter-viewer, thus some personal interviews and expert’s consultation were held on an individual base. These interviews and consultation includes Egyptian experts in the field of landscape design, simulation software, and agriculture. In addition to the institutional body members that include interviewing members in GAEB ar-chitecture department, which gives an overview about the vision of landscaping in the courtyards and the hierarchal issues. Also, blogs discussions among world wide researchers

11

5 Thesis Structure

The Thesis is structured in the following

01 Building Knowledge that include a background on climatic quality, climatic landscape design, climatic research in Egypt, and landscape pat-terns in school; the context of public schools; outdoor microclimate and thermal comfort indices; microclimatic effects of landscape design; and methods to sustain interventions.

02 Interpret knowledge that include survey on the landscape patterns in schools; Case study school; ENVI-met software ; and run and testing pos-sibilities of landscape elements.

03 Applying Knowledge that include CSLD in public schools; recommen-dations and suggested research.

02 Building knowledge

13

Public schools courtyard

14

Building knowledge

Chapter 1 Public Schools Courtyards

1. GAEB Courtyard Design Guideline

The General Authority of Educational Building GAEB has been founded in 1990 as a sub-authority of the Egyptian Ministry of Education (MOE). Since then all responsibilities of designing, maintaining, and evaluating governmental build-ings, including post offices, emergency centres, hospitals and schools all over Egypt, have been assigned to the GAEB (MAD 2014). A set of responsibilities have been determined by the GAEB regarding their future work within the con-text of schools. These responsibilities ranges from: proposing locations and sizes of new schools based upon the available land slots and the surrounding urban density; designing and constructing school prototypes according to the climatic zones and the available materials; mapping and evaluating existing school build-ings through surveying users’ satisfaction the available services; renovating and maintaining school buildings based on the available budget. The aforementioned responsibilities to some extend depend on the general economic plan and the yearly set budget (Shalaby 2007).

15


GAEB along in collaboration with the Institute of Environmental Studies and Research (IESR6) formu-lates a set of design guidelines to assure the provision of adequate educational environments, and to achieve comfortable thermal and acoustical environments in school buildings. These guidelines covers: the spatial and conceptual design of the school activities; recom-mendations for the outdoor usable landscape spaces7;

Figure 7 GAEB climatic region division based on the data description in GAEB design guidelines, Author.

and criteria for selecting the school location, which takes into account the sur-rounding social and behavioural context in addition to the available surrounding paths and walkable distances especially in extreme weather conditions (Khataab 2007; IESR 1992; GAEB 1990)

1.1.Climatic Regions

In order to follow the design guidelines, GAEB divides Egypt into three climatic regions, see fig.7 below, and based upon the climatic nature of these regions.The hot humid region covers the northern coastal area and The Delta, while the semi-hot arid region starts at southern Cairo till Asyut, in Upper Egypt, and the red sea area. Whereas, the hot arid region includes the oases and of the rest of Upper Egypt. These divisions do not affect the design of the school building itself, however, it affects building orientation and the materials used for construction(I-ERS 1992).

1.2.Courtyard Design & landscape patterns

Different school design prototypes have been developed by GAEB among which they select one for implementation in a particular location.

6Institute of Environmental studies and research IESR: A re-search institute founded in 1974 located in Ainshams University. This institute is concerned with the environmental and social studies in the context of Egypt. Its aim to enhance and exploit the current resources for a better living quality for the whole society in terms of health, education and social equity, source: http://iesr.asu.edu.eg/article.php?action=show&id=74

16

Building knowledge

These prototypes are categorized into, fig.8: 1) Linear prototype with its vari-ous configuration, 2) U-shaped proto-type with its different configuration, and the 3) Compact prototype.

The minimum open spaces required in the courtyards is 2m2/student, in case of high dense areas, while 4 m2/student in case of low dense areas. Moreover, the shading percentage in the courtyard, in summer times, should range from min 12% as a and max. 57% (IERS 1992).

Prototype selection is based upon the following:• The plot area and dimensions that affect the size of the courtyard.• The school type.• The building capacity that depends on necessity and the surrounding urban

fabric. • The climatic zone.

Figure 8: Prototypes developed by GAEB in its design guideline, adopted from (GAEB 1990), graphics by author

GAEB preformed an assessment survey on a random sample of 25 schools in Cai-ro, Giza, and Qalyoubeya. This survey aimed to enhance GAEB design guidelines through assessing the status que of these schools. In general, the results reveals gap between guideline and the status que; where the climatic dimension is absent in the majority of the school courtyards (GAEB 1990).

The survey also incorporated the students feedback for the quality of the out-door spaces. Most of the students highlighted on the high range of thermal dis-satisfaction (GAEB 1990). The majority of courtyards and playgrounds lack the shading dimenstion due to the absence of the plantation patterns, only 14% of the sample had adequate landscape patterns. Also, the linear prototype, which is most commonly constructed, does not provide the needed shading without the aid of additional shading elements, shown in fig.9

17


clude: open playing areas, sitting and reading areas and open classes as well, where each corner has its own identity according to the function. For instance, as shown in fig.10, shading trees exists in the open playing areas with shrubs on the periphery. While in the sitting and reading areas, wind protection trees are adjacent to the playing areas to provide a comfortable atmosphere. Whilst, the planting strip at the open classes insulates the surrounding acoustics since it re-quires a quite environment, besides providing shade (GAEB 1990).

Figure 9: The status que of the schools in regard to the courtyard and the surrounding context, adopted from GAEB1990, Author visualization

Given the importance of the courtyard in schools, and its vitality in enhancing the quality of educational environment, GAEB proposes a conceptual landscape arrangement to guide landscapers in designing the courtyard, shown in fig.10.This design includes a conceptual outdoor landscape activity room which in-

Figure 10: Conceptual plantation section proposed by GAEB, adopted from GAEB assessment report, author’s visualization

18

Building knowledge

GAEB guideline proposes some trees to use to enhance the climatic quality of the courtyard. These trees include evergreen, deciduous, and semi-deciduous trees. These trees include Acacia Arabica, Morus Alba, Albizzia Lebek, Poinciana Regia, and Ficus Nitida (IERS 1992).

The design guideline involves some recommondations to design, maintain, and sustain the landscape elements,in particular trees. These are: • The flexibility of the landscape design to accept differnt uses in the courtyard

such outdoor learning space.• Selecting soft-scape elements should be variant to include trees for shading,

aesthetic trees, evergreen trees, shrubs, palms and grass. Although, grass should be limited in its area as it always need a regular maintenance.

• Selecting trees that requires low maintenance and can be adapted according to the environment, meanwhile it should have a regular maintainance.

GAEB ( 1990) .

2. Guideline versus the status quo

Despite the fact that regular monitoring and maintenance is crucial as mentioned in GAEB design guidelines, no available publications or databases are offered, for the public, about the status quo of the schools since the development of the de-sign guidelines in 1992. Accordinally, some schools are selected for investigation, in order to identifying the current situation of the landscape in the school and in-terested actors. The selection firstly, is based on the permission recieved to enter the school; secondly, schools which are located within the different urban fabrics in Cairo. Also, schools in satellite cities that reveal the GAEB’s new developement thirdly, schools with pioneering 9 initiatives, which praise upgrading governmen-tal schools in various perspectives.

9 Pioneering initiatives: In an interview conducted with Mostafa El-Sayed, the head of GAEB architecture department, El-sayed highlights on a series of initiatives launched, especially after the revolution, aiming to enhance the quality of governmental schools, en-hance the economic situation of the students and teachers, and raise the environmental awareness of the society. These strategies are not only by lecturing, but also practical im-plementation in the field, yet, some of these plans fails during implementation due to the financial issues.

Investigation is held in the following schools: El Gabarty School in Sheraton dis-

19


trict, Mostafa Kamel School in Sheraton district, Cairo; Kods School in Ard El-Le-wa, Giza; Hassan Abubakr School in Qalyoubeya; El-Shreouk primary school, Tabary El-Sherouk in El-Sherouk City.

2.1. Existing landscape patternThe outcome reveals that most of the schools lacks the plantation patterns in their courtyards. Design has been only limited to buildings and courtyards are considered a left over space filled with sand (Ezz El-deen, 2014). This urged individuals, initiatives, CBOs and other interested actors together

Figure 11:the gap between the conceptual proposed landscape by GAEB and the exiting case, Author

20

Building knowledge

with the school principals, in case of available budget, to plant some trees and shrubs to enhance the quality of the courtyard environments. However, due to the lack of professionalism trees are randomly planted with no clear visions of how the courtyard should or would look like. The courtyard looks fairly equipped with trees, as an outcome of these initiatives, which does not satisfy the expected needs.

Nevertheless two schools, El Gabarty School, Mostafa Kamel School in Sheraton district, quietly follow the design guideline, which standardize a public garden that exist as a backyard beyond the school in the case of schools of small sizes, see fig.12.2.2. Interested actors

Figure 12: implementation of the design guidelines in case of small sized school plot, Author

21


Meanwhile, part of the interested actors succeeded in enhancing the environmen-tal quality of the school courtyards. Most of these actors include private- public partnership, although in some cases public and private actors work individual-ly. Several interviews conducted with the private actors and cited in newslet-ters highlight that implementation seems simple at glance, however bureaucracy hampered launching the project for nearly one year (Anon 2012; Khaled 2013; Daily News Egypt 2012; Laylin 2013), see appendix for detailed description.

3. ConclusionGAEBs design guidelines and its implementation has passed through a period of fluctuations until nowadays, fig. 13. Since its foundation, GAEBs work rose steadily, where evaluation and assessment of the schools status quo took place.

Figure 13: GAEB development since foundation and its current state quo for CSLD of the courtyards, Author

From 1992 till 2011, however, GAEB’s work started to fall due to multiple reasons. The most notable reason is the earthquake that urged GAEB to rapidly construct a number of schools, as an emergence plan to fulfill the required demand. While since the revolution and onwards, GAEB work started to be recovered gradually. When investigating the CSLD status quo in a random school sample, it was found that majority of the school courtyards lack the climatic design dimension, not only by the orientation of the buildings, but also the absence of the landscape patterns. In an interview conducted with the head of GAEB architectural depart-ment in GAEB Cairo branch, it was mentioned that the economic situation is a stressing factor during the implementation process. Because of the limited avail-able budget, the priority is to construct buildings to fulfill the required demand rather than focusing on courtyards, since it is considered a useless space where it

22

Building knowledge

can be filled with some sand (EL-Sayed, February 2014).

Meanwhile, the design guidelines developed in the collaboration with IRES lacks the factual design and implementation guidance. These design guidelines in-clude some climate design considerations for the courtyards. Those considera-tions cover the constant shading possibilities through the configuration of the designed prototype; and the extracurricular shading elements that is conceptu-alized in trees. Although these considerations tend to fulfill the functional aim of the GAEB perspective, yet it is superficial. It lacks the real design guidance for the courtyard in terms of landscape arrangement, materials selection, design possibilities, criteria for selecting landscape, methods for maintaining and sus-taining design, and many others considerations. This returns to the prior absence of landscape profession in Egypt during the past decades.

“Children don’t learn only by reading and studying, as most people think … More than 90 percent of what children learn in their daily lives comes from moving, playing and doing things to explore the world.” (Pampe cited in R. Khaled, interview in Egypt Independent, October 17, 2012)

Thus, a number of initiatives and interested actors seek to enhance the quality of the courtyards on the local level of schools, fig.14, believing in its importance, in

Figure 14: The governmental structural organization before and after the revolution and initiatives boom]

23


The impact of these initiatives on enhancing the quality of schools courtyards vary according to the vision and aim for enhancement. For instance the trees pattern, which is implemented by individuals along with CBO representatives in EL-Sherouk school, has been randomly arranged in the courtyard. Moreover, it can be clearly seen in QSEP that already set an integrative structure within MOE structure and developed its own design guidelines, shown in fig.14. This arrange-ment lags the functional effect of the trees. Furthermore, the funding budget and networks strongly lag the implementation phase and bureaucracy as well. These issues hinder implementing a full functioned intervention. In addition, the exist-ence of experts in the field, strongly influence the sustainability of the implemen-tation and the maintenance such as the case of the newly installed trees in Kods school that died quickly, as well as part of the trees planted in El-Sherouk School.

Therefore, El-sherouk school in El-Sherouk city is chosen. The underlying rea-sons for this school, as a case to investigate, are listed in the following points: firstly, the school represents the linear prototype, which is considered the most common prototype built among other prototypes in Egypt, see fig.21, and the courtyard is the most exposed one to the external climatic conditions. Secondly, location of the school in El-Sherouk city represents the climatic study zone, semi-hot dry region in addition to the futuristic urban expansion for El-Sherouk area. Thirdly, received entrance acceptance, in the time where the government has to tighten security around all schools during the political transition.

Figure 13: the frame work for selecting the case study school, Author

24

Building knowledge

Figure 15: the frame work for selecting the case study school, Author

25


26

Building knowledge

include buildings, vegetation, etc. (Fahmy 2010).Maintaining comfort in the out-door spaces is complex in terms of variability, temporal and spatial when compared with indoor spaces (Nikolopoulou et al. 2003). Out-door microclimate is affected by environmental factors and build environment such as building morphology, topography, vegeta-tion, water, surface albedos. This is

Chapter 2:Outdoor Comfort & Microclimatic Effects

1. Microclimate & its VariablesGiven the aim to promote welfare conditions, particularly in outdoor spaces for students, researchers claimed that outdoor thermal comfort is an important fac-tor to consider. Thus, it is fundamental to understand the immense complexity of the microclimate and its mechanism that significantly influences human outdoor comfort (Nikolopoulou et al. 2003). Oke 1987 illustrated the horizontal urban climatic scales in accordance with climatic interactions within the urban bound-ary layer. These scales respectively are microclimate scale, local climate scale, meso scale climate, and Macro scale, shown in fig.16. The microclimate scale falls beyond the urban canopy layer UCL with height up to 1000 m i.e. climatic inter-actions occurs between street level and the surfaces above expressed by Zh that

Figure 16: Horizontal climatic urban scales and its climatic interac-tions within the urban boundary layer, adapted from Oke 1987

27

Thermal comforT & microclimaTic effecTs

shortwave radiation (0.28 -4um) emitted from extremely hot surfaces, is invis-ible as it lies near the infrared range of spectrum. It can be direct, diffused, and reflected. whilst, long-wave radiation (4-100um) ,called thermal radiation is emitted from the atmosphere and the low¬er terrestrial temperature surfaces in the built environ¬ment (Erell et al. 2011; Tsuyoshi 2009).

2. Outdoor thermal comfort

Toudert 2005, in her thesis, highlighted on Fanger’s thermal comfort definition as the most rational definition among researchers. Where Fanger 1970 defined thermal comfort as the energy gained or lost from the human body and to main-tain comfort, the body should reach to equilibrium in the heat flow from and to it (Toudert 2005). Equilibrium with the environment is achieved through conduc-tion, convection radiation and evaporation. These physiological variables include Skin temperature (Tsr), Core/ internal temperature (Ter),Sweat Rate, Skin wit-tedness and Thermal conductance (K) between skin and core (Setaih et al. 2013; Bryan & Rosheidat 2010; Toudert 2005).

The body dissipates heat by evaporation under warm conditions through swell-ing, sweating and respiration, this heat load depends on the metabolic activi-ties and heat exchange with the environment e.g. relaxed, working, walking, fast walking , running fig.18.

beside other personal and behavior factors such as clothing CLO and activity factor MET (Shashua-Bar et al. 2011; Erell et al. 2011)Different environmental parameters significantly influence the microclimate of the space ,among these parameters are: air temperature (Ta), mean radiant temperature (Tr), relative air velocity (V), relative humidity, pressure (Pa), local wind character and solar radiation as well. Radiation is the dominate parameter that affects the energy balance between the built environment and the human body. Within the space, the user experiences heat in two forms of radiation: shortwave and long-wave radia-tion. According to Jendritzky & Nubler 1981, fig. 17,

Figure 17: The complex outdoor radiati-on that affects the human comfort level, adopted from Jendritzky & Nubler 1981

Short-wave radiation (0.28-4um): I = direct

solar radiation,

H = diffuse solar radiation, (I+H)refl = reflec-

ted short-wave radiation.

Long-wave radiation (4-100um): Eu = atmos-

pheric counter, radiation, EA = long-wave

emissions of the surroundings, W = radiation

from the man’s surface.

28

Building knowledge

Given that the body does not pose a single sensor for each external environmen-tal factor, thermal comfort index formula combines external environmental fac-tors which possibily affects the thermal sensation of the human body. Based on formulas that human and external factors, a wide range of indices were devel-oped to give guidance on the human sensation for thermal comfort, shown in fig.20, such as predicted mean vote (PMV) physiological equivalent temperature (PET); standard effective temperature (SET*); predicted percentage dissatisfied (PPD); and many others. These indices seems at the first glance to be confus-ing, although Toudert simply classified these indices into two main categories: Empirical and Rational indices and states that the majority share the common factors. Although, empirical indices lacks the human physiology, activity, cloth, and other personal data such as sex, age, height, weight. In contrary with ration-al indices, which are considered recent, include human balance factors with the environmental factors and lately, computing techniques (Toudert 2005).

These indices typically are designed for indoor use, there are, however, some developed extensions to include outdoor conditions. Extension incorporated solar and terrestrial radiation flux. The researcher will focus on PMV and PPD that will further be used in the analysis of the students comfort in the school courtyards.

Also, when the body is in direct contact with surfaces such as clothing, fig, 19, it gains or loses heat by con-duction. Convection, primarily depends on the tem-perature difference between the human body and the air (Gut & Ackerknecht 1993; Tsuyoshi 2009; Erell et al. 2011).

3.Thermal comfort Index

Researches attempt to develop a formula, thermal comfort index, to assess thermal comfort level of hu-mans indoors and outdoors as well.

Figure 18:The metabolic rate of diffe-rent human activities, adopted (SKAT, 1993)

Figure 19: The insulation values of clothes (1 cloth= 0.155m2K/W), adapted (SKAT, 1993)

29


The index combines the majority of microclimatic analysis factors i.e. it takes into account the effect of shading and radiation flux (Toudert 2005).

Although, this index is being criticized in different literature as an index for assessing indoors thermal comfort only, named PMV, other indices as PET and UTCI could be more reliable. But this index will be used to conduct this study, because 1) it is the only index for assessing the thermal comfort in ENVI-met software; 2) M.Bruse, the software developer, ensured that it is the outdoor ver-sion of PMV, after personal consultation10.

3.1 Outdoor PMV-PPD modelPredicated Mean Vote (PMV) is one of the most recognized indices to evaluate the thermal sensation for space users. The index is based on thermoregulation and heat balance theories developed by Fanger in 1972. Originally, PMV is designed for indoor use, yet, PMV for out-door conditions has been developed by (Jen-dritzky &Nübler 1981), which is named Kli-ma-Michel-Model. This model counts the out-door long and short wave complex factors in terms of radiant temperature.

10 Personal discussion with Bruse via research gate on the internet

Fig. 20 :The outdoor and indoor thermal indices developed by Toudart 2005

Index Definition Empirical indices

ETEffective Temp.

set in monograms and represent the instantaneous thermal sensation estimated experimentally as a combination of T.. RH and V..

RTResultant Temp.

comparable to ET but tested foe a longer time to meet assumed thermal equilibrium

HOPHumid Operative

Temp.

temperature of a uniform environment at relative humidity RH=100 % in which a person looses the same total amount of heat from skin as the actual environment (comperable to ET* but RH wquals 50 % for HOP)

OPOperative Temp.

arithmetic average of T.. and T.. that is including solar and infrared radiant fluxes weighted by exchange coefficients.

WCIWind Chill Index

based on the rate of heat loss from exposed skin caused by wind and cold and is function of T.. and V.. suitable for winter conditions.

Rational indices ITS

Index of Thermal Stress

assumes that within the range of conditions where it is possible to maintain thermal equilibrium sweat is secreted at sufficient rate to achieve evaporative cooling

HSIHeat Stress Index

ratio of the total evaporative heat loss E required to thermal equilibrium to the maximum of evaporative heat loss E possible for the environment for steady-state conditions (S..=S..=0) and T..=35 °C constant

ET*new Effective Temp.

temprature of a standard environment (RH=50 %, T= T..v< 0.15 ms- 1) in which the subject would experience the same sweating SW and T as in the actual environment. It is calculated for light activity and light clothing.

SET*Stand. Eff. Temp.

similar to ET but with colothing variable. clothing is standarized for activitty concerned.

OUT SET*Out. Stand. Eff. Temp.

similar ti SET* but adapted to iutdoors by taking into account the solar radiation fluxes. reference indoor conditions are: T.. = T.. RH =50 % V.. = 0.15 ms- 1

PMV and PTPredicted mean vote

Perceived Temp.

PMV expresses the variance on a scale from - 3 to + 3 from a balanced human heat budget and PT the temerature of standarized environment which achieves the same PMV as the real environment. clothing and activity are variables.

PETPhysiol Equir. Temp.

Temperature at which in a typical indoor setting: T..=T.., VP=12h Pa, V=0.1 ms- 1, the heat balance of the human body (light activity 0.9 clo) is maintained with core and skin temperature equal to those under actual conditions unity °C

30

Building knowledge

The index predicts thermal sensation of people through a point scale developed by ASHRAE, this scale represents the vote of a large space users group for their thermal sensation. It considers that the person is constantly exposed to the same climatic condition for a long time that may reach to 20 minutes (Charles 2003; Bruse 1993).Typically, the scale ranges from (+4) hot to (-4) cold, where (0) is considered a neutral value that represents comfort. Values can exceed (4) or be below (-4) depending upon the local climatic conditions (Bruse,2002).

The perception of enhanced thermal conditions between individuals vary nearly by 1o C which means if PMV model indicted comfort zone some individuals are still in discomfort. Thus, PMV is associated with Predicted percentage of dissat-isfied PPD index expressed in a linear relationship graph. It gives an overview for the dissatisfied users in the climatic conditions (Charles 2003; Bruse,2002.).

4. Outcomes

The comfort level of the students, within the microclimate of the school court-yard, is influenced by the environmental factors i.e. temperature, mean radiant temperature, air velocity, humidity, and pressure. Besides the local wind char-acter and the radiation of the surrounding surfaces. The comfort level changes from one student to another according to the activity level named the metabolic rate and the insulation of the clothes. Klima-Michel-Model/ outdoor PMV index is an extension for PMV index, a rational index that predicts the thermal sen-sation of the humans through a point scale that range from -4 to 4. This index calculates the comfort level of the students, when it combines the climatic vari-ables and the personal variable as well.

31


32

Building knowledge

33

LAndscApe MicrocLiMAtic effects

Chapter 3: Landscape Climaitic Control

Various number of passive landscape strategies can enhance the microclimate of the courtyard, although not all of them are applicable in the context of the schools and especially in case of limited funding. Thus, it is curial to select some landscape elements that can be easily implemented in the context of the schools.

Landscape architects and designers aimed to use landscape elements, which in-clude plantations, water, and pavements, to fulfil climatic control aims and out-door comfort objectives through: 1) solar radiation control; 2) wind control; 3) evaporative cooling; 4) in addition to the aesthetic purpose (Attia 2006). Planta-tions and in specific trees, among other landscape elements, perfectly attain the required aim through its shading and evapotranspiration effects, although it has some drawbacks in 1)wind blockage, 2)increased humidity, 3)radiation blockage in case of wrong clustering and no seasonal consideration that significantly af-fects the human comfort levels.

(Mahmoud 2011a) developed a bioclimatic chart for Cairo and delta region, shown in fig 21. This chart is a matrix between the landscape design strategies and the external environmental parameters that influences the human comfort in summer and winter time. These strategies include sun shading, direct evapo-rative cooling, natural ventilation, heat gain, humidification, conventional heat-ing, and high inertia.

34

Building knowledge

Throughout this chart, it is important to consider the adequate landscape strat-egies that are applicable in the context of governmental schools.

1.PlantationPlantation refers to trees, shrubs, succulents, climbers, and ground cover, major-ity of these plantation provides aesthetic views besides its function in microcli-mate modification. Trees, fig.22, among other plantations, significantly modifies the microclimate. Large trees height can reach to 12 m or higher, medium sized trees range from 9-12 m, while small trees reaches 6 m above the ground. Shrubs height ranges from 0.3 m to 2 m as small shrubs, where as tall shrubs reaches to 4.5m till it reaches to a small tree size, mainly used as a hedge and space defini-tion. Ground cover enhances the soil stability and decreases ground erosion, its maximum height reaches 0.3 m above the ground (Abdel Wahed 1989).

Fig. 21: The bioclimatic chart for Cairo and delta region for the landscape design strategies to reach to outdoor comfort level , adopted from (Mahmoud 2011a)

35


seen in the center of trees canopy; Whilst, decurrent group have central bole that holds a series of branching forming the spreading crown of the tree. These group includes a diverse range of canopy shapes such as the spreading, weeping, vase canopies(Abdel Wahed 1989; Kalifa 2008; The Univeristy of Arizona n.d.).For both groups, the canopy silhouette changes accordingly with species type, age and external conditions.

A range of abiotic factors transforms and affects the shape of the tree and large shrubs. Light, one of the most influencing among other factors, affects the branches position of the tree by the phototrophic responds of its twigs. Temper-ature strongly affects the metabolism and the growth rate of the tree, and wind modifies tree form by tension and compression. Whilst, gravity defies the tree growth direction.

Trees and other plantation essentially require water to sustain its life, even if it tolerates drought. Irregular watering and /or water absence dieback the branch-es and bud, and also lags the growing habit of the tree that results in the gnarled appearance of the tree. This is beside, the soil type, quality and the nutrients inside i.e. in forest land trees under the same climatic and environmental condi-tions nearly have the same canopy shape (Abdel Wahed 1989; Jubran & Hizon 1999; The Univeristy of Arizona n.d.)

Figure 22: Tree specification and its benefits in modifying the microclimate, adopted from (EPA 1992).

2. Geometry

The apex, in case of trees and shrubs, determines the canopy silhouette in each tree. Botanist clus-ters the canopy form of trees into two groups: re-current group, this group mostly include saplings (young trees) and con-finers , where the central bole (trunk) is clearly

36

Building knowledge

Figure 23: The canopy silhouette of the trees and the external abiotic factors that infleu-ences the trees, author

3.Trees microclimate

Trees canopy is the major component that attenuate the solar radiation, control wind speed, and reduces the solar heat gain on surfaces, and increase the latent cooling by evapotranspiration

3.1.ShadingTrees give shade off through its canopy that dramatically reduces direct solar radiation, exploited in hot sunny regions. In hot sunny regions, with low humid-ity and clouds absence, there is an increased chance for direct and indirect solar radiation to arrive on the ground, conceptualized in visible radiation (10-7m) and infrared range (10-8 m).

Leaves require visible radiation, which enable human to see, to perform its pho-tosynthesis process, where 80 % of the direct radiation is absorbed and the rest is reflected and transmitted by the leaves. On contrary, leaves reject most of the infrared radiation and absorb only 20%, shown in fig.24.

37


Accordingly, visible di-rect radiation decreases with the increase of the leaf layers, which posi-tively affects the energy budget that ameliorate the microclimatic condi-tions (Kotzen 2003). Figure 24:Solar radiation conceptualized in infrared radiation and visible radiation

when it hits the leaf, adopted from (Brown & Gillespie 1995).

Figure 25: Illustrative diagram for the factors affecting the shade, adopted from (Kotzen 2003)

3.1.1.Factors affecting the tree shading

Tree and shrubs shading alleviate the solar radiation, hitting the ground, with different ranges, based on a number of variables. The base of these variable, which are leaves, twigs and branches that holds it, provides people with comfort though shade and glare reduction. Also, reduces the ground light reflection. The alteration between the variables depends on the genetic tree type and abiotic fac-tors surrounding, i.e. the percentage of leaves the branches hold, the shape of the limbs and its lateral twigs, the density of the leaf cover, foliage percentage, which may seasonally change. In addition to the character of the trees that include its location, and the amount of solar radiation received and the sun angle as well, shown in fig.25.

3.1.2.Drawbacks

Although tree shading significantly alters tem-perature and shields solar radiation, tree shading has some disadvantages especially with confiner trees. Based on the nature of confiner trees, dense foliage along the whole year, the trees totally blocks solar radiation

38

Building knowledge

passing through its canopy, however, in winter times there is a need for direct radiation to warm the air underneath its canopy. The same problem in summer time, where confiners’ trees nearly block the cooling breeze that can penetrate though its canopy(Fahmy et al. 2010b; Kotzen 2003).

3.2. Evapotranspiration

Evaporation is the state where the water evaporates from the soil or wet vegeta-tion (evaporating surface) and converted from liquid to vapor state. Direct solar radiation and ambient temperature in air are vital energies required to perform the evaporation process. As well, the pressure difference between the vapor on the surface and the air is essential to assist the evaporation of vapor and air satu-ration. For the evaporation process to preform continuously, wind is required to replace gently the saturated air to dry air over again. Thus, solar radiation, wind speed, relative humidity and temperature highly affect the evaporation process. This is beside the environmental factors that influence evaporation such as the degree of shading under the tree canopy and water availability from irrigation or rainwater.

Transpiration accounts to the vaporization of water through the plant tissue and the loss of vapor afterwards in air. When the plant is watered/ irrigated, water and nutrients moves through the roots to reach the plant and vaporization oc-curs in the leaves. Predominantly, vaporization occurs in the intercellular spac-es within the leave, afterwards, the stomata allows the vapor to go outside the leaves. Approximately, majority of water is lost through transpiration process and small amount is left within the plant. Transpiration rates vary from plant species to another, also for the plant itself in its growing period. Transpiration is highly affected by the soil characteristics that influences the amount of water content inside the soil

39


03 Interpret Knowledge

41

El-ShErouk School – ThE caSE STudy

42

Interpret Knowledge

Chapter 4: El-Sherouk School – The Case Study

1.El-Sherouk Area

In the meantime, and due to the high housing demand, the governments hous-ing strategy orients urbanization and housing developments towards the desert and remote areas, away from the Nile valley. In the past years, different settle-ments and satellite cities grew at the outskirts of Cairo, constructed and moni-tored by the government or private sector, or both together. In focus to the north east urban governmental developments, the New Urban Community Authority (NUCA5) has planned different communities,fig.26, such as 10th Ramadan, 15th May communities as the first generation and Badr, Obour, Shrouk, New Cairo communities as the second generation (Anon n.d.).

El-Sherouk, a satellite city (30°8’41”N 31°37’48”E, at attitude range from 181 to 189 m), fig.27,away from Cairo city centre by 60 km and Cairo International air-port by 30 km. The city is established by the prime minister’s decision no.326 in 1995.

5New Urban Community Authority (NUCA): A governmental sector, initiated by law 59 in 1979, responsible for establishing new urban communities. Main objective is to orient the developments towards the deserts and remote area to decrease the pressure on the Nile strip. Taking into mind that the new communities should be developed in as a well-being space with economic prosperity, to attract all community levels. The new communities are

43


44

Interpret Knowledge

classified to housing sector and industrial sector.Source: http://www.newcities.gov.eg/about/urban/default.aspx

Figure 26: New urban communities planned by NUCA, adopted from NUCA website, translated by the author

Figure 27: Location of El-Sherouk city relative to Cairo city center and International Airport, google maps

Figure 28:Land use map for EL-Sherouk area, adopted from NUCA

45


The city, of area 11.9 thousand acre (approx. 48.17 Km2), fig.27, is planned to accept 500 thousand inhabitant, and in the meantime it accepts 17000 inhabit-ant from the housing sector. Half of the housing sector is constructed by NUCA and the other by the private sector, for different social classes. The city , shown in fig.28,offers services such as educational buildings, hospitals and health care, commercial services, social services, communication centre, and public services. For sanitation, the city implemented, the first phase of 575 km, a trilogy treat-ment plant with capacity of 60 thousand m3/day for green areas irrigation.

Plantation patterns vary from one block to another, this variance changes in ac-cording to the land ownership. For instance, in the residential block constructed by the government, landscape pattern is fairly seen, shown in fig.30,32, where the majority of the block still lack plantation. Meanwhile, in a private-owned res-idential block, shown in fig.29,31, plantation patterns exits.

1.2 Schools contextThe city offers ten public schools equally distributed in the city, in addition to the private schools and universities. These public schools originally constructed with the lack of a proper landscape patterns in the courtyard due to the insufficient funding among other reasons. There are, however, a number of initiatives aims to support these school with the essential facilities required for the school

Figure 29: Landscape Patterns in Private housing in El-Sherouk, Author

Figure 30: Landscape pattern in public hous-ing in El-Sherouk, Author

Figure 31: Landscape pattern in a gated community , google earth

46

Interpret Knowledge

2. EL-Sherouk Primary School

The school is relatively located in a low urban fabric. Nearly, there is not land-scape pattern, the reason mentioned earlier. The prevailing wind, shown in fig.32 from the northern and northern-east direction, where the courtyard receives di-rectly the adequate wind pattern. In the same time, it is totally exposed to the direct sun radiation along the day. The school, of area 1.8 acres (approx. 0.01 km2), established by GAEB circa 10 years ago, located in the north east part of Shrouk area. The school approximately accepts in total 2,700 student/year in the elementary and high school stages. The courtyard and playgrounds area is 66 % of the school area 4750m2, three main buildings of area 831 m2, 23% of the total area, fig.33.

Figure 32: The external factors surrounding the courtyard, Climatic input gathered from (EERE 2012)and analyzed via Ecotect

Figure 33: El-Sherouk School and its surrounding, Author

47


The school has received donations over the past years for enhancing the quality of the school’s infrastructure. These donations include some plantation patterns added in the courtyard, and water coolers.

The courtyard is fairly equipped with landscape elements, planntations are ran-domly distributed within the courtyard, shown in fig.34.

Figure 34: El-Sherouk School landscape elements in the court-yard,author

48

Interpret Knowledge

Sand and cement red/yellow brick are the two only available paving materials in the whole courtyard. Cement bricks covers the sidewalks and football play-ground, whilst sand nearly covers the rest of the courtyard.

The furniture in the courtyard is nearly absent, only two wooden sitting bench-es are available, which is not sufficient to accept the number of students in the school.Thus the students use to sit on stairs where they can have a shaded rest.

The plantation patterns actively changes in the courtyard,shown in fig.35. Ini-tially the courtyard is fairly equipped with plantation pattern, based on the in-terviews with the school principal. Accordingly,the school principal has asked for trees donation. The school passed by 3 plantation phasing: On March 2014, marked in grey, trees random distribution. Afterwards; in phase 2 marked in pale green, some palms, random shrubs, and grass were added. In the last phase, which is the current state, a number of confiner trees are added in the courtyard, where most of them are evergreen trees. These new 6 plants are randomly distrib-uted in the courtyard, however, they are intensively arranged in the direction of the prevailing wind.

Also, after experts’ consultation, the majority of the trees needs care and main-tenance, especially the new ones and most of the trees planted in the courtyard were suggested in GAEB guideline.

When analysing in the current state of the trees, the trees fairly modifies the mi-cro-climate of the courtyard, in this stage as they are in their pre-mature stage.

6During the field work of the school, from March to May, some new trees are added. These trees are excluded the current state simulation and the future case as the resear-cher has to run simulation again. Although these trees were taken into consideration in the intervention phase either to be relocated or be in the same planted place

49


Figure 35: Plantation phases in El-sherouk school courtyard,author

50

Interpret Knowledge

2.1 Climatic analysis of the courtyard

The whole courtyard is nearly exposed to direct sunray the whole day. Thus, the students and teachers seek to find adaptation methods towards thermal dissat-isfaction, when the researcher held field survey, interviews, and observations for the students and the teacher’s reactions, shown in fig.36. These methods include (Nikolopoulou et al., 2003): a) behavioural adjustment: students and teacher are seeking to the limited shade shelters and water as a cooling factor. b) Physical adaptation: through wear light and bright clothes. Also, during the group dis-cussions with the school principal and teachers, it was mentioned that the play-ground is sprayed by water daily, in addition to the newly plantation patterns for aesthetic, cooling and shading purpose.

The aforementioned observations shows that thermal dissatisfaction is only by the increase of temperature, but also by direct solar radiation hitting the ground, during the school time, shown in fig.36. Building x1 nearly provides no shade, while max, shade provided by building x2 at 14:00 is 14m (departure time of the students), and min. shade at 12:00 is 2m. Building x3 provides maximum 6m shade of at 14:00 and 1m minimum shade at 12:00.And the rest of the courtyard is fully exposed to the sun.

2.2 Spatial use of the Courtyard

Given the limited facilities in the courtyard and the climatic problems, there are, however, dynamic, static and intermediate activities held in the courtyard, along the day. Nearly, the courtyard is divided into 3 sectors. The first sector marked in blue tends to be the shelter relaxing communal zone, where students enjoy sitting, chatting, and eating in the courtyard. Differently, than the black lines, where tends to run after each and play other games. The same for the area marked in pink and green. Although, the southern east part of the courtyard tend to be abundant as it’s too sunny, away, and with no supervisor.

51


Figure 36: The micro-climatic map of the space users towards thermal discomfort in the break time, 11:00, compiled with the shading analysis for the courtyard the whole day, Author

52

Interpret Knowledge

3. Outcomes

EL-Sherouk City, which represents the paradigm of new urban expansion and GAEB’s prototype design for new cities in the semi-hot arid region. Explicitly, due to the linear prototype design nature, most of the courtyard is exposed to the climatic conditions that record high thermal dissatisfaction for the students, es-pecially in elevated summer time. In addition to the lack of adequate functioning landscape pattern.

Notwithstanding, school design guidelines urged designers to consider the en-vironmental comfort patterns as an essential stage in the design process. Posi-tively, these patterns impact the student to regain focus and pay attention better during the studying time, and on an empirical evidence when student are more exposed to the natural settings.

Figure 37: The spatial courtyard use in El-Sherouk school courtyard the whole day , Author

53


55

simulation methodology

56

Interpert knowledge

Chapter 5: Simulation Methodology

(Vidmar 2013) conducted a comparative analysis between the simulation out-comes of ENVI-met software, Project Vasari, Rayman, IES VE-Pro software, in assessing the outdoor microclimate. Based on the physical properties in each software, ENVI-met among other software perfectly understand the plantations. This returns to the detailed plantation inputs ENVI-met requires that include type of the plant, the conceptual canopy parameter, stomata resistance and the roots area (Bruse 2002). Moreover, ENVI-met combines all the climatic factors such as wind, humidity, temperature, mean radiant temperature affecting the PMV thermal index (Lenzholzer 2010), see fig.38.

“ENVI-met is a three-dimensional microclimate model three-dimensional microclimate model designed to simulate the surface-plant-air interactions in urban environment with a typical resolution of 0.5 to 10 m in space and 10 sec in time. Typical areas of application are Urban Climatology, Architec-ture, Building Design or Environmental Planning, just to name a few.”

ENVI-met is a Freeware program based on different scientific research projects and is therefore under constant development-

ENVI-met is NOT Open Source.

(Bruse 2002)

As mentioned by Michael Bruse and his colleagues

57


Figure 38: Structure of ENVI-met software with the required inputs and expected outcomes for assesement , Author.

58

Interpert knowledge

1. Verifying ENVI-met Outcomes

In order to perform enhancement strategies and rely on the simulation results, it is crucial to make a preliminary test to verify ENVI-met inputs and ensure that simulation outcomes falls in the same range of the actual situation.

4th of May 2014 at 11:00 is selected to compare the simulation results under the same climatic conditions and time. The temperature records 39C, observations for the students’ reaction were held and group discussions were conducted to know the microclimatic maps within the courtyard, shown in fig.39. The out-come reveals a high level of thermal dissatisfaction, due to the absence of shad-ing elements in the courtyard. The simulation results, after locating receptor in the same point’s users pointed out, also reveals high PMV records, which means there is thermal discomfort in the courtyard. Most of the solar radiation falling in the courtyard is direct solar radiation that impacts the comfort levels of the space users.

Figure 39: Verifying ENVI-met simulation results, Author.

59


2. Setting the Boundary Conditions

Based on the bioclimatic chart for Cairo and Delta landscape design strategies mentioned earlier and the literature study, the courtyard requires firstly, shading elements conceptualized in trees, trellis, or any other shading elements; second-ly, Plantation and water for direct evaporative cooling through evapotranspira-tion effect; in addition to proper trees setting rather than the conventional ar-rangement for better outcomes. Water is not pertinent in the context of the study due to the construction cost for a common water fountain and the small size of the school, thus, it is excluded from the study.

A matrix of possibilities is set that include plantation and light structure ele-ments, see fig.40. Plantation vary in its elements, type, canopy silhouette and setting, illustrated in green color, same as for light structure elements illustrated in brown color.

Figure 40: The matrix of landscape possibilities in the school courtyard ,Author .

60

Interpert knowledge

The proposed landscape elements change in its elements, types, silhouette, time, growth rate, location and cluster, thus to perform the required tests, boundary conditions are set to be able to run simulations and derive strategies.

2.1 Landscape Boundary Conditions

2.1.1 PlantationThese boundary conditions, in the case of plantation, firstly consider trees in its mature case and in summer8 time, where trees are in their full foliage state; sec-ondly, in the case testing different possibilities, due to time limitation, Ficus Niti-da is selected to represent confiner trees9 , Delonix Regia for deciduous trees and Dedonya Viscosa as an evergreen shrub; thirdly, shading analysis preformed for different tree species that vary in its canopy silhouette, after the results between Ficus Nitida and Delonix Regia trees.

The field survey and interviews aids the selection of the tree species, where these trees are the most surviving in El-Sherouk region and AUC10 campus; fourthly, elevated winter condition test is preformed, to have an insight on how planta-tions can influence microclimate in the courtyard in different climatic conditions.

2.1.2 Light structure Testing the preformance of light structure elements cannot be performed via ENVI-met simulation, due to its limitation in modelling complicated structures. Thus, comparative analysis between light structure elements and trees is con-ducted.

2.1.3 PavementsThese elements are not aimed to be tested, accordingly, Sand and Cement bricks are kept constant. 8 Practically, in the Arab Golf world, there are two distinct seasons: hot season from April/May to October, and cold season from November till March. Thus, 14th may is considered a hot spring season, where the majority of the trees are blooming (Jubran & Hizon 1999) 9 Ficus Nitida and Delonix Regia are the most famous common trees used, gene-rally in Cairo, and also in El-Sherouk context. And also included in the list of the recommended trees in GAEB guideline.10 American University of Cairo (AUC): The University established in 1919, is one of the most old and famous English language universities in Cairo. The university has two campuses, the new campus is located in new Cairo. The landscape design concept aimed to create pleasant and comfortable outdoor space. A number of trees successfully adopted to the harsh climatic conditions

61


2.2. Setting the Simulation Context

ENVI-met acquires some inputs within the modelling process to perform the simulation. These inputs, shown in fig.38 , include: 1) the metrological data for the design day; 2) area inputs that include inputs for the chosen plants inputs, soil, building database; in addition to 3) the personal parameters for the space users.

2.2.1 Design Day and Time Choosing a reference day for designing that represents the peak thermal discom-fort for the students, is important. The temperature records during the school official11 schedule (MOE 2013), shown in fig.41, indicates the elevated temper-ature months: May and September relative to the other months. Based on the metrological data of (ETMY WMO station 623660), Extreme high temperature, marked in red, July and mid-September, and on the lower temperature level, marked in yellow, May and October (EERE, 2012).

Accordingly, 14th May is chosen to perform the intervention as it records the highest temperature in May (EERE 2012),see appendix. Moreover, 11:00 a.m. is

11 Ministry of Education assigned school schedule, official study time, from 21st Septem-ber till early June. And from 10th January till 10th February are considered the semester break. Taking into account that schools offers summer activities beginning from mid-June till mid-August.

Figure 41: The temperature records during the school time, adopted from MOE 2013

62

Interpert knowledge

2.2.2 Receptor points for evaluation

Receptor points are located at areas that require shade, based on the student’s spatial use and needs in the court-yard. These receptors ease the comparison between the different testing possibilities, shown in fig.40.

Receptors are located a) Next to the buildings i.e. Ro5 is at the northern east façade of blg x2, Ro8 is at blg x3, and Ro4 is at the southern façade of blg x1; b) At the courtyard periphery: R15 is at the up-per northern east, R18 is at the southern east part of the

deliberately selected as the assessment time, whereas this time is considered the students break time and the peak courtyard use, see the spatial use of the court-yard diagram in chp.4

courtyard, while R09 is at the southern west of the courtyard; c)Ro1 is at the upper middle of courtyard, while Ro3 in the lower middle R03; d) R10,R13 are at the football playgrounds and Ro2 is at the middle of football playground. Also, three spatial zones are located to ease the further on analysis: Zone A marked in red, Zone B marked in blue, while zone c marked in yellow.

2.2.3. PMV assessment tool

The microclimatic effects, of the landscape elements proposed, requires a tool to assess the comfort level of the students. ENVI-met offers Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) index that indicates the range of outdoor comfort and thermal satisfaction

Figure 42: Receptor points locations and the zones for evalaution, author.

63


of the students within the courtyard. ENVI-met acquires some personal inputs to preform calculations i.e. walking speed, energy-exchange, mechanical factors, and heat transfer resistance cloths.

Aiming to reach to more factual results, field site visit is held on 4th May 2014, where temperature records 39c, and observations for the type of clothes the stu-dents wear. It is found that the majority of students wear light short, sleeves and trousers, thus clo-value of 0.6 is taken, based on ENVI-met user help, where it lies in the same range of ASHARE based upon the calculation method used by (Wanas 2013).

In a study for the mechanics of walking in children by (Cavagna et al. 1983) ,the average walking of student, at age 12, is 5 km/hr, approx. 1.4 m/s .Thus, the en-ergy exchange factor=93 w/m2 and of mechanical factor =0 ,based on ENVI-met online manual(Bruse 2002).Thus, figure 45 illustrates ENVI-met inputs

Figure 43: ENVI-met input configuration files for simulation, author.

64

Interpert knowledge

2.2.4 Microclimatic scaleThe climatic assessment and testing possibilities for the school courtyard requires a suitable buffer and height. The microclimate scale’s definition encompass the inclusion of the climatic interaction between surfaces, buildings, plantation, and ground surfaces (Oke 1987),where the range of the microclimate falls beyond the UCL with height up to 1000 m. Thus, two simulation tests are preformed to select the suitable height and buffer. 3 receptors, r02, r03, R04 are selected

Simulations are preformed, under the same fixed climatic conditions, between the residential block of a buffer with 250m to 350m range from the centre of the courtyard, and the school block. The simulation outcomes reveal that the residential block’s urban fabric and its surrounding materials, which include pavements and building surfaces, influence the climatic factors different than the school block simulation, shown in fig,44. Thus, to fulfil the research objective and within the time constrain, testing possiilities are held on the school block aiming to understand the interactions of plantation and other landscape elements within the user’s level in the school’s courtyard.

2.2.5. LAD and LAI

ENVI-met tree database inputs, requires inputs for the two conceptual canopy parameter, LAD and LAI (Bruse ,2002). LAD to a large extent hinge on LAI in-puts, where LAI depends on the type of the tree and its seasonal foliage that accordingly affects the cast shadow i.e. LAD of Fagus Syvatica trees, that keeps some of its foliage in winter time, is 0.5, whilst in autumn time is 0.2 (Lenzholzer 2010).

Due to the lack of resources and cost limitations for using LAI-2200c12 plant canopy analyzer, the researcher will solely rely on the LAI and LAD calculation method proposed in a study conducted by (Fahmy et al. 2010a) in semi-arid mid latitude regions, where Egypt falls in the region. The study originally verifies using empirical LAD of 1, in case of solid shadow and semi shadow cast, 100% to 50% of the tree’s shadow that falls on the ground.

65


Figure 44: PMV value difference between school and residential block, author

66

Interpert knowledge

3. Clustering Possibilities After setting boundary conditions for the testing possibilities, these possibili-ties are clustered according the simulation that will be performed via ENVI-met, shown in fig.45. Green color refers to the plantation and while brown color refers to light structure elements. While black lines refers to pavements materials that already exist in the courtyard. And * refers that this test is no performed via EN-VI-met software.

12 LAI-2200c plant canopy analyzer is a device that computer the Leaf Area Index (LAI) in an accurate and easy way, available at http://www.licor.com/env/products/leaf_area/LAI-2200C/

Figure 45: Clustering the possibilities in order to perform the required tests, Author.

67


4. Simulation patterns

This section includes the simulation patterns that will be tested via ENVI-met software. These patterns are preformed to firstly, understand ENVI-met software dynamics and how it understands the trees within the microclimate of the school courtyard; secondly, develop enhancement strategies for better microclimatic conditions within the courtyard that is adaptable in the context of schools. The patterns of trees arrangement,shown in fig. 46, in some cases, are inspired from the expected landscape pattern for the courtyard, according to the group discussions and the field visits. These patterns are:

a.Base case with no trees and same paving materials of the courtyard, sand in the playground, and cement brick in the football playground and the alleys

b. Linear setting for the evergreen trees named scenario 1, the same arrange-ment setting is for deciduous trees

c.Linear arrangement of evergreen trees and random setting of de-ciduous trees in the middle of the courtyard

d.Random arrangement between evergreen trees and deciduous trees in the courtyard.

e.Different trees arrangement of the courtyard, as an outcome form the previous trees setting.

f. Different tree setting in the court-yard derived from the previously arrangement feedback.

g.Different trees arrangement with linear arrangement of shrubs and greens

68

Interpert knowledge

a b

c d

Figure 46:Siimulation patterns for testings

69


e f

e g

Figure 46:Siimulation patterns for testings

70

Interpert knowledge

71

testing possibilities

Chapter 6: Testing Possibilities

Based on the aforementioned simulation patterns preformed, the following sec-tion discusses simulation results of these patterns.

1. Trees setting and the paving materials Shown in figure 47, the average PMV values, at the receptor points, strikingly decreases by 1 or more, when trees are added in the courtyard regardless the type and geometry of the tree. This can be thoroughly illustrated, after analyzing the climatic conditions of the courtyard, in the 1) evapotranspiration effect of the trees that decreases the temperature, under its canopy to 0.38K, in some cases

Figure 47: PMV values difference between different types of trees in case of linear arrangement, Author

72

Interpret knowledge

and lowers temperature beyond the trees as in R01, R02 and Ro3, when wind carry the moist in the air; 2) Shading effect under the canopy of the tree that de-

creases the direct solar radiation to 400 w/m2.

These two effects strongly influence the climatic variables of PMV index, concep-tualized in the Relative Humidity (RH), Mean Radiant Temperature (TMRT), Temperature (T), and Wind (W) when the personal variables are constant, shown in fig.48.

1.1 Wind Trees installment creates turbulence in the wind flow pattern conceptualized in its velocity and direction within the courtyard, shown in fig.49. Both trees, con-finers and deciduous, which are linearly arranged on the periphery of the court-yard, differently modify the wind direction and velocity based on the clustering and trees arrangement.

Figure 48: The overall change in the climatic parameters when trees are installed

73


For instance, Trees significantly enhance the wind velocity to 1 m/s increase due to the dragging force of the densely linear arrangement of trees for the wind, shown at R 13. This arrangement increases the wind speed under the trees cano-py although it lowers its velocity beyond, shown in R18. On contrary with single linear spaced tree arrangement, the effect tend to be negligible on wind pattern modification where the velocity changes to 0.2 m/s, seen above R15. Meanwhile, at R15 a slight change in the wind velocity to 0.40 m/s when the number of trees increase within the linear spaced arrangement in the direction that opposes the prevailing wind direction.

In case of the linear tree pattern, as in R18, that do not obstacle the prevailing wind, no change is observed in the wind flow patterns. For the overall effect of wind in the courtyard, nearly 70 % of the wind flow is changed after installing the trees, where this modification enhances the overall comfort level of the court-yard, see fig.48. Whereas, trees negatively influences the wind in terms of over dense arrangement with a small area.

1.2. Mean Radiant temperature TMRT

Trees and its setting effects not only affects the wind flow patterns, but also other climatic variables that strongly influences the comfort levels within the court-yard. Trees attenuate solar radiation by creating shade through its canopy the strongly influences the mean radiant temperature Tmrt , see fig,50.

Figure 49: PMV index outcomes for linear arrangement of evergreen and deciduous trees in comparison to the case of no trees, author

74

Interpret knowledge

Also, trees patterns with the aid terrestrial radiation emitted by the ground pav-ing materials highly impacts Tmrt resulted in the decrease in PMV values,there-fore in this case pavements are studied, see fig.51.

Figure 51: The Change in the mean radiant temperature for different paving materials, author.

Figuure 50: Simulation outcomes for Tmrt in case of no trees and case of adding trees and its influence in direct solar radiation, Author.

For instance, PMV index dramatically decrease by a value of 1.5 when Tmrt re-cords 45 °c in the case of dense trees arrangement that creates an adequate shade with assistance of cement bricks, as in R013. Differently, sand records 40 °c un-der the tree canopy resulted in the decrease in PMV values by a value of 1, as in Ro18. PMV record less comfort level in comparison with R013 due to the dense trees arrangement that blocks the wind.

75


The change in Tmrt records between the two paving materials returns to the physical performance, which is conceptualized in the materials color and its re-flectance, named albedo (Toudert 2005). Thus, a noticeable change in the Tmrt

records in areas without trees i.e. Sand records lower Tmrt , in case of direct solar radiation or direct tree shading, which ranges 54 to 60 and 50 to 54 respectively. Whilst, the cement paving bricks records higher Tmrt values 54 to 60 in case of the indirect shade and 63 to 70 in case of direct solar radiation.

More than 80 % of the overall Tmrt in the courtyards doesn’t change, in the case of the linear arrangement as the shading percentage of the trees are limited in regard to the courtyard area.

1.3 Other climatic factors Based on the evapotranspiration and shading effects of trees, the temperature decrease is directly proportional with the increase of the area of trees. In the linear scenario for both evergreen and deciduous trees, the temperature slightly change in zone A, B, C where trees are installed.Although the maximum decrease in the temperature records is in zone c that reached to 51k, where the trees arrangement is quite dense. Shown in fig.52 no significant change in the effect of trees in the temperature, the maximum de-crease trees can create within the courtyard area is 51 k.

Figure 52: The temperature change between the case of no trees and the case of trees, Author

76

Interpret knowledge

The same results for humidity, shown in fig,53, it is increased by the contribution of the moisture produced by trees, shrubs and grass, although the shape and the area of plantation facing the atmosphere plays a significant role in modifying the humidity(Abreu-harbich et al. 2012). Also, the wind slightly helps in the decrease in PMV values beyond the trees when wind carries the moist particles. This effect is limited and cannot be clearly seen as the area of the study is quiet small as well as the vegetative areas.

Figure 53: Simulation Humidity results for the case of no tree and the case of trees, Author

2. Arranged trees setting vs. Random trees setting

In most of the receptors points, there is a fluctuation in the PMV values shown in fig.54, due to the change in the overall arrangement. In zone A, the comfort values of the receptors remains constant as in r04, r05, where the arrangement of the trees nearly is the same. A sharp fluctuation in r15 between the case of no trees, arranged and random setting. The random arrangement records better PMV values due to the moist effect of trees that is carried by the wind to the re-ceptor point. In contrary with r01, the comfort level slightly decreases in case of random setting, due to the dense arrangement beyond the receptor point

3. Trees vs. Shrubs vs. Green covers

Trees, among other soft-scape elements, dramatically ameliorate the microcli-mate of the courtyard, which strongly influence the outdoor thermal comfort of the users, shown infigure 55.

77


Figure 54: The effect of different arrangement on PMV values, author

Figure 55: The Change in PMV values with different plantation types, author

78

Interpret knowledge

This returns to the geometry of trees that give shading shelter form direct solar radiation in zones a, b, c in the courtyard (Kotzen 2003). Meanwhile, shrubs can aid to the effect of trees, clearly seen in zones a, c, either positively or negatively. I.e., in zone a shrubs slightly affect PMV values in r01, r04, r05, this returns to its limited number, settings, and the receptor location. In zone c, shrubs consid-erably affects the comfort level, in the case of continues linear arrangement at r10, this returns to the change in the reflecting surface that decreases the mean radiant temperature by 20k , although this arrangement blocks the wind from reaching the rest of the courtyard.

In contrary with r02, PMV dramatically decreases by 0.5 due to the modification of the wind in direction and speed, through the spaced linear arrangement of shrubs, with the aid of trees, in the northern east part of zone c. A slight increase in the rate of discomfort, shown in r13, due to the over-dense arrangement of soft-scape elements altogether that totally blocks wind, in com-parison to the comfort records for trees only. The effect of the grass cannot be clearly seen within the receptor points due to the small areas that may be negli-gible.

4. Confiner vs. Deciduous trees

Comparing between confiner and deciduous trees 13 in summer time, PMV index slightly records the same values, figure 47 shows the difference between Ficus Nitida and Delonix Regia. This slight change firstly returns to cast shadowing each tree provide resulted from the change in the branching and the foliage form of each tree; secondly the location of the tree and the external climatic factors.

To get further insight about the effects of different tree species, some new trees were proposed and tested. These trees proves its high adaptability in the context, after experts consultation 14. These trees include: 1) Edible plants such as Citrus Lemon tree, confiner with round canopy; 2) Enhanced microclimatic functioning

13 ENVI-met software plants input only understands evergreen, called confiner, that never lose its leaves in the whole year, and considers any trees that loses its foliage are deciduous trees.

14 Edible trees are proposed after field observation and an interview with the landscape architect in AUC new campus, as these trees proved its adaptability in living in these harsh climatic conditions. The rest of the proposed trees are added based on recommen-dation from the manager of El-Sherouk Nursery (Mashtal) as these plants are the most successful and surviving trees in the context of El-Sherouk.

79


such as Casia Nedoza, deciduous with large spreading canopy; 3) Acacia Frane-siana, semi-deciduous with vase canopy and small in size; 4) Jakaranda tree, deciduous tree that tend to have a conical shape, casting more shade in early morning and afternoon, when sun is 45 degrees.

Besides, the existing trees with the school courtyard as Acacia Saligna, native tree with weeping growing habit. In regard to ENVI-met simulation outcomes from Ficus Nitida, round habit and Poinceienca, spreading habit reveal that micro-climate modification of trees is highly dependable on the trees geometry. Thus, shading analysis is performed for the proposed trees, shown in fig.56.

Figure 56: The shading effect of different proposed trees, author

80

Interpret knowledge

It is curial to understand the effect of trees and its setting on modifying the mi-croclimate in extreme winter conditions, during the school schedule, thus, winter simulation is performed to test the trees performance. Meanwhile, due to the lack of unavailable LAI data for tree species the whole seasonal year, deciduous trees are excluded from the simulation, see explanation and the configuration file in appendix. Accordingly, it is solely relied on the fact that deciduous tree loses its foliage in winter time while confiners never, shown in fig 57.

Significant difference between PMV winter and summer indices records, although both indices do not reach to the comfort level of zero, shown in fig. 58. This may firstly reveal to the climatic conditions in hot arid regions which tend to be hot along the year, especially in school schedule time; secondly, the metrological data inputs of EW station records on average 30 years in the Cairo International air-port may not reveal to the actuals values. As no field measurements are held in the courtyard and the recorded station is away from the case study by approx. 30 km, and at 10m a.g.I. above the see level (EERE 2012), whilst the required mi-croclimatic test is in 1.5 m above the ground level of the school. Although, based upon the verification diagram mentioned earlier, results reveal that records falls in the same range of discomfort.

Confiner trees, shown in 58 significantly impact PMV indices record with value decrease that range from 1 to 1.5 in r04, r05, r10, r13.

Figure 57: The microclimatic performance of the trees in winter and summer time, models are adopted from google sketch up 3D warehouse, Author

81


5. Trees vs. light structure elements

Various light structure elements cast shade, although not all are applicable in the context of governmental schools. Thus, it is fundamental to select and com-pare between shading possibilities, which are applicable in the context of schools. Camprisi 15 mentioned that the students, especially in the primary stage and the playing nature of the students, need hard and durable materials in landscaping such as concrete or brick materials (Camprisi, 2014). Accordingly, shading pos-sibilities to use are wooden and metal trellis with/without plantation, concrete structure, and sail owning, shown in fig.59. These tests cannot be generated via ENVI-met software, as mentioned earlier. Thus, the comparative analysis is car-ried out between trees and aforementioned light structures, based on the scien-tific literature and simulation analysis.

At the first glance, concrete, wooden, and brick light structure seems better than trees due to the short outcome of shading and low cost in construction, although there are some disadvantages that may outweigh these advantages. Firstly, the materials reflectance is much lower than any vegetative materials, in case of con-crete or any other low albedo materials (Georgi & Dimitriou 2010), which will

Figure 58: The difference in PMV in winter and summer time and in case of trees in winter, Author

15 Vittoria Camprisi: a lecturer in the German university of Cairo, and founder of baladilab in 2011 with Barbara Pampe. One of the workshops initiated is Learn-Move-Play-Ground through German University in Cairo, aiming to enhance the playgrounds in primary governmental schools.

82

Interpret knowledge

record lower comfort levels. Secondly, the idea of a fixed structure will provide a permanent shade along the year and less design flexibility, which sometime is not preferable, unless the overhang elements is designed for sun entry that may add cost in the construction phase. Thirdly, the integrated structure between climb post and vines requires regular maintenance and care for vines, the same as trees, in addition to the structure itself that may increase the maintenance budget. Moreover, in case of vines, the structure requires a special installation for irrigating system rather than the conventional ground system.

Figure 58:Shading possibilites in school courtyards , Author

83


6.Results and outcomes

From the aforementioned simulation discussion, it is concluded in the following:• The significant effect of trees with the study area is conceptualized in the

shading effect its canopy provides and the wind flow pattern modification re-sulted in the dramatic decrease in the PMV values. On contrary with the trees effect on temperature and humidity that can be barely observed, unless the over dense trees arrangement that negatively influence the humidity through the transpiration effect of the trees.

• Different factors influence that effect of trees in microclimatic medication, these factors include: 1) the environmental climatic conditions i.e. the pre-vailing wind and its speed and the solar radiation; 2) the setting of the trees that include the clustering of the trees and its spatial location. These setting is strongly influenced by the area for modification; 3) terrestrial radiation of the surrounding surfaces, in specific the pavements. In addition to the char-acteristics that include: geometry of the trees, canopy silhouette and the type of the trees being confiner or deciduous. Also, the genetic factors of the trees that the growth rate within the time, where the pre-mature trees do not fulfill the required effects.

• Other plantation elements cannot modify that microclimate if compared to trees, as they do not provide the shading effect trees provide. Although, shrubs and grass can aid the effect of the trees.

• Within the microclimatic level, the interactions increase between the climatic parameters and the surrounding surfaces that significantly affects the com-fort level of the human within the space. Thus, it is crucial to carefully select the reflecting materials within the space

84

Interpret knowledge

85


03 Apply Knowledge

87

csld in public schools

88

Applying knowledge

Chapter 7:CLSD in Public Schools

1. CSLD in El-Sherouk School From the aforementioned testing possibilities, it is found that ameliorating the overall climatic conditions of the courtyard is not applicable. The courtyard’s area is small and requires large open sunny space for the students to play. Previously mentioned, the school’s courtyard is poorly equipped with plantation patterns that have no significant effect on attaining the comfort level of the students in the courtyard.

Accordingly, the methodology for attaining a better comfort level and creating functional oasis is a) rearranging the recent planted trees, new allocation is based on simulation results. Re-arranging and allocating is limited only for new trees in the courtyard to minimize the risk, marked in blue, as shown in fig.60. Old trees will be kept in their original location, marked in red, and dead and un-desired trees will be removed16, marked in brown; b) proposing new trees species within the courtyard to gain better functioning with the least cost. I.e. Acaia Ne-doza has larger canopy spreading than Delonx Regia, and Citrus lemon have the same climatic function of Ficus Nitida but can give products. Acacia Franseyana, semi-deciduous tree/large shrub, is also proposed as it has an adequate height within the courtyard, vase shaped canopy and provides partial shade in winter time if required.

16 Keeping and removing strategies of the trees is based on personal consultation in an interview conducted with Badr, the landscape architect in AUC. While the undesired trees are mentioned by the school members.

89

Applying knowledge

Thus, the plantation list recommonded will be:• Confiner trees: Ficus Nitida, Acacia Silgna known as Gym Arabic tree, Tecoma Stans [climate, aesthetic], and Citrus lemon [education, climate, and aesthetic].• Semi-deciduous trees: Acacia Franesiana [climate, aesthetic]• Deciduous trees: Cassia Nodosa,Delonix Regia [climate, aesthetic]• Shrubs: Dodonaea Viscosa [climate, aesthetic]

Afterwards, for reaching to an enhanced climatic conditions in El-Sherouk, lit-erature review, simulation outcomes together with the new selected plants are compiled to aid the decisions in the future landscape design in the courtyard. Through the climatic landscape matrix proposed see fig.61.

Figure 60: The status of the trees in El-Sherouk courtyard, photo captured in March 2014, author.

90


Figure 61: The Climatic Landscape matrix for El-Sherouk School, Author

New trees

small trees

old trees

91

Applying knowledge

The matrix visually illustrates the relation between the tree’s silhouette and the its effect on PMV. The variance in the canopy shape strongly influence the shad-ing effect of each tree, shown in the figure in grey colour, the different shading range of trees when the sun angle is 90, which is the break time of the students.

Also, the matrix includes the possible trees setting in terms of location and type of clustering that strongly affects the solar radiation reaching the ground, wind velocity, and the cooling effect created. These possible setting together with the terrestrial radiation, conceptualized in the paving materials of sand and cement bricks, in a matrix that indicates the comfort level within the courtyard, marked in orange. 1.2. Conceptual Proposals

Two conceptual proposals for enhaning the climatic quality of the courtyard are proposed. These proposals include cooling and heating oasis patterns, in differ-ent areas within the courtyard. In addition to virtual alleyway along the periph-ery of the courtyard. These patterns not only modify the microclimate of the courtyard, but also allow the students to experience and understand the natural environment these patterns include

• Virtual alleyway around the school periphery, this alley differs in the tree species, shown in fig.62,63, aiming to provide shade and the sea sonal experience for the children.

92


Figure 62: The virtual alleyways in El-Sherouk school in elevated summer time, Author

93


In Winter Time

Figure 63: The virtual alleyways in El-Sherouk school in elevated summer time, Author

94

Applying knowledge

• Cooling/heating Oasis: Heating / sunny oasis in the middle of the court yard for the students to experience while running, playing sports and any dynamic activity. Whilst cooling and shading oasis with a nice draft of wind when resting, eating, and chatting.

1.2.1. Proposal 1Is to maximize the benefits of the recent planted trees through relocating them according to the required area for shading. Taking into account simulation out-comes for the trees setting, fig. 64 .

Figure 64 Conceptual proposal 1 for enhancing the climatic quality of El-Sherouk, Author

95


1.2.2 Proposal 2Methodology for proposal 2, shown in fig.65, is to maximize the shading within the overall uses of the courtyard, and to attain this conceptual idea, the spatial use of the courtyard is changed. This change maximize the level of intervention, where the football playground location is changed towards the south and taking into account the required trees arrangement to 1)reduce the exposed sun facing the audience 2) arrangement of trees that provides nice comfortable wind draft in the playground.

Figure 65: Conceptual idea of proposal 2, Author

96

Applying knowledge

2. CSLD in public schools courtyards

The outcome from the previously discussed parts: Building knowledge and In-terpret knowledge, influenced forming a tailored Climatic Sensitive Landscape Design CSLD. Due to the nature of the public school context, the courtyards take the least attention when constructing the school building. Consequently, the school principal with the collaboration of interested actors which include NGO, CBO, etc., together find methods to enhance the quality of the courtyard. Although, the majority of these initiative do a lot of interventions in the court-yard, yet the majority do not sustain, particularly trees. These firstly returns to the unplanned arrangement of the trees within the courtyard, priority to the aesthetic purpose and fairly think about the climatic purpose. Secondly, no regular care and maintenance provided to the trees, which in some cases leads to the death of the plants. The care and maintenance is conceptualized in reg-ular watering of the plants, adding nutrient and compost. Besides, the regular trimming and pruning.Accordingly tailored CSLD in cooperates the climatic/functional dimension and the sustaining dimension.

Trees create distinctive microclimatic quality and actively promote enhanced thermal comfort on elevated summertime through design. This design includes: 1) the landscape element 2) the setting 1) the spatial location of the elements within the space; 3) the type of clustering the elements; in addition 4) the terrestrial radiation of the materials that highly influences the comfort lev-el. Moreover, designing should take into account the mature case of trees, the suitable trees height, the growth rate and the life span of the trees, and the good selection of the trees (Kalifa 2008; Jubran & Hizon 1999).

Good selection of trees requires profound knowledge in the adaptability meas-ures of the trees that include: water requirement, light requirement, wind toler-ance, salinity tolerance, and drought tolerance. In addition to the aesthetics and functional measures that include: mature size to be able to expect the thermal performance of the trees and form, growth19 rate , foliage and flower color and its blooming season, ecosystem attraction and fragrance provision (Jubran &

19 Each plant passes by three growing stages: Sowing, where the seeds are trans-formed to a plant; mature case, where the tree completes its shape; then after-wards, the plant gets old and lose its characteristics (Kalifa 2008)

97


Hizon 1999). (Kotzen 2003), in his recent study on the effect of native plants in Negav desert, concludes that native plants advantages considerably outweigh non-native plants when it comes to the soil adaptability, long life span and bet-ter functioning. This occurs when the plant finds its nutrients in the soil.

2.1. Sustain Dimension

To sustain the landscape pattern and especially plantation pattern, it is curial to include in the design process an irrigation system suitable for regular irrigation for plantation. The same concept goes for constructing an adequate compost system within the school. Responsibility group should be created between the school member and the funding bodies to ensure sustaining the project. At the same time incentive system should be monitored by the GAEB to motivate the school for regular enhancing strategies in the courtyard.

As a kick off, capacity building programs should be set to the teachers in the school, the same for the student to raise awareness with the importance of the plantation in modifying the climate and the means of care and maintain. Also, regular professional supervision for the plantation is required. After an exten-sive research and discussions, a special attention is required in the following fields:

2.1. 1 Site and soil improvement This includes site grading, and removal of wastes and undesired materials (ElMasry 2014). In addition to soil improvement materials, after investigating the soil quality and its needs, e.g. Adding water in case of high salinity or adding potassium for better flowering (EL-hayyal, 2014). And adding compost heaps i.e. small-scale compost system•Small-scale compost system: This system seems to be complicated but it is easy and ensure its applicability in different school. The following fig.66, provides a brief illustration how the process works, starting from collecting organic materials, and simple methods for storing till reusing it again within the plantation area.

98

Applying knowledge

2.1.2 Water supply & irrigation system As mentioned earlier that the evapotranspiration process depends on the amount of water required by the plant, in addition to the plant need to sustain life (Badr,2014;(FAO 2009). Thus, it is essential to improve and secure an adequate water supply, develop a water management policy and establish an adequate irri-gation network that suits the school site (FAO 2005). Various simple techniques developed, in arid regions where water is scarce, to harvest water i.e. rain water collecting system that aids the water irrigation system.

2.1.3. Participation and Responsibility

Participation and responsibility are the key indicator towards a better courtyard, a matrix of school members, experts and interested actors undertake the process of designing and implementation, the matrix shown in fig.67, in the courtyard.

The process of designing intimately involve the students and other school’s space users to fulfil their required needs within the courtyard. And to maintain the func-

Figure 66: Composting process that can be applicable in the context of the school, information is adopted from Badr2014 &(CWMI n.d.; Kennedy et al. 2009), and compiled by the author.

99


tionality of implementation, especially when it comes to plantation in the context of schools, a regular maintenance and monitoring is required. The creation of responsibility team can successfully sustain the implementation when members work co-operatively. Whereas, this team can involve experts in different fields, students, school principal, teachers, and other school members, in addition to

Figure 67 The matrix of involved actors in the design process of the school courtyards, adopted from (Foster et al. 2006).

100

Applying knowledge

2.2.Benefits Dimension In case of limited budget and no money, it is important to implement interven-tions according to the requirements and pirorities. These priorities are set ac-cording to the outcomes and benefits the users want. Inspired from the defina-tion of Cost Benifit Analysis,simply, cost vs benefits can be calculated by:

Initial cost: this is the initial payment start in order to implement such an inter-vention in the courtyard. The list below includes the number of elements needed before implementation

Type Area Cost Benefitssmall scale compost systemIrrigation system networkTreesSand including transportationLabourProfessional supervision

Running cost: the regular cost need to maintain sustaining the overall interven-tion, where trees can sustain growing in a healthy where it can receive a regular care and a supervision

Type Cost BenefitProfessional supervision + maintenance

18 Each tree has its own level of acceptance for the water salinity, in hot arid regions, due to the limited rainfall and drainage, salt and minerals are not removed from the soil, which lead to the increase in the soil salinity. In the meantime, Desert development centre in AUC conducts some research on a range of acceptance of the plants to salinity (Badr, 2014).

Table 3: Inital cost phase form to be filled to aid the decision ,author

Table 4: running cost phase form to be filed to aid the decision,author

101


interested parents and experts as well (Bansbach et al. 2012; ZAS Architects & Associates 1995; Foster et al. 2006).

2.2.1. Better School Standards:The school earns an enviable reputation for developing enhanced landscape set-ting within the courtyard with the collaboration of different actors in the process of development. I.e., The participation of school members and students in the design process, and its future implementation, together with professional ex-perts. In addition to the involvement of interested parents and actors together with school members in the implementation phase. This participation platform mount a balanced design and management structure hostile aesthetic, functional and financial considerations.The quality standard in the school increase with the aid of the aforementioned process of participation, so that the school range of activities and opportunities undertaken will: meet the educational needs and increase the educational spaces when building and courtyard are integrated into one entity; ensure a good envi-ronmental quality; encourages interested actors to invest in the school by regular funding and other means of required improvements.

2.2.2 Educational Standards: Developing the courtyard with enhanced landscape setting, where plantation thrives, provides a better educational environment as it: firstly, creates a healthy well-being space for the students; secondly, encourages the sense of responsibil-ity and belonging, and stimulate creativity for the students when taking care and growing plants, and also source of revenue when planting edible plants; thirdly, creates sheltered, safe and secure outdoor teaching spaces that ample opportuni-ties to enrich the school’s offered curriculum. In addition to providing acceptable standards for sports facilities such as shaded audience sitting and rest spaces during play.

102

Applying knowledge

103


105


106

Applying knowledge

Chapter 8:Conclusion & Recommendations

1. Conclusion

As a start, with limited knowledge in the field of climatology and its surround-ing effects, it was crucial to “build knowledge” about the climatic quality of the space in general, and specifically the climatic research in Egypt, shown in the following figures. The outcome directly eased the selection of the case to study, which was the public school courtyards in Egypt. “Interpret knowledge” en-riched building the knowledge when exploring the landscape patterns of public schools, reviewing General Authority of Educational Buildings (GAEB) court-yards design guidelines and conducting interviews with members in architec-ture department gave a further insight about the landscape patterns in public schools. Also, highlighted on GAEB’s future vision towards designing court-yards and revealed the gap between the guideline and implementation. Inves-tigating the landscape patterns, also, aided in the selection of the case study, El-Sherouk school. A sample of El-Sherouk school members: teachers, princi-pal, vice principal and a student, through discussions have posed the climatic problems of the courtyard design, adaptation strategies of the students towards thermal dissatisfaction, current landscape status and future plans for landscap-ing, and the major and minor complications occurred in landscaping. The find-ing of these observations and group interviewing for thermal dissatisfaction, on a specific day and time, with the aid of shading analysis via Sketch up software, verifies the simulation results of ENVI-met that falls in the same range of ther-

107


mal discomfort. The same profound outcomes when meeting experts, group dis-cussions and consultation with the panel of experts and researches all around the world via the online research blogs, broaden and enriched the designing strategies and possibilities within the school courtyard. In addition to the better understanding of ENVI-met software inputs and simulation outcomes.

Unlikely, building knowledge in the microclimatic effects of landscape patterns on human thermal comfort enriched interpreting knowledge in using ENVI-met software. Consequently, detailed simulation analysis was run and tested. The simulation included the acquired local outdoor microclimate and the microcli-matic effects of different landscape elements, particularly trees, which interpret-ed ENVI-met simulation run outcomes. Also, influenced the iterative process of testing and retesting different landscape possibilities to enhance the courtyard, as shown in the case study analysis diagram in methodology, to reach to a better microclimate in the courtyard. Whereas, the selection of the landscape patterns is based upon, “build knowledge”, the bioclimatic landscape matrix developed by Hassan for Delta and Nile region. The simulation results actively conclude strategies for enhancement of EL-Sherouk school and afterwards, the definition of CLSD in the context of public schools. These results reaffirmed that plan-tation contribute to the student’s lifestyle, stimulate the natural environment, and provide a welcoming educational atmosphere within the school courtyard. The results also ensured that trees, among other plantation, modify the micro-climate and promote a welfare comfortable outdoor climate, through altering the harsh microclimate by shading and evapotranspiration effects. These effects vary according to the canopy silhouette, tree species, trees size, regular care and maintenance. The previously mentioned effects strongly modify the wind, relative humidity, solar radiation, and terrestrial radiation from the ground and other surfaces. Within the school’s small scale courtyard, trees substantially contribute in modifying the microclimate. Contribution is strongly observed in the following: a) solar radiation attenuation; b) wind speed and direction modification; c) negligible temperature reduction and limited humidity change due to the small size of the courtyard. Besides, the leaf reflectance and the trees geometry, strongly affect the modification range, whilst the external abiotic factors and trees size also can affect the trees performance.

108

Applying knowledge

When applying “building knowledge” and “interpreting knowledge”, trees can create distinctive microclimatic quality and actively promote enhanced ther-mal comfort on elevated temperature during summer time through Climatic Sensitive Landscape Design (CSLD) for public schools courtyard. This design includes the following: a) the landscape element b) the setting c) the spatial location of the elements within the space; d) clustering types of the elements; e) the terrestrial radiation of the materials. In addition to f) the sustaining dimen-sion and g) benefits dimension that highly influence the performance of planta-tions, especially in the context of schools.

Given the importance of plantation in ameliorating the microclimate, it is highly recommended to use ENVI-met software. Although, ENVI-met v3.1 software, version used in this thesis, urgently requires an updated user interface that seems to be outdated compared to other indoor simulation softwares such as Ecotect. Also, modelling the context is time consuming, especially in large are-as, and is liable to errors. Besides, the limited built-in trees database that lacks the surviving trees in the context of Egypt, urges to pass by a long calculations journey to input these new trees. Also, the unavailable 3D visualization acquires more time to visualize the simulation inputs for the non-ENVI-met users to understand the whole modelling process.

ENVI-met software, however, perfectly understand the microclimatic effect of trees through the designing process, which gives an insight on CSLD under local climatic conditions. Also, due to the microclimate complexity in the outdoor spaces, especially with researchers with no background in the field of clima-tology and landscape practice, it is highly recommended to utilize ENVI-met software in their case studies. As the software quickly assist the interpretation of the microclimate interactions through “trial-and-error” tests within a short time, with taking into account microclimatic basics and literature review.

109


Build Knowledge

Apply Knowledge

Interpret Knowledge

Getting to the context of schools

landscape patterns

Case Study selection

Analysis

Background

Outdoor microclimate

&Microclimaitc

effects of Landscpe

ENVI-met

Modeling &

SimulationBase Case

Iterative Process of testing

possibilities

CSLD EL-Sherouk School

CSLD

Tailored CSLD

Tool Box

Compiling IUSD Research line

Resutls

Methods to sustain Interventions Literature review

Field SurveyExpert Consultation Best Practice

ENVI-met Field SurveyExpert Consultation Researcher virtual networks

Figure 68: Conclusion, Author

Design dimensionLandscape elementSetting Spatial location of the elementsClustering types of the elementsTerrestrial radiation of the materials

Sustaining dimensionSite and soil improvementwater supply and irrigation systemsParticipation and responsibility

Benefits dimension Benefits vs.Cost

110

Applying knowledge

Architectural Building

External Context

Landscape Architecture

Schools /Governmental Buildings

- Possible landscape patterns based on the trees and other landscape perfor-mance - Implementation phasing in case of limited funds based on priorities - Propose possible trees adaptable with the ago-climatic conditions , aesthet-ic, safe.... Etc.- Allocate the essentials to sus-tain and maintain the landscape i.e. de-compost bins, water irrigation network- Means to propagate soft-scape ele-ments- Coming Benefits

Design Develop adequate design guideline

CSLD tool box Implementation according to landscape design manual

Monitoring and regular mainte-nance

Provision of land-scape manual for future implemen-tation

Follow up during implementation according to the priority

No Funding

Implementation

Architectural Building

External Context

Landscape Architecture

Schools /Governmental Buildings

External Funding

NGOsCBOs

Individuals Initiatives

Funding Representatives School

Students Parents

Professionals +

Funding Body(In case of external funding)

Statuesque of the landscape elements.

Professional regular mainte-nance.

Users are qualified to main-tain landscape.

Regular field Investigation Students and teachers ques-

tionnaire

Write feedback Develop methods to bridge

the gaps

According to the gaps in the evaluation stage

Supervision

Committee

Responsible

Sense of ownership

Essential to form Monitoring

Through

Evaluate

Implement

Regular Maintenance & Evaluation

Figure 69: Recommendations to enhance GAEB courtyard design guideline,Author

111


2. Recommendations

Most of the public schools lack CSLD dimension, originally, GAEB does not con-sider the landscape design within the courtyard, stating that there is no enough budget. Therefore, shown in fig.69, some recommendations are proposed to GAEB organization to involve the CSLD within the courtyards, even in the case of no available budget. These recommendations firstly, starts from the design phase, passing through the implementation phase, and ends on how to sustain these implementation. Within the design phase of the courtyard, CSLD toolbox, shown in fig.70, is in cooperated to provide guidance to landscape architects while designing the courtyard. The toolbox includes strategies for the existing courtyards and new courtyards as well. Also, the toolbox directs the young re-searchers on how to use ENVI-met in testing different landscape possibilities.

3. Suggestion for further research

Based on this thesis study, the climatic quality of the courtyard is not only affected by the landscape only, but also from the surrounding context. Such as the building itself and the surrounding urban morphology. Thus, it is important to investigate the climatic dimensions of the site design and the planning level. Also, the effect of plantation patterns on enhancing the comfort level in the indoor space.Given the importance of the simulation software as a tool that aid the design process in different planning levels, it is recommended to get the benefit of IUSD prior climatic research, shown in fig.71. That includes enhancing the climatic quality in the indoor and outdoor spaces to develop a climatic design guideline for the governmental schools. This would be the kick off to initiate a platform to compile the climatic research in Egypt with the collaboration of experts in the field of climatology, simulation software, experienced actors in schools.

112

Applying knowledge

ENVI-met Design iterative Process Designing

Testing

Retesting

CSLD Tool Box ! ..... Sustain

Composting Process

Organic Materials

Collection

Forming Compost

Using Compost

Garden clipping and food scraps in containers

Gardening Mulch, food wastes, other organic materials

Applicabile in the context of schools

Add it in the plants

Site and Soil improvement

Irrigation Network

Proffesional supervision

Maintaince and Care

Grey Water Network

Functioning Irrigation Network

Fog SystemsRain water harvesting

School members

Owners

Experts

Interested Parents

Interested Community NGOs

Landscape design

Agriculture

Other

Leadership

CBOsIndividuals Others

Students +

Participation &Responsibility

Decision vs Benefits

Spreading

*Canopy Silhouette

Round

Conical

Vase Oval Weeping

Shading analysis

Trees

Shrubs

Green cover

Evergreen

Deciduous

*Semi-deciduous

Linear arrangement

Sand

Summer *Winter South

East

North

West

Upper middle Lower middle

Group arrangement

Cement Brick

Random

Elements Type

Time

Clustering

Pavements

Location

*Light Structure

Concrete structure Trellis

Verses

ENVI-MET

Running cost

113


Figure 71: Future suggestion , Author

116

ReferencesList of References

Abdel Wahed, A.H., 1989. Enviromental Planning & Designing for Green Public spaces in Citites [AR], Cairo, Egypt: Dar El-Maaref.Abreu-harbich, L.V. De, Labaki, L.C. & Matzarakis, A., 2012. Different Trees and configuration as microclimate control strategy in Tropics. In Inter national conference on Urban Climates. Dublin Ireland: ICUC8, pp. 8–11.Anon, New Urban Communities Authroity. Available at: http://www.newcities. gov.eg/english/aboutUs/achievments/default.aspx [Accessed May 12, 2014].Anon, 2012. Shagara. Available at: https://www.facebook.com/shagaraNGO [Accessed February 27, 2014].Attia, S., 2006. The role of landscape design in improving the microclimate in traditional courtyard-buildings in hot arid climates. In Passive and low Energy Architecture. Geneva,Switzerland, pp. 6–8. Available at: www. unige.ch.Badr, M., 2010. School Effects on Educational Attainment in Egypt. CREDIT Research Paper, No. 12/ 05(12), p.60.Bansbach, J. et al., 2012. A Practical Guide to Planning , Constructing , and Using School Courtyards,Bruse, M., 1993. Assessing Thermal Comfort in Urban Environments using an Integrated Dynamic Microscale Biometeorological Model System. In AMS-Davis. pp. 2–4.Bruse, M., ENVI-met. Available at: http://www.envi-met.com/ [Accessed April 16, 2014].Bryan, H. & Rosheidat, A., 2010. OPTIMIZING THE EFFECT OF VEGETA TION FOR PEDESTRIAN THERMAL COMFORT AND URBAN HEAT ISLAND MITIGATION IN Problem : Proposal :Cavagna, G. a, Franzetti, P. & Fuchimoto, T., 1983. The mechanics of walking in children. The Journal of physiology, 343, pp.323–39. Available at: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1193922&tool=p-mcentrez&rendertype=abstract.

117

Cervelli-Schach, J., 1985. Landscape Design with Plants: Creating Outdoor Rooms. , (Figure 1). Available at: http://scholar.google.com/schol ar?hl=en&btnG=Search&q=intitle:Landscape+design+with+Plants:Cre ating+Outdoor+Rooms#0 [Accessed July 3, 2014].Charles, K.E., 2003. Fanger’s Thermal Comfort and Draught Models. Institute for Research in Construction research report, RR-162. CWMI, Designs for Composting Systems. Available at: http://cwmi.css. cornell.edu/composting.htm.Daily News Egypt, 2012. Colouring Cairo green. Available at: http://www.dai ynewsegypt.com/2012/10/31/colouring-cairo-green/ [Accessed Febru ary 28, 2014].EERE, 2012. Egypt weather data. Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/ buildings/energyplus/cfm/weather_data3.cfm/region=1_africa_wmo_ region_1/country=EGY/cname=Egypt [Accessed May 4, 2014].El-Bardisy, W. & Charaf, F., 2013. Shaping Process.ElMasry, L.E., 2014. Landscape Architecture and The Planting Design of Al- Azhar Park [AR] First., Cairo, Egypt: El-Sherouk International Library.Erell, E., Pearlmutter, D. & Williamson, T., 2011. Urban Microclimate:Design ing Spaces between Buildings, London: Routledge.Fahmy, M., 2010. Interactive Urban Form Design of Local Climate Scale in Hot semi-arid Zone. The University of Sheffield.Fahmy, M., Sharples, S. & Yahiya, M., 2010a. LAI based trees selection for mid latitude urban developments: A microclimatic study in Cairo, Egypt. ElSevier, 45(2), pp.345–357. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier. com/retrieve/pii/S0360132309001589 [Accessed January 9, 2014].FAO, 2009. ETo Calculator - Evapotranspiration from a reference surface (CD- ROM).FAO, 2005. Setting up and running a school garden, Rome. Available at: ftp:// ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/012/a0218e/a0218e.pdf.Foster, A. et al., 2006. Designing School Grounds, United Kingdom: Tso Shops. Available at: www.tsoshop.co.uk.Gado, T. & Mohamed, M., 2009. Assessment of thermal comfort inside primary governmental classrooms in hot-dry climates Part I – a case study from Egypt. In SUE-MoT 2009 Second International Conference on Whole Life Urban Sustainability and its Assessment. Loughborough, UK, pp. 979 – 990.

118

Georgi, J.N. & Dimitriou, D., 2010. The contribution of urban green spaces to the improvement of environment in cities: Case study of Chania, Greece. Build-ing and Environment, 45(6), pp.1401–1414. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360132309003564 [Accessed March 20, 2014].Gut, P. & Ackerknecht, D., 1993. Climate responsive Building 1 by Swiss., SKAT.Harvey, M.R.., 1989. Children’s experiences with vegetation. Childern’s En viroments Quarterly, 6(1), pp.36–43. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/ stable/41515235.IERS, 1992. Enviromental design guideline for primary schools [AR],ILPO, 2012. Technologies for Ecosystem Design and Ecological Engineering 1st ed. A. Stockman & M. Bellers, eds., Stuttgart: IUSD.Jubran, I. t. & Hizon, D. V., 1999. Landscape plants in the arab golf countries, Floraprint.Kalifa, H.A.E.-M.A., 2008. The Utilization of Vegetation to Enhance Human Comfort Conditions in Outdoor Urban Spaces in Hot Arid Zones. Cairo University. Available at: http://www.eng.cu.edu.eg/postgraduates/the sis/tabid/143/default.aspx?page=3&ThesisId=895.Kenawy, I.M., Afifi, M.M. & Mahmoud, A.H., 2010. The Effect of Planting De sign on Thermal Comfort in Outdoor Spaces. In FISC 2010 : Proceedings of the First International Conference on Sustainability and the Fu ture : Future intermediate sustainable cities : a message to future gener ations. El-Sherouk City, Egypt: Elain Publishing Company, pp. 144–154.Kennedy, D., Buchanan, M. & Hutchinson, R., 2009. Composting at School. Available at: http://www.createyourowneden.org.nz/schools_docs/Cre ate your own Eden School Resource - Composting at School .pdf.Khaled, R., 2013. Shagara association sets up small farms and plants trees in Egypt’s urban sprawl. Egypt Independent. Available at: http://www. egyptindependent.com//print/1540031 [Accessed February 27, 2014].Kotzen, B., 2003. An investigation of shade under six different tree species of the Negev desert towards their potential use for enhancing mi cro-climatic conditions in landscape architectural development. Jour nal of Arid Environments, 55(2), pp.231–274. Available at: http://link inghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140196303000302 [Accessed April 10, 2014].Laylin, T., 2013. Rooftop Farm in Egypt Finally Trumps Red Tape. Available at: http://www.greenprophet.com/2013/02/shagara-rooftop-farm- egypt-red-tape/.

119

Lenzholzer, S., 2010. Designing Atmospheres. Wageningen University. Availa ble at: http://edepot.wur.nl/139053.Mahmoud, A.H., 2011a. An analysis of bioclimatic zones and implications for design of outdoor built environments in Egypt. Building and Environ ment, 46(3), pp.605–620. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/ retrieve/pii/S0360132310002775 [Accessed July 20, 2014].Mahmoud, A.H., 2011b. Analysis of the microclimatic and human comfort conditions in an urban park in hot and arid regions. Building and Envi ronment, 46(12), pp.2641–2656. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevi er.com/retrieve/pii/S0360132311002058 [Accessed April 7, 2014].Mayer, H. & Ali-toudert, F., Effects of street design on outdoor thermal comfort. , pp.45–55. Available at: http://nargeo.geo.uni.lodz.pl/~icuc5/ text/O_20_2.pdf.MOE, 2013. School Schedule 2013/2014, Available at: http://services.moe.gov. eg/A3AD2036-8013-484E-BC1D-6B7F80E550C9/FinalDownload/Downloa-dId-BD21E3F0BBF87B0545272A4D30536143/A3AD2036-8013-484E-BC1D-6B7F80E550C9/time_map/map_2014.pdf.NGDC, 1992. Significant Earthquake. Available at: http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/ nndc/struts/results?eq_0=5339&t=101650&s=13&d=22,26,13,12&nd= display [Accessed January 3, 2014].Nikolopoulou, M., Lykoudis, S. & Kikira, M., 2003. THERMAL COMFORT IN OUTDOOR SPACES : FIELD STUDIES IN GREECE. In 5th Internation al Conference on Urban Climate. Lodz.Oke, T.., 1987. Boundry Layer Climates Second Edi., Taylor & Francis e-Library.Ozkeresteci, I. et al., 2003. USE AND EVALUATION OF THE ENVI-MET MODEL FOR ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN AND PLANNING : AN EX PERIMENT ON LINEAR PARKS. In Catrographic Renaissance. pp. 402 –409.Setaih, K., Hamza, N. & Townshend, T., 2013. ASSESSMENT OF OUTDOOR THERMAL COMFORT IN URBAN. In 13th Conference of Internation-al Building Performance Simulation Association. Chambéry, France, pp. 3153–3160.Shalaby, H., 2007. The School Planning Process and Maintenance of School In frastructure in Egypt. In J. Peery et al., eds. School Building Design and Learning Performance with a Focus on Schools in Developing Countries. Switzerland, pp. 75 – 84.Shashua-Bar, L., Pearlmutter, D. & Erell, E., 2011. The influence of trees and

120

grass on outdoor thermal comfort in a hot-arid environment. Interna tional Journal of Climatology, 31(10), pp.1498–1506. Available at: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/joc.2177 [Accessed January 9, 2014].Stokman, A. & Bellers, M., 2013. Urban Ecology and Ecosystem Design II. The Univeristy of Arizona, Tree Architecture and a Simple Tree Model. Tree Arch Lab. Available at: http://people.virginia.edu/~dlr2n/classes/ EVSC430L/TreeArchLab/L6javatree.html.Toudert, F.A., 2005. Dependence of Outdoor Thermal Comfort on Street Design in Hot and Dry Climate. Universitat Freiburg.Tsuyoshi, H., 2009. Thermal Comfort in Outdoor Environment. , pp.43–47. UNICEF Egypt, 2005. Education. Available at: http://www.unicef.org/ egypt/education.html [Accessed January 3, 2014].Vidmar, J., 2013. Evaluation of simulation tools for assessment of urban form based on physical performance. Available at: https://www.aca demia.edu/4820747/Evaluation_of_simulation_tools_for_assess ment_of_urban_form_based_on_physical_performance.Wanas, O., 2013. ASSESSING THERMAL COMFORT IN SECONDRY SCHOOLS IN EGYPT. IUSD, (1).ZAS Architects & Associates, H., 1995. Green School Resource Guide,

121

Interveiws

Badr, M. (2014). Interview with the landscape architect in DDC, AUC Cario.capresi, V. (2014). LMPG initiators.El-Hayyal, M. (2014). Head of El-Sherouk “Mashtal”.El-Sayed, M. (2014). Meeting with the head of the architectural department in GAEB.members, S. (2014). School members interveiw.Mourad, M. (2014). Consultation in Landscape design.Rafaat, M. (2014). Landscape situation in Egypt.Salah, H. (2014). Meeting with Landscape Architect.

Blogs

El-Bardisy, W. (2014). Any tips for climatic landscape designs in school’s court yards, in focus to hot arid regions ? also design considerations ?. [Blog] Amer-ican Society of Landscape Architects. Available at: https://www.linkedin.com/groupItem?view=&gid=63746&type=member&item=5873086533866647554&-qid=2ee7b890-7b51-4856-a2a6-fcef41629cf8&trk=gro%E2%80%A6 [Accessed 27 Jun. 2014].

El-Bardisy, W. (2014). Can anyone tell me about the validity of PMV in EN-VI-met software? Any recommendations for appropriate evaluation for the effect of vegetation?. [Blog] Research gate. Available at: https://www.research-gate.net/post/Can_anyone_tell_me_about_the_validity_of_PMV_in_EN-VI-met_software_Any_recommendations_for_appropriate_evaluation_for_the_effect_of_vegetation [Accessed 14 May. 2014].

122

AppendixAppendix 1: Initaitive Profile in the context of Public Schools

1. Shagara Association:Shagara association is a non-governmental organisation (NGO) founded by a group of Egyptian activistsTheir aim is to: enhance the climatic quality in Egypt through awareness pro-grams.

Their vision is to: involve plantation in schools, where students establishes their own micro-farms in the school and transfer the experience to their families. This can indirectly increase the living standards of the families and the aware-ness of the community as well.

Practical Implementation The first phase of the project, shown in the following figure, is to plant organic vegetables on the roof top of Hassan Abu- Bakr School. It has been successfully implemented, although facing obstacles in funding and bureaucracy. This phase includes the participation of the school teaching stuff and the students.

Further work of the association The second phase is still in progress, which include planting indigenous trees in the school courtyard,shown in the figure below (Anon 2012; Khaled 2013; Daily News Egypt 2012; Laylin 2013).

Figure 72: Rooftop gardening in Hassan abu-bakr school in Qalyoubeya, Egypt, right side the implemented project, left the further work of the

initiative , adoped from Shagara association

123

2. Learn-Move-Play-Ground (LMPG):

Initiated and organised by Learn, Learn, Move, and Play is seriesof small-scale pilot projects initiated by Barbara Pampe and Vittoria Capresi (GUC, Architec-ture and Urban Design Program)

PartnersFinanced by DAAD on behalf of GMFASupported by MOE, GAEB, ECPC, CCT; in the collaboration with several local and German partners.

Aim-Forming an adequate playground space for primary students in their public schools, as not all families can afford membership payment in a sports club.-Increasing environmental awareness among the students and the society (bala-dilab, 2014) VisionTo deepen the sense of belonging and ownership; and fulfil the needs. Students are the main participant in the design process including both brainstorming and implementation phases, with the aid of local experts. Moreover, teaching stuff, who in some cases are parents, take part in the brainstorming process as well, however apart from the students in order not to seize their dreams (Khaled 2012; Capres & Pampe 2013).

Practical Implementation

It has been implemented through a series of small-scale pilot projects carried out as workshops in various public schools in Cairo. One of these workshops is Kods School located in Ard El Lewa, Giza. This school has relatively a large courtyard. The conspicuous absence of the landscape elements, especially shad-ing elements such as trees or other light structure, motivates the students to highlight, while brainstorming, this issue and the need for shading elements. As a result, seen in fig, 17, during the implementation some shading trees are add-ed to fulfil the students needs. Although the courtyard land has a rich agricul-tural soil , some trees did not survive living and quickly died (Campresi& Pampe

124

2014). After an extensive research, it is revealed that the consultation of experts in the field agriculture had not been taken into account; in addition, it lacked a regular maintenance for the trees, knowing that newly installed trees need an extensive care in order to adopt with the new context and sustain.

3. Quality Educational Support Program (QESP):

QESP is a development aid project conducted under the patronage of the Ger-man Co-operation projects that was founded in 1994. PartnersFinanced by KfW Entwicklungsbank (German development Bank).Executed by the Egyptian Ministry of Education (MOE)AimDevelopment aid project aims to support primary education in Egypt under the umbrella of the German co-operation project.VisionDesigning, constructing, managing, and maintaining schoolsPractical Implementation Their executive works included the construction, building extensions, and re-habilitation of 120 school buildings in Sohag and Asyut governorates. They are executed under particular architectural design guidelines developed by QESBFurther work Publishing a book promoting for architectural design guidelines.

Figure 73: The conceptual idea and the implementation in Kods School, Ard el lewa, adopted from (Capres & Pampe 2013)

125

4. Governmental initiatives:A protocol between the Ministry of Education (MOE) and the Egyptian Envi-ronmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) to increase the environmental awareness of the students in schools (Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) 2011; Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) 2010). This campaign starts by planting trees in various governmental schools in Cairo, Hurghada, and Giza governorate as cited in several articles.

Figure 74: Structural organization of QESB and its internal developed design guidelines for implementation, data from QESP, compiled by the Author.

126

Appendix 2: Plants Profile

1. Assesement of GAEB suggested trees

Ficuis Nidtida Poinciana

Regia

Acacia

Arabica

Albizia

Lebbeck

Morus Alba

Height (m) 8 6 7-12 18-24 10-18Canopy Width

“Spread” (m)12 12 8 12-15

Leaf

colo

ur

Dark green

Green

Yellowish green

Leaf

wid

th Needle

Planar

Folia

ge Dense

Low

Text

ure Fine

Rough

Leaf

thic

knes

s Thin

Thick

B

ranc

hing

Spreading /oval

/spreading

Columnar /

Pyramidal

Weeping

Can

opy

Form

Evergreen

Deciduous

Flowering Golden

yellow flowers

Cha

ract

eris

tics

Arid regions Adaptable Adaptable

Grows on

sandy and

loamy soil

Prefer well

drained soil

Prefer deep

well drained

soil

Salt tolerance High high Medium low

Drought

tolerance

High high Medium medium

Nutrition

requirement

Low

Water

consumptionlow medium medium

Growth rate Fast Fasr with

moderate

irrigation

Poisonous

fruits

Fruits fall

Table 5: Assesing GAEB suggested trees, information adapted from (Jubran & Hizon, 1999; Kalifa, 2008)

127

2. Developing Creiteria for trees selection

It is crucial to develop a criteria in order to select the trees where it can be ade-quate to the context. Various tree species seem to grow successfully in the con-text of Egypt, although, not all of these species are adequate to grow in schools. Thus, from the aforementioned literature and in-depth discussions, see appen-dix, with experts in the field of landscape design, ecosystem based design, and local practitioners in re-designing governmental school courtyards, a criteria is set for trees selection that is adequate for the context of the school from the climatic perspective. The criteria of selection of tress includes the following:

1-Abundant foliage and height to create adequate shading and draft the wind.2-Long life time and highly durable i.e. hard and can bear students playing in the courtyard.3-Suitable for agro-climatic conditions. 4-Meet aesthetic requirements.5-Indigenous / native species, that in most cases functions better than alien plants.6-Safe to plant in the context of the schools i.e. it is not toxic, irritating or spiny and thorny, especially in the elementary stage courtyard. 7-Fast to medium growing habit.8-Low in cost and a source revenue for the students i.e. propagates easily and/or edible9-Adequate height to meet the context of schools.

3. Life span and succession stages

Over time, plant passes by different successional development stages till it reaches its mature stage. Starting from a bare rock on the ground till the mature /fast growing trees, passing by intermediate stages of mosses and grasses, grasses perennials, woody pioneers that enhances the quality of soil and increase the biodiversity range (Stokman & Bellers 2013). Within these stages human interfere with different strategies such as 1) developing strategy, which include the removal of dead and survived plants, and adding

128

new plants adaptable with the context and capable to introduce biodiversity; 2) preserving strategy, usually with forest and old mature trees, which include regular maintenance to avoid hazard and limiting or keeping the plants growth; 3) Freezing strategy include the removal of the plants and decreasing the quality of the soil so that no plants invasion occurs (El-Bardisy & Charaf 2013).

In specific focus on the intermediate stage of woody pioneers till mature stage / fast growing trees, woody pioneers are wooden elements with a number of leaves where the apical dominance is fairly seen. Whilst, when reaching the mature case, apical dominance appears, which is conceptualized in canopies shapes (The Univeristy of Arizona n.d.).

Figure 75: Life span and succesion stages adopted from (Stokman & Bellers 2013;El-Bardisy & Charaf 2013), complied by author

129

3. Preparing plantation database for ENVI-met inputs

Input of the plants in ENVI-met plants database.

ID = Plant IDC? = type of the plant according to co2 fixation, if unknown C3 TY = Type of the plant, 01 = deciduous, 02 = conifers (never lose leaves), 03 = grassRs_min = minimum stomata resistance of the plant, if unknown 400 for trees, 200 for grass.a_f = short-wave albedo of the leaf’s plant, 0.20 is common caseHH.HH = the height of the plant in metersTT.TT = Total depth of the root zone in positive valuesLAD1 to LAD10 = Leaf Area Density in m2/m3 for the 10 data pointsRAD1 to RAD10 = the root area density in m2/m3 for the 10 data points Name = name of the plant and any other specifications.(Bruse 2002).

LAD and LAI parameters

Leaf Area Density (LAD) and Leaf Area Index (LAI) are two conceptual canopy modelling parameters, which explicit the heat exchange between trees and its surrounding environment.

The leaf area index (LAI), which is defined as the leaf area per unit of ground area covered by the projected area of the crown, is then calculated by vertically integrating the LAD profile data. (Hosoi & Omasa n.d.:1)

LAI is a dimensionless unit of the upper leaves area on a unit tree ground area, Leaf area m2/ground area m2 for broadleaf canopies. Whilst, LAD represents vertical foliage structure of the leaves along horizontal sectioning in the tree, where it expresses the total single leaf area/unit volume, calculated via empirical modelling or field measurements. These parameters aid the selection of a suitable tree species under specific climatic conditions, calculated via empirical modelling or field measurement (Fahmy et al. 2010a)

130

For semi-arid mid latitude regions such as Egypt, an empirical value LAI, known that the LAI is the key param-eter of the tree foliage, of 1 is used to generate LAD profiles for ENVI-met plant database. The input needed to generate LAD via integration software (see the figure below), are: 1) the lower limit of integration; 2) the upper limit of integration; 3) the height Zm ; 4) number of sub-intervals, which is this case is 10,that will be stretched or compressed according to the height of the plant ; 5)value of LAI, which in this case is 1 (Fahmy et al. 2010).

Method to generate Leaf Area Density profiles

Figure 75: tree canopy parameters, Author.

Adding treesInput of the existing plants in the courtyard in ENVI-met plants database.Assumptions:For Root depth TT.TT: grass = 0.5; trees 1.5 - 2 Empirical LAD of 1 is used.Number of sub-intervals are 10.Lower and upper limit for integration, Zm depends on the plant type, assumptions according to the mature shape of the specific plants

131

Figure 75: tree canopy parameters, Author.

T1 C

3 02

400

0.2

0 04

.00

02.0

0 0.

299

0.36

0 0.

418

0.45

4 0.

455

0.44

6 0.

421

0.36

8 0.

258

0.06

8 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 tr

ee 0

4m,F

icus

Nit

ida,

roun

d cr

own

T2 C

3 02

400

0.2

0 05

.00

02.0

0 0.

055

0.08

1 0.

121

0.18

0 0.

268

0.38

2 0.

480

0.48

3 0.

434

0.24

3 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 tr

ee 0

5m,T

ecom

a St

ans,

vas

e ca

nopy

,yel

low

flow

erin

gT3

C3

02 4

00 0

.20

04.0

0 02

.00

0.14

5 0.

193

0.25

4 0.

324

0.38

9 0.

412

0.40

5 0.

376

0.29

9 0.

115

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

tree

04m

,Aca

cia

Salig

na,s

prea

ding

wee

pig

cano

pyT4

C3

02 4

00 0

.20

04.0

0 02

.00

0.20

3 0.

267

0.34

6 0.

433

0.50

5 0.

522

0.51

0 0.

471

0.38

9 0.

136

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

tree

04m

,Cit

rus

Lem

onT5

C3

01 4

00 0

.20

05.0

0 02

.00

0.31

0 0.

356

0.39

0 0.

396

0.39

3 0.

390

0.35

6 0.

300

0.19

9 0.

044

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

tree

05m

,Dol

enix

Reg

iaT6

C3

01 4

00 0

.20

06.0

0 02

.00

0.26

2 0.

283

0.28

8 0.

286

0.28

0 0.

266

0.24

2 0.

197

0.12

1 0.

021

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

tree

06m

,cas

ia n

edoz

aT7

C3

01 4

00 0

.20

02.0

0 02

.00

0.41

7 0.

463

0.75

6 0.

990

1.23

1 1.

364

1.34

8 1.

266

1.02

6 0.

421

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

tree

02m

,Fra

nesi

ana

T8 C

3 02

400

0.2

0 12

.00

02.0

0 0.

149

0.14

8 0.

147

0.14

4 0.

138

0.12

8 0.

112

0.04

7 0.

046

0.00

5 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 Tr

ee 1

2m,C

asua

rina

,Tal

l con

ical

cro

wn,

inco

nspi

cuou

s le

aves

, and

yel

low

flo

wer

sT9

C3

02 4

00 0

.20

15.0

0 02

.00

0.02

2 0.

032

0.04

7 0.

070

0.10

1 0.

141

0.17

2 0.

171

0.15

2 0.

083

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

tree

15m

kaf

our

Tz C

3 01

400

0.2

0 06

.00

02.0

0 0.

900

0.85

8 0.

801

0.72

7 0.

631

0.51

0 0.

360

0.19

4 0.

062

0.00

1 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 Tr

ee 0

6m,J

acar

anda

Act

ufol

iaS1

C3

02 4

00 0

.20

01.0

0 01

.00

0.05

6 0.

100

0.14

8 0.

251

0.44

4 0.

805

1.45

1 2.

335

0.53

0 1.

916

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

0.10

0 0.

100

shru

b 1m

,dv

Figure 76: Inputs for the existing trees in the courtyard and new trees added,author

132

Climatic analysis for May monthPoint A, 14th may, repre-sents the extreme tempera-ture records in the month, while point B records the average dry bulb tempera-ture, of 24.8°c. The average dry bulb temperature to selected.

Appendix 3: Essentail inputs for ENVI-met

1. Metrological Inputs for simulation The design day selection is based upon the metrological data recorded by (ETMY WMO station 623660) in Cairo International Airport of average of 30 years, analysed by weather data tool by Ecotect software.

Other metrological inputs are adopted from the metrological data recorded by (ETMY WMO station 623660) except for the specific humidity is calculated via climatic calculator.

Buildings propertiesthe inside temperature is adopted form (Wanas 2013) that assess the thermal comfort inside classrooms within governmental school in the same climatic

Figure 76: Climatic analysis for march, inputs (EERE, 2012) and visualized via Ecotect, Author.

Winter Simulation In this study, the empirical LAI of 1 is used, based on (Fahmy, Sharples, & Yahiya, 2010) research paper that studies LAI and its thermal performance within the context of Cairo. This value is used in the condition of solid shad-ing cast, thus, it cannot be applied on seasonal foliage trees i.e. winter and autumn time, where trees loses its leaves along the year. Therefore, testing the performance of trees is only applicable with full foliage trees, commonly in spring and summer time depending on the nature of trees. Accordingly, it is solely relied on the fact that deciduous tree loses its foliage in winter time while evergreen not during school schedule.

133

Figure 77: Specific humidity calculation via climatic calculator, avaliable at http://www.mm-systeme.de/22_de.html

134

To have an insight on the effect of evergreen tree in extreme winter time, 28th February with the lowest temperature record of 15° C during the school sched-ule is selected, where all inputs in the ENVI-met configuration file is changed, (EERE, 2012).

Figure 78: ENVI-met winter configuration file,author

136

Abstract Arabic

لقد حظيت الجوده المناخية للفراغات فى األونة األخيرة على إهتمام كبير بين مصممو المدن و المعنين بالبيئة فى مصر. , فى معظم الحاالت يغيب األهتمام بتصميم الفراغات و تنسيق المواقع لتحسين الطبيعة المناخية. المناخية،بواسطه الظروف تالءم لكى المواقع تصميم أهمية الضوءعلى الضرورتسليط ثم،فمن ومن للمستقبل. جيال يعدون الذين و ، بالمدارس واالطفال الطالب ايضا ،وكذلك المصممين و المخططون تم وضع المبادئ العامة للتصميم الفناء الداخل )Courtyard( للمدارس من قبل الهيئة العامة للالبنيه التعليميه )GAEB( و الذى ال يتم تطبيقه فى معظم المدارس العامة فى مصر. و ذلك لمحدودية الميزانية و المبانى بتصميم باالهتمام التعليميه لالبنيه العامة الهيئة دفع مما العامة المدارس لبناء المخصصة اعتبار الفناء الداخلى فراغ مهمل و ذلك طبقا لإلولويات. قامت الدراسة بإختيار مدرسة الشروق األبتدائية لنفس األخري المدارس مثل كحالها تعانى والتى مصر فى العامه المدارس فراغات لدراسة كنموذج الطلبه. وعن لدى الحراريه الراحه على تؤثر التى المناخيه الحاله فى شديد بسؤء التصميمى النموذج طريق إستخدام بعض أدوات التحليل , المالحظات من خالل الزيارات الميدنية للموقع و إستخدام برنامج )ENVI-met( لعمل محاكاة للتصميم فى فصل الصيف , تم تحليل الوضح الحالى مع عرض اإلمكانات للموقع. المختلفة التنسيق انماط و المناخ ظروف تحديد بعد ذلك و المواقع تنسيق و لتصميم المقترحة أوضحت النتائج أن األشجار تعد واحدة من بين عناصر مختلفة تؤدى لتحسين الحالة المناخية للفراغات. فى المدارس صغيرة الحجم تؤثر األشجار بشكل مباشر على :)أ( التخفيف من األشعاع الشمسى المباشر, )ب( تعديل سرعة الرياح و إتجاهها, )ج( خفض درجة الحرارة و نسبة الرطوبة نسبيا. كما تبين أن الراحة الحرارية للطالب تتأثر بشكل كبير بعدة عوامل منها : )أ(العناصرالطبيعيةالمختلفة, )ب( موقع العناصر الطبيعية و عالقتها بالفراغ, )ج( األهتمام بطبيعة و تنسيق التجمعات الشجرية المختلفة فى الفراغ . و بناءا على ما قد سبق ذكره تم وضع إقتراح لمفهوم تصميم و تنسيق المواقع لمالئمة المناخ للمدارس العامة بمصر .كنتيجة لذلك تم وضع بعض التوصيات المقترحة من قبل هذه الدراسة الي GAEB((وتدعو الي إدراجCSLD(( داخل المبادئ العامة لتصميم الساحات الداخلية وذلك مع األخذ فى األعتبار محدودية التمويل و الميزانية.كما يوصى بإستخدام CSLD(( كأداه مساعدة للمصممين والباحثيين فى مجال تنسيق المواقع.ENVI-( برنامج إستخدام والمصممين المدن مخططي من كل على يجب آخرا، وليس أخيرا . جيده نتائج الي يؤدي حيث الخارجية للفراغات المختلفة التصميم مراحل فى تصميمية كأداه )met

138

إقرار

هذه الرسالة مقدمة في جامعة عين شمس وجامعة شوتجارت للحصول على درجة العمران المتكامل والتصميم المستدام. إن العمل الذي تحويه هذه الرسالة قد تم إنجازه بمعرفة الباحث سنة ٢٠١٤

هذا ويقر الباحث أن العمل المقدم هو خالصة بحثه الشخصي وأنه قد اتبع اإلسلوب العلمي السليم في اإلشارة إلى المواد المؤخوذه من المراجع العلمية كل في مكانه في مختلف أجزاء الرسالة..

وهذا إقرار مني بذلك،،،

التوقيع:

الباحث: وسام البرديسي

التاريخ: /

140

المشرفون

ا.د. انتيا شتوكماناستاذ التنسيق الحضري والبييي

جامعة شتوتجات

ا.د.جيرمين الجوهرياستاذ العمارة وتنسيق ا لمواقع

جامعة ع ين شمس

د.محمد فهمي عبدالعليممدرس التصميم ا لمعماري

البييي والبيية العمرانية ا لمشيدة

قسم الهندسة ا لمعمارية - الكلية الفنية العسكرية -القاهرة

٢٠١٤

تصميم وتنسيق المواقع لمالئمة المناخ: تحسين البيئة المناخية لفراغات المدارس

العامة بمصررسالة مقدمة للحصول على درجة الماجستير في العمران المتكامل والتصميم المستدام

إعداد وسام البرديسي

جامعة شتوتجارت جامعة عين شـــــــمس

climatic sensitive landscape design - iusd€¦ · the climatic quality of the space in egypt,...

Documents