climate -earth science

358

What Youll Learn What causes different

climates.

How climates are classified.

How climates change asa result of natural eventsand human activities.

Why Its ImportantThis rain forest is oneexample of the wide variety of plants found indifferent climates. Climateaffects where we live, whatwe wear, and what we eat.Changes in climate canhave far-reaching effectson agriculture, industry,transportation, and recreation.

ClimateClimate1414

Temperate rain forest, AustraliaTemperate rain forest, Australia

To find out more about climate, visit the EarthScience Web Site at earthgeu.com

14.1 What is climate? 359

Model Cloud CoverDiscovery LabDiscovery Lab

OBJECTIVES

Describe different typesof climate data.

Recognize limits associ-ated with the use ofnormals.

Explain why climatesvary.

VOCABULARY

climatology tropicsclimate temperate zonenormal polar zone

Fifty thousand years ago, the United States had much differentweather patterns than those that exist today. The average tempera-ture was several degrees cooler, and the jet stream was probably far-ther south. Understanding and predicting such climatic changes arethe basic goals of climatology. Climatology is the study of Earths cli-mate and the factors that affect past, present, and future climaticchanges.

CLIMATE: MORE THAN JUST AVERAGE WEATHERClimate, as youll recall from Chapter 12, describes the long-termweather patterns of an area. These patterns include much more thanaverage weather conditions. Climate also describes annual variationsof temperature, precipitation, wind, and other weather variables.Studies of climate show extreme fluctuations of these variables overtime. For example, climatic data can indicate the warmest and cold-est temperatures ever recorded for a location. This type of informa-tion, combined with comparisons between recent conditions and

What is climate?14.114.1

Some areas are generally morecloudy than others. This affects boththe temperature and the amount ofprecipitation that these areas receive.In this activity, which should be doneonly when the weather forecast callsfor clear, calm skies overnight, youllmodel the effect of cloud cover onlocal temperatures.

1. On a calm, clear afternoon, lay twosheets of dark construction paperon the grass in an open area. Place arock on each sheet of paper to pre-vent them from blowing away.

2. Open an umbrella and prop it on

the ground over one of the sheetsof paper.

3. The next morning, observe what hashappened to the sheets of paper.

Observe In your science journal,describe any differences in dew for-mation that you observed. How is theumbrella in this activity similar toclouds in the atmosphere? Based onyour observations, infer how temper-atures during the night might differbetween climates with extensive cloudcover and climates with fewer clouds.

long-term averages, can be used by companies to decide where tolocate new facilities and by people who have medical conditions thatrequire them to live in certain climates.

NORMALSThe data used to describe an areas climate are compiled from mete-orological records, which are continuously gathered at thousands oflocations around the world. These data include daily high and lowtemperatures, amounts of rainfall, wind speed and direction, humid-ity, and air pressure. Once the data are gathered, they are averaged ona monthly or annual basis for a period of at least 30 years to deter-mine the normals, or standard values, for a location. The Problem-Solving Lab below lists some normals for Jacksonville, Florida.

360 CHAPTER 14 Climate

Infer climatic conditions fromnormals Normals offer a comprehen-sive look at local weather conditions overrelatively long periods of time. Use thedata provided in the table to answer thefollowing questions about the climate ofJacksonville, Florida.

Analysis1. According to normal daily maximum

temperatures, during what monthswould you expect the temperature toreach at least 90F?

2. What were the highest and lowest

temperatures ever recorded in this city,and in what month and year?

Thinking Critically3. Use graph paper to plot the monthly

values for normal daily maximum tem-peratures which cover the 30-year timeperiod from 1966 through 1996. Next,use the monthly values to calculate theaverage daily maximum temperaturefor the 30-year period.

4. Which months were warmer than theaverage daily maximum temperatureof the 30-year period? Which monthswere colder?

Making and Using Tables

Time Period

Temperature F (Years) Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Normal Daily Maximum 30 64.2 67.0 73.0 79.1 84.7 89.3 91.4 90.7 87.2 80.2 73.6 66.8Highest Daily Maximum 55 85 88 91 95 100 103 105 102 100 96 88 84

Year of Occurrence 1947 1962 1974 1968 1967 1954 1942 1954 1944 1951 1986 1994Normal Daily Minimum 30 40.5 43.3 49.2 54.9 62.1 69.1 71.9 71.8 69.0 59.3 50.2 43.4Lowest Daily Minimum 55 7 19 23 34 45 47 61 63 48 36 21 11

Year of Occurrence 1985 1996 1980 1987 1992 1984 1972 1984 1981 1989 1970 1983

Normals for Jacksonville, Florida

While normals offer valuable information, they must be used withcaution. Weather conditions on any given day might differ widelyfrom normals. For instance, the average high temperature in Januaryfor a city might be 0C. However, its possible that no one day inJanuary had a high of exactly 0C. Normals are not intended todescribe usual weather conditions. They are simply the average valuesover a long period of time.

Another issue complicates the use of normals. While climatedescribes the average weather conditions for a region, normals applyonly to the specific place where the meteorological data were col-lected. Most meteorological data are gathered at airports, which can-not operate without up-to-date, accurate weather information. Doyou know anyone who lives at an airport? Probably not. In fact, manyairports are located well outside city limits because of the noise andtraffic that they generate. When climatic normals are based on air-port data, they may differ quite a lot from actual weather conditionsin nearby cities. Why? Changes in elevation and other factors such asproximity to large bodies of water can cause climates to vary, as youlllearn next.

WHAT CAUSES CLIMATES?One glance at the map shown in Figure 14-1 shows that climatesaround the country vary greatly. For example, average daily tempera-tures are much warmer in Dallas, Texas, than in Minneapolis,


Figure 14-1 This mapshows daily minimum tem-perature in January acrossthe United States. The lati-tudes of the cities areshown because, as youlllearn on the next page, lati-tude greatly affects climate.

0C

UnitedStates

Canada

Minneapolis44N

Jan. 12CJuly 22C

Dallas33N

Jan. 5CJuly 29C

San Francisco37N

Jan. 9CJuly 16C

Wichita37N

Jan. 1CJuly 27C

+10C

+20C

10C

20C

30C

40C

Minimum Temperatures for January

Minnesota. There are several reasons forsuch climatic variations, including latitude,topography, closeness of lakes and oceans,availability of moisture, global wind pat-terns, ocean currents, and air masses.

Latitude Recall that different parts of Earth receive differentamounts of solar radiation. The amount of solar radiation receivedby any one place varies because Earth is tilted on its axis, and thisaffects how the Suns rays strike Earths surface. As Figure 14-2 shows,the area between 23.5 south of the equator and 23.5 north of theequator, known as the tropics, receives the most solar radiationbecause the Suns rays strike that area from almost directly overhead.As you might expect, temperatures in the tropics are generally warmyear-round. The temperate zones lie between 23.5 and 66.5 northand south of the equator. As their name implies, temperatures in theseregions are moderate. The polar zones are located from 66.5 northand south of the equator to the poles. Solar radiation strikes the polarzones at a low angle. Thus, polar temperatures are nearly always cold.

Topographic Effects Water heats up and cools down moreslowly than land. Thus, large bodies of water affect the climates ofcoastal areas. Many coastal regions are warmer in the winter andcooler in the summer than inland areas of similar latitude.

Also, temperatures in the lower atmosphere generally decreasewith altitude. Thus, mountain climates are usually cooler than thoseat sea level. In addition, climates often differ on either side of amountain. Air rises up one side of a mountain as a result of oro-graphic lifting. The rising air cools, condenses, and drops its mois-ture. The climate on this side of the mountainthe windwardsideis usually wet and cool. On the opposite side of the moun-tainthe leeward sidethe air is dry, and it warms as it descends.For this reason, deserts are common on the leeward sides of moun-tains, as shown in Figure 14-3.


Polar zone

Polar zone

Temperatezone

Temperatezone

Tropics

66.5

Tropic of Cancer

Tropic of Capricorn

66.5

Equator

0

23.5

23.5

Figure 14-2 Latitude has a great effect on climate. The amount of solar radiationreceived on Earth decreases in intensity from the equator to the poles.

Topic: TropicsTo find out more about thetropics, visit the EarthScience Web Site at earthgeu.com

Activity: Design a Venndiagram to compare andcontrast the three majortypes of tropical climates.

Air Masses Two of the main causes of weather are the movementand interaction of air masses. Air masses affect climate, too. Theyhave distinct regions of origin, caused primarily by differences in theamount of solar radiation. The properties of air masses are alsodependent on whether they formed over land or water.

Average weather conditions in and near regions of air-mass for-mation are fairly similar to those exhibited by the air masses them-selves. For example, consider an island in the tropical Atlantic Ocean.Because this island is located in an area where maritime tropical (mT)air masses dominate the weather, the islands average weather condi-tions, or climate, have maritime tropical characteristics.


1. Compare and contrast temperatures inthe tropics, temperate zones, and polarzones.

2. Infer how climate data can be used byfarmers.

3. What are some limits associated with theuse of normals?

4. Describe two topographic features thatcause variations in climate.

5. Thinking Critically Average daily temper-atures for one city, located at 15 southlatitude, are 5C cooler than average daily

temperatures for a second city, located at30 south latitude. What might accountfor the cooler temperatures in the firstcity, which lies so near the equator?

SKILL REVIEW6. Forming a Hypothesis Suppose that

meteorological data for an area are nor-mally gathered at an airport located 10 kmfrom a large lake. Hypothesize how nor-mals for the area might change if the datawere gathered from the edge of the lake.For more help, refer to the Skill Handbook.

Moist air

Windward side Leeward side

Dry air

Figure 14-3 On the wind-ward side of a mountain,moist air is forced upward,cools, condenses, and dropsits moisture (A). The air andthe climate on the leewardside of the mountain aredry. Deserts such as theAtacama in Chile are com-mon on leeward sides ofmountains (B).

A B

earthgeu.com/self_check_quiz


OBJECTIVES

Describe the criteriaused to classify climates.

Compare and contrastdifferent climates.

VOCABULARY

Koeppen classification system

microclimateheat island

14.214.2 Climate ClassificationPicture a parched desert with wind-blown dunes stretching towardthe horizon. Now, imagine a glistening iceberg floating amid a polarsea. These images represent vastly different climates. What criteriawould you use to classify them? Temperature is an obvious choice, asis amount of precipitation. The Koeppen classification system, awidely used classification system for climates, uses both of these cri-teria. Developed by Russian-born German climatologist WladimirKoeppen (18461940), the system is based on the average monthlyvalues of temperature and precipitation. It also takes into accountthe distinct vegetation found in different climates.

80

40

0

40

80

Tropical climatesTropical wet

Tropical wet and dry

Mild climatesMarine west coast

Mediterranean

Humid subtropical

Dry climatesSemiarid

Arid

Continental climatesWarm summer

Cool summer

Subarctic

Polar climatesTundra

Ice cap

High elevationHighlands

Uplands

Map of World Climates

Figure 14-4 Koeppens classification system, shown here in amodified version, is made up of six main divisions.

14.2 Climate Classification 365

KOEPPEN CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMKoeppen decided that a good way to distinguish among different cli-matic zones was by natural vegetation. Palm trees, for instance, are notlocated in polar regions; they are largely limited to tropical and sub-tropical regions. Koeppen later realized that quantitative values wouldmake his system more objective and therefore more scientific. Thus,he revised his system to include the numerical values of temperatureand precipitation. A map of global climates according to a modifiedversion of Koeppens classification system is shown in Figure 14-4.

Tropical Climates Constant high temperatures characterizetropical climates. In some tropical areas, the heat is accompanied byup to 600 cm of rain each year. The combination of heat and rainproduces tropical rain forests, which contain some of the most dra-matic vegetation on Earth. You saw an example of a tropical rain for-est in the photograph at the beginning of this chapter. Tropicalregions are almost constantly under the influence of maritime trop-ical air. The transition zones that border the rainy tropics north andsouth of the equator, known as tropical wet and dry zones, have dis-tinct dry winter seasons as a result of the occasional influx of drycontinental air masses. Tropical wet and dry zones include savannas,as shown in Figure 14-5. These tropical grasslands are found inAfrica, among other places.

Dry Climates Dry climates, which cover about 30 percent ofEarths land area, make up the largest climatic zone. Most of theworlds deserts, such as the Sahara, the Gobi, and the Australian, areclassified as dry climates. In these climates, continental tropical (cT)air dominates, precipitation is low,and vegetation is scarce. Many ofthese areas are located near thetropics. Thus, intense amounts ofsolar radiation result in high ratesof evaporation and few clouds.Overall, evaporation rates exceedprecipitation rates. The resultingmoisture deficit gives this zone itsname. Within this classification,there are two subtypes: aridregions or deserts, and semi-aridregions or steppes. Steppes aremore humid than deserts; theygenerally separate arid regionsfrom bordering wet climates.

Estimating Use themap in Figure 14-4to determine theapproximate percent-age of land coveredby tropical wet climates.

Figure 14-5 This wateringhole in Botswana is foundin a savanna.


Mild Climates Mild climates can be classifiedinto three subtypes: humid subtropical climates,marine west coast climates, and mediterranean cli-mates. Humid subtropical climates are influencedby the subtropical high-pressure systems that arenormally found over oceans in the summer. Thesoutheastern United States has this type of climate.There, warm, muggy weather prevails during thewarmer months and dry, cool conditions predomi-nate during the winter. The marine west coast cli-mates are dominated by the constant inland flow ofair off the ocean, which creates mild winters and coolsummers, with abundant precipitation throughoutthe year. An example of this type of climate is shownin Figure 14-6. Mediterranean climates, found inItaly and parts of Spain, among other places, are

influenced by the Mediterranean Sea. Summers in these climates aregenerally warm because the lack of cool ocean currents in theMediterranean Sea results in relatively warm water temperatures.

Continental Climates Continental climates are also classifiedinto three subtypes: warm summer climates, cool summer climates,and subarctic climates. Located in the zone dominated by the polarfront, continental climates are battlegrounds for clashing tropical andpolar air masses. Thus, these zones experience rapid and sometimesviolent changes in weather. Both summer and winter temperatures canbe extreme because the influence of polar air masses is strong in win-ter, while warm tropical air dominates in summer. The presence ofwarm, moist air causes summers to be generally wetter than winters,especially in latitudes that are relatively close to the tropics.

Polar Climates To the north of continental climates lie the polarclimates, the coldest regions on Earth. Just as the tropics are known fortheir year-round warmth, polar climates are known for their constantcoldthe mean temperature of the warmest month is less than 10C.Precipitation is generally low because cold air holds less moisture thanwarm air. Also, the amount of heat radiated by Earths surface is toolow to produce the strong convection currents needed to release heavyprecipitation. Figure 14-7A shows an ice-cap polar climate.

A variation of the polar climate is found at high elevations. Thistype of climate includes parts of the Andes Mountains of SouthAmerica, shown in Figure 14-7B, which lie near the equator. Theintense solar radiation found near such equatorial regions is offset bythe decrease in temperature that occurs with altitude.

Figure 14-6 The GoldenGate Bridge in San Fran-cisco, California, is nearlyhidden beneath a denselayer of fog. Fog is charac-teristic of marine west coast climates.

14.2 Climate Classification 367

MICROCLIMATESSometimes, the climate of a small area can be much different fromthat of the larger area surrounding it. A localized climate that differs from the main regional climate is called a microclimate.If you climb to the top of a mountain, you can experience a type ofmicroclimate; the climate becomes cooler with increasing elevation.Youll learn more about microclimates in the Design Your Own GeoLabat the end of this chapter. Figure 14-8 shows a microclimate in a city.

A B

Potomac River

1.1

0.6

City center

1.7

1.7

2.2

2.2

2.7

2.7

3.3

3.3

3.9

3.9

N

Figure 14-8 This diagram shows wintertemperatures in Washington, D.C. Thebuildings and paved surfaces of the citycreate a microclimate. The temperature inthe center of the city is 0.6C, nearly 3Cwarmer than temperatures in some partsof the surrounding area.

Figure 14-7 Penguins areone of the few species thatcan survive in Antarcticasice-cap polar climate (A).Llamas are common in thehigh-elevation climates ofthe Andes Mountains (B).


Heat Islands The mere presence of a building can create microcli-mates in the area immediately surrounding it. How? The building castsshadows that lower air temperature. The presence of many concretebuildings and large expanses of asphalt can create heat islands,wherein the climate is warmer than in surrounding rural areas. Thiseffect was recognized as long ago as the early nineteenth century, whenLondoners noticed that the temperature in their city was noticeablywarmer than in the surrounding countryside.

The heat-island effect occurs because large areas of asphalt andconcrete radiate far more heat into the air than do grasslands,wooded areas, and bodies of water. This causes mean temperaturesin large cities to be significantly warmer than in surrounding areas,as shown in Figure 14-9. The heat-island effect also causes greaterchanges in temperature with altitude, which sparks strong convec-tion currents. This in turn produces increased cloudiness and up to15 percent more total precipitation in cities.

Heat islands are examples of climatic change on a small scale. Inthe next sections, well examine large-scale climatic changes causedby both natural events and human activities.

1. Compare and contrast the five main climate types.

2. What criteria is the Koeppen climate classification system based on?

3. What are microclimates? What climaticeffects do heat islands have on large cities?

4. Describe the climate of your area. Whichzone do you live in? What type of airmasses generally affect your climate?

5. Thinking Critically Of the different typesof climates, which do you think would bemost strongly influenced by the polar jetstream? Why?

SKILL REVIEW6. Making and Using Tables Make a table of

the Koeppen climate classification system.Include major zones, subzones, and char-acteristics of each. For more help, refer tothe Skill Handbook.

Figure 14-9 These imagesshow differences in day-time temperatures betweenan urban area (A) and asuburban area (B). Thecoolest temperatures arerepresented by blue; thewarmest temperatures arerepresented by red.

A B


14.3 Climatic Changes 369

00.000.014.314.3 Climatic ChangesOBJECTIVES

Distinguish amongdifferent types ofclimatic changes.

Recognize why climaticchanges occur.

VOCABULARY

ice ageseasonEl NinoMaunder minimum

Some years may be warmer, cooler, wetter, or drier than others, butduring the average human lifetime, climates do not appear to changesignificantly. However, a study of Earths history over hundreds ofthousands of years shows that climates always have been, and cur-rently are, in a constant state of change. These changes usually takeplace over extremely long time periods. Geologic records show that inthe past, Earth was sometimes much colder or warmer than it is today.

ICE AGESA good example of climatic change involves glaciers, which havealternatively advanced and retreated over the past 2 million years. Attimes, much of Earths surface was covered by vast sheets of ice.During these periods of extensive glacial coverage, called ice ages,average global temperatures decreased by an estimated 5C.Although this may not seem like a large decrease, global climatesbecame generally colder and snowfall increased, which sparked theadvance of existing ice sheets. Ice ages alternate with warm periodscalled interglacial intervalswe are currently experiencing such aninterval. The most recent ice age ended only about 10 000 yearsago. In North America, glaciers spread from the eastcoast to the west coast and as far south asIndiana, as shown in Figure 14-10. Theresults of this glacial period are apparentin the Great Lakes and the Finger Lakesof central New York, which werescoured out as the glaciers retreated.

Figure 14-10 The last ice age covered large portions ofNorth America, Europe, and Asia.Average global temperatures wereroughly 5C lower than normal.

Black Sea

Alps

Caspian Sea

Sea ice

Aral Sea

Europe

China

Siberia

Japan

ArcticOcean

NorthAtlanticOcean

NorthPacificOcean

Iceland

UnitedStates

Alaska


SHORT-TERM CLIMATIC CHANGESWhile ice ages take place over many thousands of years,other climatic changes take place in much shorter timeperiods. The most obvious of these are seasons, which areshort-term periods of climatic change caused by regularvariations in daylight, temperature, and weather patterns.These variations are the result of changes in the amount ofsolar radiation an area receives. As Figure 14-11 shows, thetilt of Earth on its axis as it revolves around the Sun causesdifferent areas of Earth to receive different amounts ofsolar radiation. During summer in the northern hemi-sphere, the north pole is tilted toward the Sun, and thishemisphere experiences long hours of daylight and warmtemperatures. At the same time, it is winter in the southernhemisphere. The south pole is tilted away from the Sun,and the southern hemisphere experiences long hours ofdarkness and cold temperatures. Throughout the year, theseasons are reversed in the north and south hemispheres.

El Nino Other short-term climatic changes are causedby El Nino, a warm ocean current that occasionallydevelops off the western coast of South America. In theSoutheast Pacific Ocean, atmospheric and ocean currentsalong the coast of South America normally move north,

transporting cold water from the Antarctic region. Meanwhile, thetrade winds and ocean currents move westward across the tropics,keeping warm water in the western Pacific. This circulation, drivenby a semipermanent high-pressure system, creates a cool, dry climatealong much of the northwestern coast of South America.

Occasionally, however, for reasons that are not fully understood,this high-pressure system and its attendant trade winds weaken dras-tically, which allows the warm water from the western Pacific to surge eastward toward the South American coast. The suddenpresence of this warm water heats the air near the surface of thewater. Convection currents strengthen, and the normally cool anddry northwestern coast of South America becomes much warmerand wetter. The increased precipitation pumps large amounts of heatand moisture into the upper atmosphere, where upper-level windstransport the hot, moist air eastward across the tropics. This hot,moist air in the upper atmosphere is responsible for dramatic cli-matic changes. Sharp temperature differences in the upper air allowthe jet stream to shift farther south. This causes weather systems totake a more southerly track, bringing violent storms to Californiaand the Gulf Coast, which are usually south of the storm tracks.

Figure 14-11 When thenorth pole is pointedtoward the Sun, the north-ern hemisphere experiencessummer and the southernhemisphere experienceswinter (A). During springand fall, neither pole pointstoward the Sun (B).

A

B


The effects of hot, moist upper air spread farther east, bringingstormy weather to areas that are normally dry and drought condi-tions to areas that are normally wet. The end result is extensive prop-erty damage and untold human suffering. This is especially true intropical regions, where the effects of El Nino are most pronounced.El Nino does have one positive effectthe strong upper winds it pro-duces keep tropical disturbances from increasing to hurricane-strength storms in the Atlantic Ocean. This results in fewerhurricanes in that region for the duration of El Nino. Eventually, theSouth Pacific high-pressure system becomes reestablished and ElNino weakens, but not before it causes the climatic effects shown inFigure 14-12. The warm water moves back across the Pacific Ocean,and conditions along the South American coast cool off.

CHANGE CAN BE NATURALMuch discussion has taken place in recent years about whether Earthsclimate is changing as a result of human activities. Well discuss thisin the next section. For now, its important to note that climaticchanges occurred long before humans came on the scene. Studies oftree rings, ice-core samples, fossils, and radiocarbon samples provideevidence of past climatic changes. These changes in Earths climatewere caused by natural events such as variations in solar activity,changes in Earths tilt and orbit, and volcanic eruptions.

Figure 14-12 During El Nio, some areasof the world experience extreme droughtswhile other areas are ravaged by heavyfloods.


Solar Activity Evidence of a possible link between solar activityand Earths climate was provided by English astronomer E. W.Maunder in 1893. The existence of sunspot cycles lasting approxi-mately 11 years had been recognized since the days of Galileo.However, Maunder found that from 1645 to 1716, sunspot activitywas scarce to nonexistent. This period of very low sunspot activity,called the Maunder minimum, closely corresponds to an unusuallycold climatic episode called the Little Ice Age. During this time,much of Europe experienced bitterly cold winters and below-normaltemperatures year-round. Residents of London are said to have ice-skated on the Thames River in June. The relationship between climate

and periods of low sunspot activity is illus-trated in Figure 14-13. Studies indicate thatincreased solar activity coincides withwarmer-than-normal climates, while peri-ods of low solar activity, such as theMaunder minimum, coincide with cold cli-matic conditions.

Earths Orbit Climatic changes mayalso be triggered by changes in Earths axisand orbit. The shape of Earths ellipticalorbit appears to change, becoming moreelliptical, then more circular, over thecourse of a 100 000-year cycle. As Figure14-14 shows, when the orbit elongates,Earth passes closer to the Sun, and tem-peratures become warmer than normal.When the orbit is more circular, Earth isfarther from the Sun and temperatures dipbelow average. The amount of radiation

1450

1500

Year

1550

1600

1650

1700

1750

1800

1850Maunderminimum

Warm

Cold

Little Ice Age1900

Severity of wintersin London and Paris

Sunspot number

Climate and Sunspots

Figure 14-14 Scientiststheorize that a more ellipti-cal orbit around the Suncould produce significantchanges in Earths climate.

Figure 14-13 Very fewsunspots occurred duringthe Maunder minimum, andtemperatures were lowerthan normal. Thus, scientiststheorize solar activity may belinked to climatic changes.

Earth

Sun

Circular orbit

Elliptical orbit


Earth receives when its orbit elongates is much higher than when itsorbit is more circular.

As you know, seasons are caused by the tilt of Earths axis. At pres-ent, the angle of the tilt is 23.5. However, the angle of tilt varies froma minimum of 22.1 to a maximum of 24.5 every 41 000 years.Scientists theorize that these changes in angle cause seasons to becomemore severe. For example, a decrease in the angle of the tilted axis, asshown in Figure 14-15, might cause a decrease in the temperature dif-ference between winter and summer. Winters would be warmer andwetter, and summers would be cooler. The additional snow in lati-tudes near the poles would not melt in summer because tempera-tures would be cooler than average. This could result in expandedglacial coverage. In fact, some scientists hypothesize that changes inthe angle of Earths tilted axis cause ice ages.

Earths Wobble Another movement of Earth may be responsiblefor climatic changes. Over a period of about 26 000 years, Earth wob-bles as it spins on its axis. Currently, the axis points toward the NorthStar, Polaris, as shown in Figure 14-16. Because of Earths wobbling,however, the axis will tilt toward another star, Vega, by about the year14 000. Currently, winter occurs in the northern hemisphere whenEarth is closest to the Sun, and summer occurs when Earth is farthestfrom the Sun. When the axis tilts toward Vega, however, winter willoccur in the northern hemisphere when Earth is farthest from theSun, and summer will occur when Earth is closest to the Sun. This willcause warmer summers and colder winters than those that we nowexperience.

Figure 14-15 If the angle of tilt of Earths axisdecreased, there would beless temperature contrastbetween summer and winter.

Decreased tilt

Axis with reduced angle

Equator

Sunlight

Sun

Earth

Existingaxis

PolarisVega

23.5

Earth

Figure 14-16 By about theyear 14 000, Earths axis willpoint toward the star, Vega.Winter will then occur inthe northern hemispherewhen Earth is farthest fromthe Sun, causing winters tobe colder.


Volcanic Activity Climatic changescan also be triggered by the immensequantities of dust released into theatmosphere during major volcaniceruptions, shown in Figure 14-17.Volcanic dust can remain suspended inthe atmosphere for several years,blocking incoming solar radiation andthus lowering global temperatures.Some scientists theorize that periods ofhigh volcanic activity cause cool cli-matic periods. This theory is supportedby records over the past centurybecause several large eruptions havebeen followed by below-normal globaltemperatures. For instance, the ashreleased during the 1991 eruption ofMt. Pinatubo in the Philippines

resulted in slightly cooler temperatures around the world the follow-ing year. Generally, volcanic eruptions appear to have only short-term effects on climate. These effects, as well as the others youve readabout thus far, are a result of natural causes. In the next section,youll learn about climatic changes caused by human activities.

Figure 14-17 The dust and gases released by thisvolcanic eruption in NewGuinea blocked incomingsolar radiation and affectedglobal climates.

1. What three changes in Earths movementin space might result in long-term climatic changes?

2. What are seasons? What causes them?

3. Explain how El Nino might affect weatherin California and along the Gulf Coast.

4. Why are the greatest effects of El Ninoexperienced mainly in the tropics?

5. How does volcanic activity affect climate?Are these effects examples of short-termor long-term climatic change?

6. Thinking Critically What might be theeffect on seasons if Earths orbit becamemore elliptical and, at the same time, theangle of the tilt of Earths axis increased?

SKILL REVIEW7. Concept Mapping Use the following

phrases to complete a concept map of theeffects of El Nino. For more help, refer tothe Skill Handbook.

1.upper-level

winds transportheated air across

the tropics

2.precipitation

increases

4.convection

currents strengthen

5.trade winds

weaken

7.high-pressure

system becomesreestablished

6.warm watersurges east-

ward, heating surface air

3.jet stream

shifts south


14.4 The Human Factor 375

Environmental ConnectionEnvironmental Connection

14.414.4

One of the most significant influences on Earths climate is theatmosphere. As you learned in Chapter 11, solar radiation that is notreflected by clouds passes freely through the atmosphere. Its thenabsorbed by Earths surface and released as long-wavelength radia-tion. This radiation is absorbed by atmospheric gases such as watervapor, methane, and carbon dioxide. The atmospheric gases then reradiate the stored energy, so that Earth receives energy from twosources: the Sun and the atmosphere.

THE GREENHOUSE EFFECTThe retention of heat by the atmosphere results in the greenhouseeffect, which is the natural heating of Earths surface caused by cer-tain atmospheric gases called greenhouse gases. Without the green-house effect, which is illustrated in Figure 14-18, life as we know itcould not exist on Earth. Our planet would be cold, like Mars, whichhas an extremely thin atmosphere and surface temperatures that dipto 90C. On the other hand, a marked increase in the greenhouseeffect might cause our planet to be hot, like Venus, which, because of

The Human Factor

OBJECTIVES

Compare and contrastthe greenhouse effect andglobal warming.

Identify how humansimpact climate.

VOCABULARY

greenhouse effectglobal warming

Figure 14-18 Solar radia-tion reaches Earths surfaceand is reradiated as long-wavelength radiation. Thisradiation cannot escapethrough the atmosphere,and is absorbed and re-released by atmosphericgases. This process is calledthe greenhouse effectbecause it is similar to theway that heat is trapped andreleased in a greenhouse.


its thick atmosphere, has surface tempera-tures of 470C. Youll model the greenhouseeffect in the MiniLab on this page.

Scientists theorize that it is possible toincrease or decrease the greenhouse effectby changing the amount of atmosphericgreenhouse gases, particularly carbon diox-ide (CO2). Any increase in the amount ofthese gases would theoretically result in theincreased absorption of radiation. Levels ofatmospheric carbon dioxide are increasing.This in turn can lead to a rise in global tem-peratures, known as global warming.

GLOBAL WARMINGTemperatures worldwide have indeed shownan upward trend over the past 200 years,with several of the warmest years on recordhaving occurred within the last two decades.If the trend continues, polar ice caps mightmelt, sea level might rise and flood coastalcities, deserts could spread into fertileregions, and the frequency and severity ofstorms could increase.

Based on available evidence, many scien-tists agree that global warming is occurring.They disagree, however, about what is caus-ing this warming. As youve learned, naturalcycles of Earth and the Sun can affect cli-mate. Some scientists hypothesize that thesenatural changes adequately explain theincreased temperatures. Mounting evidenceindicates, however, that the warming trendis a result of increases in atmospheric car-bon dioxide. Global warming remains acontroversial issue. Neither viewpoint canbe proven or disproven conclusively; itmight very well be that there are several fac-tors involved. However, if increased carbondioxide is responsible, two logical questionsfollow: What is causing the increase? Cananything be done to stop it?

How does the atmosphere affectthe transfer of energy?

Model the greenhouse effect.

Procedure1. On a clear day, place a cardboard box

outside in a shaded area. Prop two thermometers against the box. Make surethe thermometers are not in direct sun.

2. Cover one thermometer with a clean glass jar.

3. Observe and record the temperaturechanges of each thermometer every twominutes over a 30-minute period.

Analyze and Conclude1. Make a graph showing how the tempera-

tures of the two thermometers changedover time.

2. Based on your graph, which thermometerexperienced the greatest increase in temperature? Why?

3. Relate your observations to the green-house effect in the atmosphere.

14.4 The Human Factor 377

1. Why do some scientists theorize thatglobal warming might not be the result of increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide?

2. What are some possible consequences ofglobal warming?

3. Describe some human activities that mayhave an impact on Earths climate. Listseveral actions you can take to reduce this impact.

4. Compare and contrast global warmingand the greenhouse effect.

5. Thinking Critically Based on what youhave learned in this section, explain whytropical rain forests are often called thelungs of our planet.

SKILL REVIEW6. Designing an Experiment When green

plants photosynthesize, they take carbondioxide out of the atmosphere. Design anexperiment in which you could use greenplants and glass jars to study the effectsof carbon dioxide on global warming. Formore help, refer to the Skill Handbook.

IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIESTo find a possible cause for rising levels of atmosphericcarbon dioxide, we need look no further than our drive-ways. Automobile exhaust is a prime source of atmos-pheric CO2, as are industrial emissions. In fact, almost anyprocess that involves the burning of fossil fuels results inthe release of carbon dioxide and other gases into theatmosphere. In addition, deforestation, the mass removalof trees, plays a role in increasing levels of atmosphericCO2. During photosynthesis, vegetation removes carbon dioxidefrom the atmosphere. When trees such as the ones shown in Figure14-19A are cut down, rates of photosynthesis are reduced and morecarbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere. Many scientists hypoth-esize that deforestation intensifies global warming trends.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFORTSBecause global warming appears to be linked to human activities thatcause pollution or widespread deforestation, we must closely examinethose activities and work to reduce their environmental impact.Individuals can combat global warming by conserving energy, whichin turn reduces the consumption of fossil fuels. Some easy ways toconserve energy include turning off appliances and lights when aroom is not in use, turning down thermostats in the winter, and recy-cling. An additional option is shown in Figure 14-19B. Youll learnmore about global warming in the Science & Math feature at the endof this chapter.

B

Figure 14-19 Deforest-ation in places such asGuatemala may increaseglobal warming (A). Auto-mobile exhaust may alsoincrease global warming;thus, riding bikes is one wayto help the environment (B).

A



Microclimates

Microclimates can be caused by tall buildings, large bod-ies of water, and mountains, among other things. In thisactivity, youll observe different microclimates and then attemptto determine which factors strengthen microclimates and howthese factors change with distance from Earths surface.

ProblemWhich type of surface creates the mostpronounced microclimate?

Possible Materialsthermometerpsychrometerpaper strip or wind sockmeterstickrelative humidity chart (Appendix F)

HypothesisHypothesize how different areas ofEarths surface, such as grassy lawns,asphalt parking lots, and bodies ofwater, affect local climates. Consideralso whether distance from the groundmight affect temperature, relativehumidity, and wind speed.

ObjectivesIn this GeoLab, you will: Design and carry out an experiment

to study microclimates both at Earthssurface and above its surface.

Observe and record temperature,relative humidity, and wind speed.

Infer how different surfaces andchanges in height above these surfacesaffect microclimates.

Safety Precautions Be careful when you handle glass ther-mometers, especially those that containmercury. If the thermometer breaks, donot touch it. Have your teacher properlydispose of the glass and the mercury.

Preparation

Design Your Own GeoLab 379

1. As a group, agree upon and write outyour hypothesis. List the steps neededto test your hypothesis. Include inyour plan how you will use yourequipment to measure temperature,relative humidity, and wind speed atdifferent surfaces and at variousheights above these surfaces.

2. Select your sites. Possible sites includea grassy playground area, a pavedparking lot, and a swimming pool.

3. Be sure to control variables. Forinstance, different members of yourgroup should make observations ateach site at the same time each day.Youll also need to record weather

variables at several different distancesabove each surface. Possible distancesinclude 5 cm, 1 m, and 2 m.

4. Make a map of your test sites. Designand construct data tables for record-ing your observations. Youll needseparate data tables for each site.

5. Read over your entire plan to makecertain all steps are in logical order.Identify constants and variables inyour plan.

6. Make sure your teacher approvesyour plan before you proceed withyour experiment.

7. Carry out your plan.

Plan the Experiment

1. Comparing and Contrasting Mapyour data. Color code the areas onyour map to show which surfaces hadthe highest and lowest temperatures,the highest and lowest relativehumidity, and the greatest and leastwind speed. On your map, includedata for surface areas only.

2. Making and Using Graphs Graph yourdata for each site, showing differencesin temperature with height. Plot tem-perature on the x-axis and height on

the y-axis. Repeat this step for relativehumidity and wind speed.

3. Interpreting Scientific IllustrationsAnalyze your maps, graphs, and datato find patterns. Which surfaces hadthe most pronounced microclimates?Did height above the surface affectyour data? Infer why or why not.

4. Thinking Critically Analyze yourhypothesis and the results of yourexperiment. Was your hypothesissupported? Explain.

1. Why did some areas have more pronounced microclimates thanothers? Which factors seemed to contribute most to the developmentof microclimates?

2. Which variable changed most withheight: temperature, relative humid-ity, or wind speed? Which variablechanged least? Infer why some vari-ables changed more than others with height.

Analyze

Conclude & Apply


mate that sea levels may rise as much as twofeet along most of the U.S. coast.

Procedure1. Create a line graph which displays the

information shown in the data table below.

Challenge1. During which time period did Earths atmos-

phere experience a slow, steady increase incarbon dioxide? Describe the carbon dioxideincrease in the last 50 years.

2. Assuming that carbon dioxide levels continueto increase at the current rate, predict theglobal atmospheric CO2 concentration in partsper million in the year 2015.

Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhousegases that helps keep temperatures on Earthwarm enough to support life. However, a build-upof carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasessuch as methane and nitrous oxide can lead toglobal warming, an increase in Earths averagesurface temperature. Since the industrial revolu-tion in the 1800s, atmospheric concentrations ofcarbon dioxide have increased by almost 30 per-cent, methane concentrations have more thandoubled, and nitrous oxide concentrations haveincreased approximately 15 percent. Scientistsattribute these increases to the burning of fossilfuels for automobiles, industry, and electricity, aswell as deforestation, increased agriculture, land-fills, and mining.

Impact on ClimateBased on current data, sci-

entists estimate that Earthsaverage surface temperaturecould rise between 1 and 4.5degrees Fahrenheit in the next50 years. As the temperatureincreases, evaporation ratesincrease, which can lead toincreased precipitation. Withincreased evaporation rates,soil may become drier andintense rainstorms more fre-quent. Some scientists esti-

Global WarmingAccording to the National Academy of Scientists, Earths surfacetemperature has risen about one degree Fahrenheit in the past 100years. This increase in temperature can be correlated to an increasein the concentration of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasesin the atmosphere. How might this increase in temperature affectEarths climate?

Global Atmospheric Global AtmosphericCO2 Concentration CO2 Concentration

Year (parts per million) Year (parts per million)

1745 279 1949 3111791 279.7 1958 3121816 283.8 1965 3181843 287.4 1974 330.11854 288.2 1984 344.31874 289.5 1994 358.81894 297 1995 3611909 299.2 1996 3631921 301.6 1997 3641935 306.6 1998 367

Global Levels of Atmospheric CO2

Summary

Study Guide 381

Vocabularyclimate (p. 359)climatology (p. 359)normal (p. 360)polar zone (p. 362)temperate zone

(p. 362)tropics (p. 362)

Vocabularyheat island (p. 368)Koeppen classifica-

tion system (p. 364)

microclimate(p. 367)

VocabularyEl Nino (p. 370)ice age (p. 369)Maunder minimum

(p. 372)season (p. 370)

Vocabularyglobal warming

(p. 376)greenhouse effect

(p. 375)

Main Ideas Climate describes the long-term weather patterns of a region.

Climatological data include annual variations of temperature,precipitation, wind, and other weather variables, as well asextreme fluctuations in these variables.

The factors that influence climate include latitude, topography,closeness of lakes and oceans, availability of moisture, globalwind patterns, ocean currents, and air masses.

Main Ideas The Koeppen classification system divides climates into five

basic types according to temperature, rainfall, and vegetation. A microclimate is a localized climate that differs from the

surrounding regional climate. In cities, the numerous concretebuildings and large expanses of asphalt can create heat islands,wherein the climate is warmer than in surrounding rural areas.

Main Ideas Earths climate is in a constant state of change. These changes

usually take place over extremely long time periods. Fossils,ice cores, and other geologic records show that Earth was sometimes much colder or warmer than it is today.

Periods of extensive glacial coverage, called ice ages, are exam-ples of long-term climatic changes. Examples of short-term climatic changes include the seasons and the effects of El Nino.

Some changes in Earths climate may be caused by a combina-tion of numerous natural cycles involving solar activity, changesin the tilt of Earths axis and its orbit, and volcanic eruptions.

Main Ideas The greenhouse effect is the retention of heat by atmospheric

gases that helps to keep Earth warm enough to sustain life.An increase in greenhouse gases may lead to global warming.

Some scientists theorize that human activities such as the burn-ing of fossil fuels and deforestation cause global warming.

SECTION 14.1

What is climate?

SECTION 14.2

ClimateClassification

SECTION 14.3

Climatic Changes

SECTION 14.4

The Human Factor

earthgeu.com/vocabulary_puzzlemaker


PLAN AHEAD Find out where and when yourtest will take place. If the location is unfamiliar,go there ahead of time to be sure you can findyour way. Find out if you will need identificationor other items on the day of the test.

Test-Taking Tip

1. Which of the following does NOT influence climate?a. latitude c. mountainsb. satellites d. large bodies of water

2. A heat island is an example of what type of climate?a. tropical climate c. dry climateb. microclimate d. polar climate

3. Which of the following is NOT a factor used to clas-sify climates in the Koeppen classification system?a. temperature c. windb. moisture d. vegetation

4. Which of the following is an example of a long-term climatic change?a. fall c. summerb. ice ages d. El Nino

5. What is El Nino?a. a warm wind c. a cool windb. a cool ocean current d. a warm ocean current

6. Which of the following would normals bestdescribe?a. a specific location c. an oceanb. a land mass d. a mountain

7. What is the Maunder minimum?a. a period of low sunspot activityb. an ice agec. a volcanic eruptiond. a cycle of Earths orbit

8. Which of the following would NOT be likely to produce a microclimate?a. an ocean shoreline c. a flat prairieb. a valley d. a large city

Understanding Main Ideas 9. Which greenhouse gas is most associated withglobal warming?a. methane c. carbon dioxideb. ozone d. carbon monoxide

10. If its winter in the northern hemisphere, whatseason is it in the southern hemisphere?a. summer c. winterb. fall d. spring

11. El Nio develops because of a weakening of what?a. the polar frontb. the trade windsc. the prevailing westerliesd. the jet stream

12. Which of the following is not a natural cause oflong-term climatic change?a. solar activityb. industrializationc. changes in the tilt of Earths axisd. changes in Earths rotation

13. What is an ice age? When did the last ice age end?

14. What is deforestation? How is it linked to global warming?

15. On which side of a mountain would a desertmost likely form? Why?

16. Compare and contrast a steppe and a savanna.

17. When Earths orbit elongates, are temperatureswarmer or cooler than normal? Explain.

earthgeu.com/chapter_test

Standardized Test Practice

INTERPRETING DATA Use the table below toanswer questions 1 and 2.

1. According to the modified Koeppen classifi-cation system, Southern Israel has what kindof climate?a. tropical c. humid subtropicalb. dry d. continental

2. Where is a steppe most likely to be found?a. New Caledonia c. Bogotb. Gobi Desert d. Yukon

3. Where is a heat island most likely to befound?a. a farm c. a mountaintopb. a beach d. an inner city

4. Why is deforestation often linked to globalwarming?a. It increases the amount of dry land on

Earths surface.b. It releases toxic gases and pollutants into

the atmosphere.c. It increases the amount of CO2 released

into the atmosphere.d. It decreases the amount of CO2 released

into the atmosphere.

Assessment 383

18. The graph on this page shows sunspot activityfrom 1860 to 1995. Predict when the next maximum will occur.

Use this graph to answer question 18.

19. Based on the data shown in the Problem-SolvingLab on page 360, what months are good forplanting crops that cannot survive frosts?

20. Use a world map and Figure 14-4 to determinethe climate classifications of the following cities:Paris, France; Athens, Greece; London, England;and Sydney, Australia.

21. Which would El Nino affect more: Anchorage,Alaska, or Los Angeles, California? Why?

22. How might a mountain valley produce a microclimate?

23. Based on the results of the Discovery Lab thatyou performed at the beginning of this chapter,would you expect temperatures during the nightto drop more sharply in marine climates or continental climates? Why?

24. A large, three-story shopping mall is built near a town. Would you expect temperatures in theimmediate region to increase, decrease, or remainthe same? Explain.

Thinking Critically

Applying Main Ideas

0

50

100

An

nu

al n

um

ber

of

sun

spo

ts 150

200

199519801960194019201900

Mean Annual Sunspots, 19001995

Location Climate Description

New Caledonia, Constant high temperatures,South Pacific plenty of rain

Southern Israel Humid in summer, dry in winterGobi Desert, Continental tropical air, low

Mongolia precipitation, scarce vegetationBogot, Colombia Mild winters, cool summers,

abundant precipitationYukon, Canada Year-round cold, low

precipitation

earthgeu.com/standardized_test

Earth Science: Geology, the Environment, and the UniverseContents in Brief Table of ContentsUnit 1: Earth ScienceChapter 1: The Nature of ScienceSection 1.1: Earth ScienceSection 1.2: Methods of ScientistsSection 1.3: Communicating in ScienceChapter 1 Study GuideChapter 1 Assessment

Chapter 2: Mapping Our WorldSection 2.1: Latitude and LongitudeSection 2.2: Types of MapsSection 2.3: Remote SensingChapter 2 Study GuideChapter 2 Assessment

GeoDigest: Earth Science

Unit 2: Composition of EarthChapter 3: Matter and Atomic StructureSection 3.1: What are elements?Section 3.2: How Atoms CombineSection 3.3: States of MatterChapter 3 Study GuideChapter 3 Assessment

Chapter 4: MineralsSection 4.1: What is a mineral?Section 4.2: Identifying MineralsChapter 4 Study GuideChapter 4 Assessment

Chapter 5: Igneous RocksSection 5.1: What are igneous rocks?Section 5.2: Classifying Igneous RocksChapter 5 Study GuideChapter 5 Assessment

Chapter 6: Sedimentary and Metamorphic RocksSection 6.1: Formation of Sedimentary RocksSection 6.2: Types of Sedimentary RocksSection 6.3: Metamorphic RocksChapter 6 Study GuideChapter 6 Assessment

GeoDigest: Composition of Earth

Unit 3: Surface Processes on EarthChapter 7: Weathering, Erosion, and SoilSection 7.1: WeatheringSection 7.2: Erosion and DepositionSection 7.3: Formation of SoilChapter 7 Study GuideChapter 7 Assessment

Chapter 8: Mass Movements, Wind, and GlaciersSection 8.1: Mass Movements at Earth's SurfaceSection 8.2: WindSection 8.3: GlaciersChapter 8 Study GuideChapter 8 Assessment

Chapter 9: Surface WaterSection 9.1: Surface Water MovementSection 9.2: Stream DevelopmentSection 9.3: Lakes and Freshwater WetlandsChapter 9 Study GuideChapter 9 Assessment

Chapter 10: GroundwaterSection 10.1: Movement and Storage of GroundwaterSection 10.2: Groundwater Erosion and DepositionSection 10.3: Groundwater SystemsChapter 10 Study GuideChapter 10 Assessment

GeoDigest: Surface Processes on Earth

Unit 4: The Atmosphere and the OceansChapter 11: AtmosphereSection 11.1: Atmospheric BasicsSection 11.2: State of the AtmosphereSection 11.3: Moisture in the AtmosphereChapter 11 Study GuideChapter 11 Assessment

Chapter 12: MeteorologySection 12.1: The Causes of WeatherSection 12.2: Weather SystemsSection 12.3: Gathering Weather DataSection 12.4: Weather AnalysisChapter 12 Study GuideChapter 12 Assessment

Chapter 13: The Nature of StormsSection 13.1: ThunderstormsSection 13.2: Severe WeatherSection 13.3: Tropical StormsSection 13.4: Recurring WeatherChapter 13 Study GuideChapter 13 Assessment

Chapter 14: ClimateSection 14.1: What is climate?Section 14.2: Climate ClassificationSection 14.3: Climatic ChangesSection 14.4: The Human FactorChapter 14 Study GuideChapter 14 Assessment

Chapter 15: Physical OceanographySection 15.1: The OceansSection 15.2: SeawaterSection 15.3: Ocean MovementsChapter 15 Study GuideChapter 15 Assessment

Chapter 16: The Marine EnvironmentSection 16.1: Shoreline FeaturesSection 16.2: The SeafloorChapter 16 Study GuideChapter 16 Assessment

GeoDigest: The Atmosphere and the Oceans

Unit 5: The Dynamic EarthChapter 17: Plate TectonicsSection 17.1: Drifting ContinentsSection 17.2: Seafloor SpreadingSection 17.3: Theory of Plate TectonicsSection 17.4: Causes of Plate MotionsChapter 17 Study GuideChapter 17 Assessment

Chapter 18: Volcanic ActivitySection 18.1: MagmaSection 18.2: Intrusive ActivitySection 18.3: VolcanoesChapter 18 Study GuideChapter 18 Assessment

Chapter 19: EarthquakesSection 19.1: Forces Within EarthSection 19.2: Seismic Waves and Earth's InteriorSection 19.3: Measuring and Locating EarthquakesSection 19.4: Earthquakes and SocietyChapter 19 Study GuideChapter 19 Assessment

Chapter 20: Mountain BuildingSection 20.1: Crust-Mantle RelationshipsSection 20.2: Convergent-Boundary MountainsSection 20.3: Other Types of MountainsChapter 20 Study GuideChapter 20 Assessment

GeoDigest: The Dynamic Earth

Unit 6: Geologic TimeChapter 21: Fossils and the Rock RecordSection 21.1: The Geologic Time ScaleSection 21.2: Relative-Age Dating of RocksSection 21.3: Absolute-Age Dating of RocksSection 21.4: Remains of Organisms in the Rock RecordChapter 21 Study GuideChapter 21 Assessment

Chapter 22: The Precambrian EarthSection 22.1: The Early EarthSection 22.2: Formation of the Crust and ContinentsSection 22.3: Formation of the Atmosphere and OceansSection 22.4: Early Life on EarthChapter 22 Study GuideChapter 22 Assessment

Chapter 23: The Paleozoic EraSection 23.1: The Early PaleozoicSection 23.2: The Middle PaleozoicSection 23.3: The Late PaleozoicChapter 23 Study GuideChapter 23 Assessment

Chapter 24: The Mesozoic and Cenozoic ErasSection 24.1: Mesozoic PaleogeographySection 24.2: Mesozoic LifeSection 24.3: Cenozoic PaleogeographySection 24.4: Cenozoic LifeChapter 24 Study GuideChapter 24 Assessment

GeoDigest: Geologic Time

Unit 7: Resources and the EnvironmentChapter 25: Earth ResourcesSection 25.1: What are resources?Section 25.2: Land ResourcesSection 25.3: Air ResourcesSection 25.4: Water ResourcesChapter 25 Study GuideChapter 25 Assessment

Chapter 26: Energy ResourcesSection 26.1: Conventional Energy ResourcesSection 26.2: Alternative Energy ResourcesSection 26.3: Conservation of Energy ResourcesChapter 26 Study GuideChapter 26 Assessment

Chapter 27: Human Impact on Earth ResourcesSection 27.1: Populations and the Use of Natural ResourcesSection 27.2: Human Impact on Land ResourcesSection 27.3: Human Impact on Air ResourcesSection 27.4: Human Impact on Water ResourcesChapter 27 Study GuideChapter 27 Assessment

GeoDigest: Resources and the Environment

Unit 8: Beyond EarthChapter 28: The Sun-Earth-Moon SystemSection 28.1: Tools of AstronomySection 28.2: The MoonSection 28.3: The Sun-Earth-Moon SystemChapter 28 Study GuideChapter 28 Assessment

Chapter 29: Our Solar SystemSection 29.1: Overview of Our Solar SystemSection 29.2: The Terrestrial PlanetsSection 29.3: The Gas Giant PlanetsSection 29.4: Formation of our Solar SystemChapter 29 Study GuideChapter 29 Assessment

Chapter 30: StarsSection 30.1: The SunSection 30.2: Measuring the StarsSection 30.3: Stellar EvolutionChapter 30 Study GuideChapter 30 Assessment

Chapter 31: Galaxies and the UniverseSection 31.1: The Milky Way GalaxySection 31.2: Other Galaxies in the UniverseSection 31.3: CosmologyChapter 31 Study GuideChapter 31 Assessment

GeoDigest: Beyond Earth

National Geographic ExpeditionsAppendicesAppendix A: International System of UnitsAppendix B: Safety in the LaboratoryAppendix C: Physiographic Map of EarthAppendix D: Topographic Map SymbolsAppendix E: Weather Map SymbolsAppendix F: Relative HumidityAppendix G: Periodic Table of the ElementsAppendix H: MineralsAppendix I: RocksAppendix J: Solar System ChartsAppendix K: Start Charts

Skill HandbookThinking CriticallyPracticing Scientific MethodsOrganizing Information

GlossaryIndexCredits

Feature ContentsActivitiesMiniLabsGeoLabsGeoLabInternet GeoLabMapping GeoLabDesign Your Own GeoLab

Discovery LabsProblem-Solving Labs

Science ConnectionsScience & TechnologyScience & MathScience in the NewsScience & the Environment

Student WorksheetsExploring Environmental ProblemsHow to Use This Laboratory ManualWriting a Laboratory ReportTechnology-Based Systems for the LabLaboratory EquipmentSafety in the LaboratorySafety SymbolsUsing Technology to Study Environmental ScienceCalculator-Based LabsLab 1: Calculator-Based Lab/Design You OwnLab 2: Calculator-Based Lab/Design You OwnLab 3: Calculator-Based LabLab 4: Calculator-Based LabLab 5: Calculator-Based LabLab 6: Calculator-Based LabLab 7: Calculator-Based Lab/Design You OwnLab 8: Calculator-Based LabLab 9: Calculator-Based LabLab 10: Calculator-Based LabLab 11: Calculator-Based Lab

Global Positioning System LabsLab 12: Global Positioning System LabLab 13: Global Positioning System LabLab 14: Global Positioning System LabLab 15: Global Positioning System LabLab 16: Global Positioning System Lab

GeoLab and MiniLab WorksheetsMaterials ListChapter 1Chapter 2Chapter 3Chapter 4Chapter 5Chapter 6Chapter 7Chapter 8Chapter 9Chapter 10Chapter 11Chapter 12Chapter 13Chapter 14Chapter 15Chapter 16Chapter 17Chapter 18Chapter 19Chapter 20Chapter 21Chapter 22Chapter 23Chapter 24Chapter 25Chapter 26Chapter 27Chapter 28Chapter 29Chapter 30Chapter 31

Laboratory ManualHow to Use This Laboratory ManualWriting a Laboratory ReportLaboratory EquipmentSafety in the LaboratorySafety SymbolsChapter 1: The Nature of Science1.1: Investigation1.2: Design Your Own

Chapter 2: Mapping Our World2.1: Mapping2.2: Investigation

Chapter 3: Matter and Atomic Structure3.1: Design Your Own3.2: Investigation

Chapter 4: Minerals4.1: Investigation4.2: Design Your Own

Chapter 5: Igneous Rocks5.1: Investigation5.2: Mapping

Chapter 6: Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks6.1: Investigation6.2: Mapping

Chapter 7: Weathering, Erosion, and Soil7.1: Investigation7.2: Mapping

Chapter 8: Mass Movements, Wind, and Glaciers8.1: Investigation8.2: Design Your Own

Chapter 9: Surface Water9.1: Investigation9.2: Mapping

Chapter 10: Groundwater10.1: Investigation10.2: Design Your Own

Chapter 11: Atmosphere11.1: Investigation11.2: Design Your Own

Chapter 12: Meteorology12.1: Investigation12.2: Design Your Own

Chapter 13: The Nature of Storms13.1: Investigation13.2: Design Your Own

Chapter 14: Climate14.1: Investigation14.2: Mapping

Chapter 15: Physical Oceanography15.1: Mapping15.2: Investigation

Chapter 16: The Marine Environment16.1: Mapping16.2: Investigation

Chapter 17: Plate Tectonics17.1: Design Your Own17.2: Investigation

Chapter 18: Volcanic Activity18.1: Design Your Own18.2: Investigation

Chapter 19: Earthquakes19.1: Investigation19.2: Design Your Own

Chapter 20: Mountain Building20.1: Investigation20.2: Mapping

Chapter 21: Fossils and the Rock Record21.1: Investigation21.2: Design Your Own

Chapter 22: The Precambrian Earth22.1: Investigation22.2: Mapping

Chapter 23: The Paleozoic Era23.1: Mapping23.2: Investigation

Chapter 24: The Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras24.1: Mapping 24.2: Investigation

Chapter 25: Earth Resources25.1: Design Your Own25.2: Investigation

Chapter 26: Energy Resources26.1: Design Your Own26.2: Investigation

Chapter 27: Human Impact on Earth Resources27.1: Design Your Own27.2: Investigation

Chapter 28: The Sun-Earth-Moon System28.1: Investigation28.2: Design Your Own

Chapter 29: Our Solar System29.1: Investigation29.2: Design Your Own

Chapter 30: Stars30.1: Investigation30.2: Mapping

Chapter 31: Galaxies and the Universe31.1: Investigation31.2: Mapping

Performance Assessment in Earth ScienceUnit 1: Earth ScienceActivity One: The Nature of Scientific InvestigationsActivity Two: Mapping Your School

Unit 2: Composition of EarthActivity One: Testing and Identification of MineralsActivity Two: Rocks Are Made of MineralsActivity Three: Igneous Rock Lab

Unit 3: Surface Processes on EarthActivity One: Assessing a Site PlanActivity Two: Comparing Erosion Rates

Unit 4: The Atmosphere and the OceansActivity One: The Cold PoolActivity Two: Whats your forecast?

Unit 5: The Dynamic EarthActivity One: Tracking Volcanoes and EarthquakesActivity Two: Earthquake Preparedness

Unit 6: Geologic TimeActivity One: Dating an ArtifactActivity Two: Exploring Taphonomy: How Fossil Formation Proceeds

Unit 7: Resources and the EnvironmentActivity One: Human Impact on Earth ResourcesActivity Two: Surviving Together: The Interconnectedness of LifeActivity Three: Nature and the Artistic Impulse

Unit 8: Beyond EarthActivity One: Using the Sun and Stars to Measure TimeActivity Two: Using the Doppler Effect

Study Guide for Content MasteryTo the StudentChapter 1: The Nature of ScienceChapter 2: Mapping Our WorldGeoDigest 1: Earth ScienceChapter 3: Matter and Atomic StructureChapter 4: MineralsChapter 5: Igneous RocksChapter 6: Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks

GeoDigest 2: Composition of EarthChapter 7: Weathering, Erosion, and SoilChapter 8: Mass Movements, Wind, and GlaciersChapter 9: Surface WaterChapter 10: Groundwater

GeoDigest 3: Surface Processes on EarthChapter 11: AtmosphereChapter 12: MeteorologyChapter 13: The Nature of StormsChapter 14: ClimateChapter 15: Physical OceanographyChapter 16: The Marine Environment

GeoDigest 4: The Atmosphere and the OceansChapter 17: Plate TectonicsChapter 18: Volcanic ActivityChapter 19: EarthquakesChapter 20: Mountain Building

GeoDigest 5: The Dynamic EarthChapter 21: Fossils and the Rock RecordChapter 22: The Precambrian EarthChapter 23: The Paleozoic EraChapter 24: The Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras

GeoDigest 6 Geologic TimeChapter 25: Earth ResourcesChapter 26: Energy ResourcesChapter 27: Human Impact on Earth Resources

GeoDigest 7: Resources and the EnvironmentChapter 28: The Sun-Earth-Moon SystemChapter 29: Our Solar SystemChapter 30: StarsChapter 31: Galaxies and the Universe

GeoDigest 8: Beyond Earth

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