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Climate Change Management
For further volumes:http://www.springer.com/series/8740
Walter Leal FilhoEditor
Climate Change and theSustainable Use of WaterResources
123
Prof. Walter Leal FilhoHochschule für Angewandte Wissenschaften
Hamburg Forschungs- und TransferzentrumApplications of Life SciencesLohbruegger Kirchstr. 6521033 HamburgGermanye-mail: [email protected]
ISSN 1610-2010 e-ISSN 1610-2002ISBN 978-3-642-22265-8 e-ISBN 978-3-642-22266-5DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-22266-5Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York
� Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material isconcerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcast-ing, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of thispublication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law ofSeptember 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained fromSpringer. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does notimply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevantprotective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
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Preface
Climate change is and will continue to be one of the central issues in the world’sagenda. The 16th Conference of Parties (COP-15) of the UN Framework Con-vention on Climate Change held in Cancun, Mexico, in December 2010 hasreiterated how much still needs to be done in order to tackle the various challengesclimate change and its various ramifications pose to mankind.
This book, prepared as a follow-up to the third online climate conferenceCLIMATE 2010/KLIMA 2010, held on 1–7 November 2010, focuses on ClimateChange and the Sustainable Management of Water Resources. There are two keyarguments for the choice of this particular topic:
• First, it is widely believed that climate change has a serious impact on globalwater supplies and may worsen water scarcity–a problem which threatens alarge part of the world already today. Under present conditions, approximately1.2 billion people—especially in developing countries—have no access todrinking water. In order to address this problem, the United Nations has set thegoal of increasing access to a further 600 million people by 2015, i.e. betteraccess to drinking water for around 100 million people per year between 2010and 2015.
• Second, there is a pressing need to use the presently available water resources,which are very scarce in some areas, more sustainably. Even though in parts ofAfrica, Latin America and the Middle East water resources are already scarce,the proportion of water wasted partly to leaks but also due to the lack ofadequate systems to retain, recycle and reuse water is considerably high. Urgentaction is needed to address this issue to keep up the UN targets.
The thematic focus of this book, which is also prepared in the context of theInterreg IVB (North Sea) project North Sea Skills Integration and New Technol-ogies (SKINT), will allow in-depth discussions and support the search for globaland regional solutions for the impacts climate change has on water supplies andwill address the need to promote sustainable water use across the world.
Part I contains a set of papers on geochemical and physical impacts of climatechange on water supplies, as well as on aspects of modelling, forecasting and
v
software applications. Part II includes papers on the socioeconomic aspects ofclimate change in relation to water supplies and use, whereas Part III presentspapers on the links between climate change, policy-making and sustainable wateruse. Part IV presents a number of projects and initiatives, which focus onaddressing the links between climate change and sustainable water use, includingeducational and awareness-raising initiatives.
I want to thank all authors for sharing their knowledge and their experiences, aswell as Mrs Marika Rudzite-Grike for the editorial support provided. Thanks arealso due to the ICCIP Team (Franziska Mannke, Natalie Fischer, Kathrin Rath andJohanna Vogt) and Olaf Gramkow for contributing to Climate 2010 and to thisbook project.
It is hoped that this book, which is Volume 3 of the ‘‘Climate Change Man-agement Series’’, initiated as part of the ‘‘International Climate Change Infor-mation Programme’’ (ICCIP), will be useful and allow a better understanding ofthe problems, barriers, challenges, opportunities and possibilities related to thepromotion of the sustainable use of water resources worldwide.
Summer 2011 Walter Leal Filho
vi Preface
Contents
Part I
1 Climate Change Impacts on Green Water Fluxesin the Eastern Mediterranean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Ibrahim M. Oroud
2 Stormwater Reuse via Aquifer Storage and Recovery:Risk Assessment for Sandy Aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Anke Steinel
3 Hydrologic Balance of Citarum Watershed under Currentand Future Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43Rizaldi Boer, Bambang Dwi Dasanto, Perdinanand Delon Marthinus
4 Towards a Database for an Information Management Systemon Climate Change: An Online Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61V. Ramani Bai, S. Mohan and Reza Kabiri
5 Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Evapotranspirationand Soil Salinization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69Mohammad Hassan Rahimian and Samaneh Poormohammadi
Part II
6 The South African Water Sector: On its Way TowardsAdaptive Water Governance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79Elke Herrfahrdt-Pähle
vii
7 Increase in Port Downtime and Damage in Vietnam Due Toa Potential Increase in Tropical Cyclone Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . 101Miguel Esteban, Nguyen Danh Thao, Hiroshi Takagiand Tomoya Shibayama
8 Hydro-Economic Analysis for Water Resources Managementin a Changing Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127David Corderi Novoa
9 Climate Change and Water Resource Availability:What to Do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143Eugenia Aloj, Mariagrazia De Castro, Michela Totàroand Anna Zollo
10 Adaptations to Climate Change and Variability AmongSmallholder Farmers in Tanzania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153Stephen Justice Nindi and David Gongwe Mhando
11 ‘‘Greening’’ Integrated Water Resources Management Policiesfor Tackling Climate Change Impacts: A Callfor Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173Nazmul Huq and Jean Hugé
12 Urbanization and Flood Vulnerability in a Peri-UrbanNeighbourhood of Dakar, Senegal: How can ParticipatoryGIS Contribute to Flood Management?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185Audrey Maheu
13 Vulnerability of Andean Communities to Climate Variabilityand Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209Harry Diaz, Rosa Garay-Fluhmann, Julia McDowell,Elma Montaña, Bernardo Reyes and Sonia Salas
14 Water Management Issues in Southern Tunisia Undera Climate Change Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225Nizar Omrani and Dieter Burger
15 Climate Change and its Impacts on the Livelihoodsof the Vulnerable People in the SouthwesternCoastal Zone in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237Md. Afjal Hossain, Md. Imran Reza, Sania Rahmanand Imrul Kayes
viii Contents
16 Conservation and Management of Water Resourcesfor Livelihood Sustainability in Mountainous Regionsof Uttarakhand, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261Anil Kumar
17 Ports and Climate Change: Building Skills in ClimateChange Adaptation, Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273Melissa Nursey-Bray and Tony Miller
18 Preliminary Report on the Socioecology of Rural GroundwaterMarkets in the Gingee Watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283Susan Varughese and K. V. Devi Prasad
19 Impact of Climate Change on Water Supply and Food Securityin Seraro District, Southern Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297Fikadu Reta Alemayehu
20 Climate Change and Rural Water Supply Planning in Nigeria . . . 305Salisu Lawal Halliru and Da’u Abba Umar
21 Impact of Climate Change in Bangladesh: Water Loggingat South-West Coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317Md. Moniruzzaman
Part III
22 Characterizing Adaptive Capacity in Water GovernanceArrangements in the Context of Extreme Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339Margot Hill
23 The Contribution of Rural Development Programmesin Mitigating Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367Rocío Dánica Cóndor, Marina Vitullo, Domenico Gaudiosoand Marina Colaiezzi
24 ‘‘Climate Proofing’’ Water Resources Development Policy:The Evidence from Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389Nazmul Huq, Zakir Hossain, Rashedul Hasan and Al Mamun Azad
25 Developing an Environmental Sustainability Toolkit toIntegrate Climate Change Issues in Development Cooperation . . . 401Tom Waas and Jean Hugé
Contents ix
26 Spatio-Temporal Variation of Drought Severity in theSudano-Sahelian Region of Nigeria: Implications for Policieson Water Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415Maruf Sanni, Theophilus Odeyemi Odekunleand Francis Adeyinka Adesina
27 Climate Change and Sustainable Managementof Water Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431Golda A. Edwin and G. Poyyamoli
28 Problems of Water Resources Management in theDrainage Basin of Lake Balkhash with Respectto Political Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449Pavel Propastin
29 Saline Irrigation Management for Sustainable Use . . . . . . . . . . . 463Medhat Mekhail Tawfik, M. A. Ahmed, Amany A. Bahr,M. F. El Karamany and M. S. Zeidan
30 Modelling of Water Cycle Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473Viktor Batyreu and Siarhei Zenchanka
31 Bridging the Communication Gap: An Explorationof the Climate Science–Water Management Interface . . . . . . . . . 485Katinka Lund Waagsaether and Gina Ziervogel
32 Influences of Public Ecological Awareness and Priceon Potable Water Consumption in Geneva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499Giuseppe Catenazzo, Jennifer D’Urso, Emmanuel Fragnièreand Jean Tuberosa
33 Sustainable Development Through Pathways of Mitigationand Adaptation to Offset Adverse Climate Change Impacts . . . . . 515A. N. Sarkar
Part IV
34 Activity-Based Water Resources and Climate ChangeEducation Among School Students in Puducherry . . . . . . . . . . . . 557R. Alexandar and G. Poyyamoli
x Contents
35 Water Resources Management in the Peruvian Andes:Participatory Adaptive Measures to Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . 579Rebecca Clements and Juan Torres
36 Community-Level Environmental and Climate ChangeAdaptation Initiatives in Nawalparasi, Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591Eloise M. Biggs, Gary R. Watmough and Craig W. Hutton
37 Multifunctional Land Use in Urban Spacesto Adapt Urban Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611Marko Siekmann, Nina Vomberg, Michael Mirgartz,Johannes Pinnekamp and Sarah Mühle
38 Integrated Industrial Water Management as a Toolfor Mitigating Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627Rasmi Patnaik and Gopalsamy Poyyamoli
39 Unjust Water: An Investigation of the Drinking WaterSituation in Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641Sonja Maria Geiger and Natalia Salvático
40 Socio-Environmental Evaluation of Drip IrrigationSystem Implementation as a Climate Change AdaptationMeasure Within the N’hambita Community CarbonProject Area, Mozambique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663Jelena Barbir and Walter Leal
41 Social Learning Through Local WaterGovernance Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685Margot Hurlbert
42 These are Our Water Pipes—Sand Dams, Womenand Donkeys: Dealing with Water Scarcity in Kenya’s Aridand Semi-Arid Lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701Abigail Cruickshank and Velma I. Grover
43 Urban Rainwater Management Using the Aquiferfor Storage as One Measure to Confront ChangedWater Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727Reinhard Marth and Leonel González González
Contents xi
44 Educating for Sustainable Consumption as a Responseto the Global Water Crisis: An Investigationof an Embedded Learning Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743Daniel Fischer and Eva Freund
45 Achieving Sustainable Wastewater and Organic SolidWaste Management Taking Advantage of the CleanDevelopment Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761Sören Rüd and Reinhard Marth
46 Local Wisdom of Danowudu Community in Preserving Forestas a Water Source for the City of Bitung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773Trina E. Tallei and Saroyo Sumarto
47 Education in Global Climate Change at a Botanical Garden:Students’ Perceptions and Inquiry-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . 779Daniela Sellmann and Franz X. Bogner
48 The Climate Change Challenge for the Urban Environment:The Use of an Integrated Management System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787Esther Kreutz and Kirsi-Marja Lonkila
About the Authors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
xii Contents
Part I
Chapter 1Climate Change Impacts on Green WaterFluxes in the Eastern Mediterranean
Ibrahim M. Oroud
Abstract The present paper is part of the Glowa Jordan River project, which hasbeen focusing on climate change impacts on environmental, economic and socialissues within the lower Jordan river riparian states. The eastern Mediterranean ischaracterized by scarce and erratic precipitation with relatively cool, wet wintersand dry hot summers. Water is the biggest growth-limiting factor. The presentpaper discusses the use of climate gradient as a tool to examine the impact ofclimate change on precipitation partitioning over field crops. The present experi-ment is carried out using a multi-layer, multi-year model with a daily time step.Six years of daily data for five locations, with average annual precipitation rangingfrom 170 to 580 mm, were used in this investigation. Results show that the ratio ofsoil evaporation (BE) to annual precipitation (P) during the growing seasondepends strongly on precipitation regime and amount, ranging from *15 to 20%when P [ 600 mm to *60% when annual P \ 200 mm. A decrease of 10% inprecipitation along with a temperature rise of 2�C increases bare surface evapo-ration, on average, by *10% compared to average current conditions. Theimplications of this would be a tangible reduction in blue and green water fluxes,leading to compulsory land use shift and further water stress in the region.
Keywords Climate change � Mediterranean � Soil moisture partitioning � Rain-fed field crops
I. M. Oroud (&)Department of Geography, Mu’tah University,Karak, 61710, Jordane-mail: [email protected]
W. Leal Filho (ed.), Climate Change and the Sustainable Use of Water Resources,Climate Change Management, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-22266-5_1,� Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012
3
Introduction
Rain-fed field crops are widely grown in western Asia and North Africa. Beinglocated in a transitional zone, this area experiences limited amounts of precipi-tation with substantial interannual and within season variability. For instance, a 30-year record of precipitation in a station located in this area shows that the average,lowest and highest annual precipitation there were 340, 123 and 639 mm,respectively, with a coefficient of variation of precipitation exceeding 30% inmany locations. Precipitation in the eastern Mediterranean exhibits strong spatialgradients both latitudinally and across elevation contour lines. This is clearlydepicted in the geographic distribution of water resources, floral composition anddominant agricultural practices.
General circulation models and long-term regional meteorological observationssuggest strongly that the eastern Mediterranean will experience a warming trendalong with a reduction in annual precipitation during the twenty-first century. Thisclimate change is expected to adversely affect soil moisture availability at differentdepths, with subsequent impacts on the evapotranspiration regime and biomassproduction. One of the objectives of this paper is to demonstrate the impact ofclimate gradient on soil moisture partitioning when planted with a field crop,wheat for instance. The use of climate gradient, or space-for-time approach,provides an assessment of what to expect following a change in climate.
The objective of the present investigation is to examine how soil moistureregime within the active root zone of a wheat crop is influenced by the amount ofprecipitation and its temporal distribution, and how it is partitioned via directevaporation and transpiration along a climate gradient. A multi-year, multi-layersimulation model was used. Six years of daily meteorological data for five stationsrepresenting the high precipitation zone in Jordan were used in this investigation.
Study Area and Data Quality
The study area represents a semi-dry Mediterranean climate regime with ‘‘average’’Koppen climate classification of Csa and Csb. The study area is located inthe mountainous areas of Jordan, with average annual precipitation ranging from170 mm to about 550 mm (Fig. 1).
Precipitation falls in the cold season, October/November, and ceases around theend of March/early April. Figure 2 shows the annual course of precipitation in twolocations. Annual potential evaporation (PE) in the study area is around 1,000 mm,with the index of aridity ranging from 1.5 in a small mountainous enclave to about4 in the drier mountainous regions. Six years of continuous daily meteorologicaldata (precipitation, maximum and minimum air temperatures, sunshine hours,cloud cover, wind speed, and ambient vapour pressure) covering the period 1996/1997–2001/2002 were obtained from the Department of Meteorology, Jordan.
4 I. M. Oroud
This period covers several growing seasons with wet, average and dry years for thefive stations used in the investigation. The selected stations provide good-qualitymeteorological data with elements being observed on an hourly or three-hourlybasis. The data set was quite continuous with few gaps in certain elements whichwere estimated from neighbouring stations using linear regression, and werechecked for consistency.
Fig. 1 Location of stations along with elevation (m) and average annual precipitation (mm)
1 Climate Change Impacts on Green Water Fluxes in the Eastern Mediterranean 5
Method of Investigation
The present investigation is carried out using a cascading water balance model.The water balance of a soil column may be expressed in the following form (e.g.Gleick 1987):
dS
dt¼ P� BE � AT � RO � Dp ð1Þ
The first term represents soil moisture change with time; P, BE, AT, RO, and Dp
are precipitation, bare surface evaporation, actual transpiration, surface runoff, anddeep percolation, respectively. In this formulation the soil profile is divided intofour equal layers, 0.25 m each, and thus it is assumed that maximum rootextension is 1 m. Soil evaporation is determined by atmospheric demand, soilwater content, and soil hydraulic properties (e.g. Ritchie 1972).
Atmospheric demand, or PE, is a thermal index which represents the amount ofavailable energy, radiative and advective, that can be used to convert water fromits liquid phase into vapour phase. A widely used expression to calculate PE is thePenman–Monteith expression, in which radiative and advective terms were com-bined to calculate PE (e.g. Dingman 2002).
Actual soil evaporation is either energy-limited or moisture-limited. Most ofbare soil evaporation (BE) takes place from layers close to the surface-atmosphereinterface. In this formulation, evaporation from the top layer is calculated using theconcept of readily available water such that soil evaporation proceeds at itspotential rate when skin layer moisture (x) exceeds atmospheric demands:
BE ¼ sPE; sPE�x; 0�x� 4 mm ð2Þ
When skin moisture content does not meet evaporative demands, then directevaporation is proportional to moisture content of the upper layer,
BE ¼ sxþ sðPE � xÞ hi � hh
hf � hh
� �1:8
; sPE [ x ð3Þ
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
S O N D J F M A M J J A
Monthm
m/m
on
th
Irbid
Rabbah
Fig. 2 Monthly distributionof precipitation in twolocations, Irbid in northernJordan and Rabbah insouthern Jordan
6 I. M. Oroud
where BE, PE, x, hi, hh, hf, and s are bare surface evaporation, PE, readily availablewater for evaporation, actual soil water content, residual water, field capacity,and solar radiation fraction reaching the soil surface, respectively.
The readily available soil water is assumed to be 4 mm. Following rainy events,bare surface evaporation proceeds at its potential rate until x is less than thepotential rate, with Eq. 3 being used instead.
Soil evaporation proceeds only from the top layer when its moisture content isabove a threshold value, but when it drops below that, then evaporation proceedsfrom the deeper layers as well, but with a much reduced rate.
Evaporation/transpiration fraction distribution is assumed to have the followingexponential form as suggested by Novak (1987) (see also Zhang et al. 2004),
kk ¼D expð�Dðz=zDÞÞzDð1� expð�DÞÞ ð4Þ
where D is the water use distribution parameter, and ZD is the maximum depth thatresponds to evaporation processes at the surface-atmosphere boundary. The wateruse distribution parameter for evaporation depends primarily on soil hydraulicproperties, and its value may be in the range 6–10 (e.g. Zhang et al. 2004), taken inthis paper as 8. When the top layer becomes desiccated, as is the case during thelong summer days, evaporation proceeds from the deeper layers.
Surface albedo is parameterized as follows,
a ¼ 0:3� ð0:1sþ 0:04ð1� sÞÞ; 1\x\4 mm ð5Þ
a ¼ 0:3� ð0:1ðh=hf Þbsþ 0:04ð1� sÞÞ; x\1 mm ð6Þ
where x is skin layer soil moisture wetness factor (taken in this case to be 4 mm),h and hf are the upper surface layer soil moisture and its field capacity, respec-tively, s is the fraction of global radiation reaching the ground surface, calculatedby (e.g. Oweis et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2004),
s ¼ expð�K � LAIÞ ð7Þ
where K is solar radiation extinction coefficient, taken in this paper as 0.6 (e.g.Zhang et al. 2004), and LAI is leaf area index. Because of rapid drying of the skin soillayer which determines surface albedo, the exponent b appearing in Eq. 6 is taken as2.2. Equations 5 and 6 reflect adequately alterations to surface albedo due to uppersoil wetting following rainy events and also due to development of foliage coverage.
Soil Moisture and Runoff
Runoff is a function of several parameters (e.g. soil texture and depth, topography,vegetation cover, antecedent soil moisture, precipitation intensity). Because ofdifficulty in obtaining precipitation intensity, runoff is assumed to be a function of
1 Climate Change Impacts on Green Water Fluxes in the Eastern Mediterranean 7
total daily precipitation (p), soil moisture content of the upper layer (h1), and leafarea index (LAI),
RO ¼ f ðP; h1; LAIÞ ð8Þ
Runoff may be calculated using the SCS curve. In this formulation, precipita-tion threshold causing runoff increases as the upper soil layer moisture decreasesand as LAI increases. Under such conditions, runoff may occur without the needfor the entire soil profile being at its field capacity. The procedure adopted in thispaper is similar, in principle, to that presented by Rushton et al. (2006).
Transpiration
The specification of transpiration is crucial for evaluating soil moisture dynamics,leaf area development, and dry matter accumulation, and thus its accurate deter-mination is probably the most significant parameter in this type of study. Tran-spiration occurs as a result of water potential difference between the soil and plantroots; it is a function of climatic (mainly PE and physiologically active radiation),physiological (LAI, root development and distribution, plant health) and edaphic(soil texture, structure, depth and hydraulic properties) factors (e.g. Brisson 1998;Novak and Havrila 2006). For a well-managed soil, moisture extraction is deter-mined by vertical root extension,
AT ¼Zz
rðz; tÞdz ð9Þ
where AT is actual transpiration and r(z, t) is vertical root distribution. The plantmoisture extraction parameter depends on vertical root distribution within the soillayer, and it ranges from 0.5 to about 5 (e.g. Novak 1987; Zhang et al. 2004). TheD parameter, presented in Eq. 4, is assigned a value of 1.45 which gives water uptakefractions of 0.41, 0.27, 0.19, and 0.13 for the 0–0.25 m, 0.25–0.5 m, 0.75–0.75 m,and 0.75–1.0 m, respectively. These values are congruent with the widely reportedfractions of 0.4, 0.3, 0.2 and 0.1 from the first, second, third and fourth soil layers,respectively (e.g. Gardner 1983). Moisture extraction from each soil layer dependson root extension in each layer and water availability.
Transpiration from a given soil layer is a dynamic parameter which is deter-mined for a well-developed root system by critical leaf water potential andatmospheric forcings (e.g. Nishat et al. 2007). It is assumed that transpirationproceeds at its potential rate when the available moisture in a soil layer exceeds agiven threshold level (h*), and then decreases linearly until reaching the wiltingpoint (e.g. Hanks 1983; Dingman 2002; Kang et al. 2003),
AT ¼ PEð1� sÞXn
i
Ks � y � ci; hi [ h� ð10Þ
8 I. M. Oroud
AT ¼ PEð1� sÞXn
i
hi � hwp
h� � hwpKs � y � ci; hi\h� ð11Þ
where Ks is the plant transpiration coefficient, which depends on plant stage (Allenet al. 1998), y is the fraction of root extension in the ith soil layer, ci is the ith soillayer moisture contribution fraction, and h* is the critical soil moisture abovewhich transpiration proceeds at its potential rate. This critical level is influencedprimarily by meteorological factors, namely PE; it ranges from values close to 0.8when atmospheric evaporation demands are high, to values close to the wiltingpoint when evaporative demands are small. The transpiration coefficient wasformulated after Allen et al. (1998) for winter wheat crop grown in a Mediterra-nean environment which ranges from less than 0.2 in late growth stages to 1.1during the mid growth stage (Fig. 3).
Root vertical development of a cereal crop depends on edaphic elements (e.g.moisture, compaction), weather elements (e.g. PE, growing degree days) andgrowth stage (e.g. Izzi et al. 2008). Izzi et al. (2008) found that average vertical rootgrowth of wheat in a typical Mediterranean soil in northern Syria is *7 mm/day. Inthis paper, root growth from seeding to maturity is assumed to be a function ofgrowing degree days. Root vertical growth within a given soil layer, however,depends also on soil water potential. It was indicated that root growth is severelyrestricted when soil water content is less than * -1.0 MPa (e.g. Taylor 1983). Inthis paper, root vertical extension within the second to fourth layers was not allowedwhen water content of a layer is less than * -1.0 MPa. This occurs duringdrought-stricken years when precipitation is not sufficient to penetrate to the deeperdesiccated soil layers, thereby impeding root development. The germination periodis assumed to be 10 days, during which roots are allowed to develop but no leafdevelopment was allowed.
LAI was assumed to be a function of biomass accumulation and senescence.Sowing date was assumed to occur after 25 November, provided that accumulativeantecedent precipitation for the period starting from 1 October was at least 40 mm.Farmers tend to plant their land around this time following sufficient amounts ofprecipitation to ensure germination and subsequent growth for a few weeks tocome.
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1 31 61 91 121 151 181
Days after planting date
Tra
nsp
irat
ion
co
effi
cien
t
Fig. 3 Simulatedtranspiration coefficient ofwinter wheat as a function ofplant stage (after Allen et al.1998)
1 Climate Change Impacts on Green Water Fluxes in the Eastern Mediterranean 9
Results
Soil Moisture Dynamics
Soil moisture reflects the overall budget of recharge and depletion via evaporationand transpiration due to root-soil moisture differential. Figure 4 shows the annualpatterns of precipitation and plant available water (PAW) for the soil profile undercurrent conditions and following a climate change in northern Jordan with averageannual precipitation during the study period of 400 mm. There is an annual patternof soil moisture availability, reaching its maximum during winter and decliningduring the growing season via both evaporation and root water uptake, and viaevaporation during the long dry season. During years with low rainfall, deeperlayers are not being replenished, with moisture there being further depleted byevaporation during the following long summer. Long- and short-term droughtevents are easily detected from moisture curves; poor years are also identified(2000/2001), as the presented moisture curves were narrow and never reached fieldcapacity.
A climate change scenario assuming 2�C temperature increase along with a10% reduction in precipitation shows that PAW is smaller than under currentconditions in all seasons. Although annual patterns are somewhat similar, PAWunder climate change scenarios is always less, reflecting the loss of water via direct
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
1 366 731 1096 1461 1826 2191
Days after Sept. 3,96
mm P
PAW
020406080
100120140160
1 366 731 1096 1461 1826 2191Days after Sept. 3,96
mm P
PAW
Fig. 4 Plant available water (mm) during the six-year simulation period under current conditionsand assuming a 10% precipitation reduction along with a temperature increase of 2�C
10 I. M. Oroud
evaporation because of the increased evaporative power of the contiguous atmo-sphere. With an increase of 2�C, annual PE increases by *12%. The corre-sponding value for direct surface evaporation (actual) following a climate changeis an increase of *10%. This means that an increase of direct evaporation willcome at the expense of blue and green water fluxes. This decrease, althoughrelatively small, is quite significant in this marginal environment, given the verysmall amount of precipitation in this fragile ecosystem.
Direct Evaporation
Current seasonal direct evaporation ranges, on average, from *80 mm for drierlocations/years to *120 mm for larger P values. The late response of vegetativegrowth in the mountainous areas, along with frequent surface wetting, intensifydirect soil moisture depletion via direct evaporation early in the season.
To demonstrate the impact of climate change on soil moisture dynamics,we used data along a climate gradient. This data set is characterized bysubstantial interannual and spatial variations. Seasonal bare surface evaporationfraction (BE/P) ranges from *60% in drier areas/years with annual precipita-tion \200 mm to *15–20% when it exceeds *600 mm. Corbeels et al. (1998)found in a similar environment that direct soil evaporation during the growingseason was influenced strongly by precipitation amount, ranging from *35% in awet year (P *400 mm) to *80% during a dry year (P * 260 mm).
Annual soil evaporation fraction in drier realms/years accounts for [90% oftotal precipitation, whereas in areas/years with more precipitation this fractionis *25–30% (P [ 500 mm). Figure 5 shows the linkage between direct evapo-ration and precipitation amount for the stations used during the study period.
In drier Mediterranean regions/years, intermittent and scanty precipitation wetsthe upper soil layer, making it subject to continuous depletion by direct evapo-ration resulting from large insolation and dry winds following rainy events.Figure 5 demonstrates the steep response of BE to precipitation reduction,
0
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0 200 400 600 800
Annual Precip. (mm)
An
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Fig. 5 Annual fraction ofdirect evaporation from soilfor the five stations
1 Climate Change Impacts on Green Water Fluxes in the Eastern Mediterranean 11
particularly at low P values. For instance, a reduction of P from 400 to 360 mmleads to an increase in direct evaporation fraction by *5%, whereas a reduction inannual P from 240 to 200 leads to an increase of BE by *12%.
Transpiration
Transpiration is the most limiting factor in biomass and grain production in drylandfarming (e.g. Gardner 1983; Tanner and Sinclair 1983). Wheat is usually sownfollowing sufficient amounts of precipitation. This may occur from mid-Novembertill the end of January. Surface frost occurs frequently in the mountainous areasduring the period November to March (Oroud 2007) which, along with low tem-peratures, slows down vegetative growth. On average, more than 75% of precipi-tation falls before the end of February, whereas growth begins near the end ofFebruary. Figure 6 shows the ratio of wheat transpiration to total crop waterdemand (potential transpiration) (AT/PT) for the five stations during the simulationperiod. Transpiration fraction reaches its maximum when annual P is between 300and 500 mm, and then decreases at both ends of precipitation. When P is small, soilmoisture is lost via direct evaporation, and at large P values, it is lost as blue water.
Discussion
The concept of climate gradient as represented by interannual precipitation vari-ability for a total of 30 years provides a measure of soil moisture dynamics andhow precipitation is partitioned via various avenues. The present method provides
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Annual Precip. (mm)
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Fig. 6 Transpiration fraction as influenced by seasonal precipitation
12 I. M. Oroud
realistic representations of precipitation partitioning via various avenues. Surfaceevaporation proceeds at its potential following rainy events until the wetnessfraction drops below a critical level and then it continues at a reduced rate. Unlikeother methods which deal with surface albedo as a constant, the present papertreats this element dynamically such that it changes following wetting/dryingepisodes and also in response to foliage development. This treatment is importantgiven the fact that a change in surface albedo influences water loss appreciablyfollowing rainy events. Following rainy events, net radiation increases as a resultof surface temperatures reduction and suppressed albedo due to strong spectralabsorption (k[ 0.75 lm). The combined effects of increased global radiationalong with a reduced albedo due to surface wetting enhance direct evaporationfrom soils. A 5% difference in surface albedo leads to *12–15% difference in netradiation, and correspondingly a similar evapotranspiration difference. This isimportant following rainy events, as actual evapotranspiration is energy-limitedfollowing these events.
The meagre amount of precipitation, which usually wets the top soil layer,along with substantial evaporative demands, enhances direct evaporation in thisenvironment. Results show that bare surface evaporation represents a significantfraction of precipitation for areas receiving less than 300 mm of annual precipi-tation, with a total annual fraction exceeding 90% in these areas. These results arecongruent with those presented by Zhang et al. (1998), Oweis et al. (2000) innorthern Syria, Corbeels et al. (1998) in Morocco, and Monzon et al. (2006) insouthwestern Australia where Mediterranean-like conditions prevail. With aclimate change, drought frequency and severity will be more intense in the nearfuture compared to those experienced during the twentieth century. Under suchconditions, traditional areas which sustained dry agriculture practices during theHolocene will be less suitable for rain-fed agriculture, with more frequent cropfailure. Although people and decision-makers will continue denying these envi-ronmental changes, more intense drought episodes and frequent crop failures willforce these new painful realities. Consequently, a shift in land use from agricul-tural towards grazing is an inevitable outcome of a climate change in this fragilehabitat.
Conclusion
A simulation model with a daily time step is developed to examine the partitioningof precipitation along a climate gradient. Results show that direct evaporationrepresents the largest water loss component in areas receiving less than 300 mm ofannual precipitation. The substantial evaporation fraction in dry areas indicatesclearly that rainwater harvesting (deep trenches for underground recharge or small-scale collection systems directed to enhance green water fluxes) is the bestavailable option to conserve water and to maximize its usefulness in these mar-ginal areas.
1 Climate Change Impacts on Green Water Fluxes in the Eastern Mediterranean 13
Acknowledgments This paper is part of the GLOWA Jordan River Project Phase 3 which isfunded by BMBF, Germany.
References
Allen RG, Pereira LS, Raes D, Smith M (1998) Crop evapotranspiration guidelines for computingcrop water requirements. FAO irrigation and drainage paper 56, FAO, Rome
Brisson N (1998) An analytical solution for the estimation of the critical available soil waterfraction for a single layer water balance model under growing crops. Hydrol Earth Sys Sci2:221–231
Corbeels M, Hofmann G, van Cleemput O (1998) Analysis of water use by wheat grown on acracking clay soil in a semi-arid Mediterranean environment: weather and nitrogen effects.Agric Water Manage 38:147–167
Dingman SL (2002) Physical Hydrology, 2nd edn. Prentice Hall, New JerseyGardner WR (1983) Soil properties and efficient water use: an overview. In: Taylor H, Jordan W,
Sinclair TR (eds) Limitations to efficient water use. American Society of Agronomy, Inc.,USA
Gleick PH (1987) The development and testing of a water balance model for climate impactassessment: modeling the Sacramento basin. Water Resour Res 23:1049–1061
Hanks RJ (1983) Yield and water-use relationship: an overview. In: Taylor H, Jordan W, SinclairTR (eds) Limitations to efficient water use. American Society of Agronomy, Inc., USA
Izzi G, Farahani HJ, Bruggeman A, Oweis TY (2008) In-season wheat root growth and soil waterextraction in the Mediterranean environment of northern Syria. Agric Water Manage 95:259–270
Kang S, Gu B, Du T, Zhang J (2003) Crop coefficient and ratio of transpiration toevapotranspiration of winter wheat and maize in a semi-‘humid’ region. Agric WaterManage 59:230–254
Monzon JP, Sadras VO, Andrade FH (2006) Fallow soil evaporation and water storage as affectedby stubble in sub-humid (Argentina) and semi-arid (Australia) environments. Field Crops Res98:83–90
Nishat S, Guo Y, Baetz BW (2007) Development of a simplified continuous simulation model forinvestigating long term soil moisture. Agric Water Manage 92:53–63
Novak V (1987) Estimation of soil water extraction patterns by roots. Agric Water Manage12:271–278
Novak V, Havrila J (2006) Method to estimate the critical soil water content of limitedavailability for plants. Biol Bratisl 61(Suppl 19):S289–S293
Oroud IM (2007) Spatial and temporal distribution of frost in Jordan. Arab World Geogr 10:81–91Oweis T, Zhang H, Pala M (2000) Water use efficiency of irrigated bread wheat in a
Mediterranean environment. Agron J 92:231–238Ritchie J (1972) Model for predicting evaporation from a row crop with incomplete cover. Water
Resour Res 8:1204–1213Rushton KR, Eiler VHM, Carter RC (2006) Improved soil moisture balance methodology for
recharge estimation. J Hydrol 318:379–399Tanner CB, Sinclair TR (1983) Efficient water use in crop production. In: Taylor H, Jordan W,
Sinclair TR (eds) Limitations to efficient water use. American Society of Agronomy, Inc.,USA
Taylor HM (1983) Managing root system for efficient water use: an overview. In: Taylor H,Jordan W, Sinclair TR (eds) Limitations to efficient water use. American Society ofAgronomy, Inc., USA
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Zhang H, Oweis TY, Garabet S, Mustafa P (1998) Water-use efficiency and transpirationefficiency of wheat under rain-fed conditions and supplemental irrigation in a Mediterranean-type environment. Plant Soil 201:295–305
Zhang Y, Yu Z, Liu C, Jiang L, Zhang X (2004) Estimation of winter wheat evapotranspirationunder water stress with two semi-empirical approaches. Agron J 96:159–168
1 Climate Change Impacts on Green Water Fluxes in the Eastern Mediterranean 15
Chapter 2Stormwater Reuse via Aquifer Storageand Recovery: Risk Assessmentfor Sandy Aquifers
Anke Steinel
Abstract In the light of increasing demand and diminishing supplies due toclimate change and related alterations in rainfall pattern, a sustainable urban watermanagement for Melbourne and other cities will need to include water recyclingand reuse of reclaimed water and stormwater. One key issue in water reuse is theneed for storage between times of collection and demand. Aquifer storage andrecovery (ASR), which is defined as well injection of source water into a suitableaquifer for later recovery, would be a valuable option as it has limited spacerequirements, restricts loss from evaporation and limits the potential for contam-ination. However, stormwater commonly contains elevated levels of heavy metals,of which Zn and Cu are the most frequent and mobile. Stormwater and treatedwastewater also contain suspended solids, organic carbon, oxygen and nutrients,which influence the behaviour of injected metals and induce geochemical changesin the aquifer. While ASR has been practised in limestone aquifers in SouthAustralia, field data for sandy aquifers, which are more prevalent aroundMelbourne, are very limited. After giving an overview about current ASR prac-tices, the general aim of the study was the risk assessment of injected metalsderived from stormwater during ASR in sandy aquifers. As no field sites fulfillingthese criteria are in operation in Melbourne or anywhere else in Australia, thisstudy was limited largely to literature review and laboratory experiments.
Keywords Aquifer storage and recovery � Stormwater � Heavy metals � Riskassessment � Groundwater protection � Urban water management � Water reuse
A. Steinel (&)Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR),Stilleweg 2, 30655 Hannover, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
W. Leal Filho (ed.), Climate Change and the Sustainable Use of Water Resources,Climate Change Management, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-22266-5_2,� Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012
17
Introduction
Water is vital to the survival and growth of all life and all economic and envi-ronmental processes, but the world’s supplies of freshwater are under increasingthreat from overexploitation, pollution and climate change. Among other coun-tries, Australia has experienced a severe drought over the last 10 years and inMelbourne water supply reservoirs are at an all-time low with the lowest storagelevels on record of below 30% at the end of June 2009 (Fig. 1).
A climate change study for Melbourne predicts higher temperatures andreduced rainfall for the future, which would increase the demand and decrease thesupply (Howe et al. 2005). A sustainable water management is therefore vital forMelbourne and other cities around the world facing a similar challenge. Thesustainable water management will also be an essential part of rural Australia,where the drought has resulted, for example, in a decline of more than 95% in riceproduction in the past 10 years (Barclay 2010).
Decision-makers have largely opted for desalination as the main solution to theproblem. The high energy needs and the problems associated with disposal ofhighly saline brine make it an environmentally challenging option (Lattemann andHöpner 2008). On the other hand, urban areas produce stormwater and treatedeffluent streams, in volumes matching the demand (Mitchell et al. 2002) anddispose of them into urban waterways and adjacent coastal areas leading todegradation of these ecosystems (e.g. Walsh et al. 2005). It is therefore of twofoldbenefit to recycle stormwater and reclaimed water and this has been identified asan important strategy in maintaining a sustainable water supply for Melbourne.
Benefits and Constraints of ASR
The progress in this direction is often hindered, not by technical or economicalreasons, but due to perceived health concerns by the public and decision-makers(Dillon et al. 2009; Po et al. 2003; Toze 2006) and by institutional structures that arenot suitable for non-centralized systems. Water treatment is capable of renderingwastewater to a quality superior than that of potable water (e.g. Cheremisinoff 2002)and hence reuse as drinking water is possible. There is an even greater potential to usewater treated to lower standards, hence using less energy, for non-potable uses, whichconstitutes more than 70% of urban water demand (Mitchell et al. 2002).
The benefits of ASR are manifold. Public confidence in recycled water isincreased when the water has been put back into the natural system beforereuse (Dillon et al. 2009; Po et al. 2003) as ASR increases water quality, e.g.through the removal of pathogens and nutrients (Toze 2006). ASR couldprovide capacity for inter-seasonal or inter-year storage, especially in aquifersof higher salinity that are of limited beneficial use (Pyne 1995; Maliva et al.2006). Compared to surface storage, ASR has limited loss of water due to
18 A. Steinel
evaporation and is also less affected by contamination or algal blooms and doesnot provide mosquito breeding grounds (Pyne 1995; Dillon et al. 2006). Spacerequirements are also limited, which is especially valuable in urban areas forprojects larger than household scale (Hatt et al. 2006). And additionally, thecosts of artificial groundwater recharge are less than investments necessary forlarge traditional dams (BGR 2008) or desalination (Dillon et al. 2009).
Despite these benefits, uptake of ASR in Melbourne has been limited by anumber of restraints. Insufficient legislation and guidelines for water recyclingincluding water ownership issues (Hatt et al. 2006), lack of experience andknowledge in the water industry and relevant authorities (Dillon et al. 2005;Hatt et al. 2006) and lack of detailed hydrogeological properties (Dudding et al.2006) have restricted the application of ASR. In addition, more research onwell-designed and monitored field projects with long-term performance data, aswell as increased hydrogeological knowledge on contaminant attenuationprocesses and contaminant mobility (Dillon et al. 2005; Maliva et al. 2006) areneeded to increase public acceptance (Toze 2006; Dillon et al. 2009).
Stormwater Versus Treated Effluent
Compared to treated effluent, stormwater has the advantage of lower concentra-tions in nutrients, organic matter and total dissolved solids (Mitchell et al. 2002)and is perceived as more acceptable for reuse by the public (Po et al. 2003). On theother hand, stormwater is generated in single events of different magnitudes and isoften seasonally confined. Stormwater quality and quantity thus is rather variable
Fig. 1 Melbourne’s total water system storage (10 reservoirs combined, total volume 1810.5 GL)development from 1997 to 2009, adapted from (Melbourne Water 2010)
2 Stormwater Reuse via Aquifer Storage and Recovery 19
and depends on a range of parameters, e.g. land use, rainfall intensity, frequencyand volume (e.g. Wong 2006). Even within a catchment, pollutant concentrationcan change by more than one magnitude (Sansalone et al. 1995) during thehydrograph of a single event [e.g. first flush effect (Sansalone and Buchberger1997; Barbosa and Hvitved-Jacobsen 1999)], from one event to the next and overthe seasons [e.g. seasonal first flush (Lee et al. 2004)]. A vital part of stormwaterreuse is therefore the collection and storage of the variable sources for later access.
Treated effluent, on the other hand, is a relatively constant and continuoussource, but storage for summer months would commonly be needed nevertheless.It contains higher concentration of nutrients, salinity and organic matter. Its use foragricultural purposes, which commonly comprise about 70% of the total waterdemand, is therefore of twofold benefit, as the addition of fertilizers can be reduceddue to the nutrients contained in the water. Another advantage of using reclaimedwastewater instead of stormwater is its lower impact on stream flows. Firstly,treated effluent would not be discarded into streams, deteriorating its quality and,secondly, stormwater flows would still be available as environmental flows. Thereuse of reclaimed wastewater with and without aquifer recharge has beensuccessfully implemented in many countries around the world and is beingpromoted in rural areas (e.g. Abu-Madi et al. 2008).
ASR Technique: Theory and Case Studies
The artificial recharge of groundwater can occur via infiltration or injection. Theinfiltration via infiltration basins, seepage trenches or vadose zone wells requiresthe availability or construction of an adequate permeable soil and unconfinedaquifer (Bouwer 2002). Injection of water into the aquifer can involve one well forinjection and recovery and is defined as ASR, while the use of one wellfor injection and another well for recovery is defined as aquifer storage, transportand recovery (ASTR). It requires a suitable aquifer and better infrastructure, butinjection rates are usually higher than infiltration rates (Bouwer 2002).
In general, managed underground storage involves the following elements(Fig. 2):
1. Collection or harvesting: Water sources can include potable water, surfacewater, groundwater, treated effluent, and stormwater. This study will be mainlyconcerned with urban stormwater runoff.
2. Pretreatment: Pretreatment options can include standard stormwater pollutioncontrol design practices such as litter and sediment traps, wetlands and ponds,advanced treatment and disinfection (Victoria Stormwater Committee 1999;Ellis 2000; Hatt et al. 2006).
3. Injection: Suitable aquifers can be of different types: confined or unconfined,from unconsolidated sands and gravels to limestones and fractured sedimentaryor volcanic rocks.
20 A. Steinel