621: DRACON CODIFIES ATHENIAN LAWSk Athenian citizens became unwilling to accept the rulings of thesmothetai (6 archons) and judges based on merely arbitrary, oral decisions. k Dracon was appointed to write down the laws. k His laws allowed the differentiation between murder and accidental or justified manslaughter by introducing the concept of intention. k Some of his other measures seemed severe to later generations. E.g. the punishment for stealing a cabbage could be equated to the punishment for a bigger crime like murder- death k Sets out the grim positions in writing which brings it into a glaring floodlight of public attention which then brings about the realization of the ridiculousness of such archaic and unequal arrangements. Theres no room for special allowances to be made so personal grudges cant influence the sentencing of citizens

594/3: SOLONS REFORMSk Wiped out all the debts for which land or personal freedom was the security. All Athenians enslaved because of this were released. k Allowed the thetes to attend the ekklesia. k Divided citizens into 4 political classes according to their assessable property: 1. Pentacosiomedimnoi: 500 medimnoi of cereals annually and eligible to serve as strategoi. Can be in the Areopagus.

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2. Hippeis: 300 medimnoi of cereals annually and equivalent to the medieval class of knights ( can equip themselves for cavalry) 3. Zeugitai: 200 medimnoi of cereals annually and had enough money to equip themselves for the infantry and serve as hoplites 4. Thetes: Less than 199 medimnoi of cereals annually and are usually manual workers and rowers in the navy. k Created the council of 400 (boule) which became the steering committee for the enlarged ekklesia. Also safeguarded against oppressive decisions from the aristocratic body. Partner to Areopagus. k Established the right of any citizen to initiate proceedings at law. The intervening citizen was able to act independently of his family or clan, thus weakening the old kinship links. k Fostered trade and manufacture by adopting a policy of encouraging metics- immigrants whose crafts and skills could serve a purpose. They were given the full protection of the law except for the privilege of owning land. He also promoted the training of sons in their fathers skills.

508/7: CLEISTHENES THE REFORMERk An Alcmaeonid (noble family) who reorganised the political and social structure of Athens. k He changed the number of tribes from 4 to 10 and renamed them after heroes of Athens. Each tribe was split into 3 trittyes, based on geographical regions of2

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Attica (plain, coast, hill). The 30 trittyes were then split into 140 demes which replaced the aristocratic clan and phratry organization. Demes from each of the 3 regions were included in all10 tribes to make them equal. Formed the council of 500 which supplemented and superseded the Areopagus. Comprised of 50 men from each tribe. Introduced the institution of ostracism- a method of banishing prominent politicians who have become unpopular. Prevents clashes with and between aristocratic opponents. His political rival Isagoras, son of Tisander asked Cleomenes, king of Sparta for assistance in usurping Cleisthenes position as he has gained the support of the masses, making him more powerful than his rivals. Cleomenes sought to expulse Cleisthenes and his loyal followers under the charges of being the Accursed- a group of people who promised Cylon and his supporters their lives if they left the sanctuary and submitted themselves to justice after a failed attempt at seizing the Acropolis and unjustly killed them after they left said sanctuary. Cleisthenes left Athens and Cleomenes attempted to abolish the council and transfer the power to Isagoras and his followers. They were blockaded in the Acropolis after the council resisted and eventually came to terms: the Spartans were kicked out and the rebel Athenians were put in prison and executed. Cleisthenes and his supporters were recalled. Cleomenes started collecting an army from every part of the Peloponnese to have his revenge and set up3

Isagoras as the tyrant. He marched to Eleusis whilst the Boeotians seized 2 Attic demes and the Chalcidians went in from another direction and devastated Attica. Athens prepared to face Sparta at Eleusis but before the battle began, the Corinthians withdrew and Demaratus, the other king of Sparta followed suit and withdrew which caused the other allied troops to abandon their positions. The Athenians fought against the Boeotians and Chalcidians, gaining 2 victories. k Cleomenes then sought to make Hippias, son of Pisistratus the tyrant, a tyrant in Athens as he thought it would weaken the Athenians and reduced them to obedience. k The Spartans addressed their allies on whether or not they were interested in this campaign but Sosicles of Corinth convinced the allies not to go along with it. His reasoning was that it would be incredibly hypocritical to establish tyranny somewhere else when Sparta herself takes the utmost care that it should never happen to her and that they should adopt it themselves before establishing it elsewhere. k Hippias went to the Persians for help and Persia demanded that Athens should take Hippias back. The Athenians refused and accepted the consequence of open hostility to Persia.

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THE REASON BEHIND THE ANIMOSITY BETWEEN ATHENS AND AEGINAk Crops failed in Epidaurus. Epidaurians consulted the Delphis oracle. k Oracle said to set up statues of Damia and Auxesia made out of cultivated olive wood. k Athenians let the Epidaurians to fell their olive trees if they offered annual sacrifices to Erechtheus and Athene Polias. k Epidaurus agreed and their crops improved. k Aegina rebelled against the control by Epidaurus and stole the statues. k Epidaurians stopped sending their tribute as the statues are no longer in their possession. k The Athenians sent a demand to the Aeginetans asking for the statues back. k Athenians said that they went a tireme to Aegina asking for it back but there was a big clap of thunder and the company went nuts and killed each other so that only one man remained to sail back to Phalerum. k Aeginetans said that the Athenians came in a large fleet and tried taking the statues until something extraordinary opposed them. They were helped by Argive. k Each statue fell to its knees and remained ever since.

490: THE FIRST PERSIAN INVASIONk Darius sent heralds to each of the Greek states demanding earth and water- a sign of complete submission as they signify everything. Athens5

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imprisoned the heralds and Sparta threw them in a pit and told them to find their own earth and water down there. Aegina submitted to spite Athens and join the Persians in attacking their old enemy. Athens and Sparta were appalled at the betrayal and Cleomenes went to Aegina to arrest the men responsible for the sign of submission. However the Aeginetans said that he didnt have the authority to do so without the other king Demaratus there too. Cleomenes discovered that Demaratus isnt royalty and persuaded Leotychides, whose fianc was stolen by Demaratus to swear an oath that Demaratus isnt the son of Ariston and that the servant have heard Ariston say that he cant be his son. They went to consult an oracle who was convinced by a supporter of Cleomenes to give the answer that Cleomenes wanted. Darius sent orders to the Asiatic coast towns for the provision of warships and transport vessels for cavalry. Darius stripped Mardonius of his command and ordered Athens, Eretria and all the other Greek communities to be reduced to slavery as a punishment for their disobedience and insult. Athens initially sent 4000 men to help Eretria but the Eretrians were divided over their course of actiondefend the city or accept submission. Aeschines warned the Athenians of this and told them to go home and save themselves. The Eretrians didnt end up fleeing but were betrayed by an enemy and captured. The Persians razed the temples and carried off the inhabitants as slaves. Athens appealed to Sparta for help but it was the Carnean festival of Apollo that month and the6

Spartans couldnt engage in warfare until the full moon in 10 days in order to keep the festival sincere and pure.

490: THE BATTLE OF MARATHONk Hippias guided the Persians to Marathon as it provide the best ground for cavalry to operate on. k The council of generals had to vote on whether or not they should march out and meet the Persians. Miltiades convinced them to march out and was named the commander with Callimachus as the commander in chief. k Plataea sent out a contingent of 1000 men to help out the Athenians as a sign of gratitude for the Athenians help in defeating the Thebans when Plataea was under attack from them. Their readiness to come to the assistance of the Athenians was commemorated in public prayers and the granting of civil rights as Athenian citizens. k The Athenians took their position at the south end of the plain which was a secure defensive position with hills to the rear, scattered trees in front and good supplies of water. k Athenians waited for a few days at the foothills of Pentelicus in order to attack the Persians at an opportune moment- when they were informed of the Persians current lack of cavalry. k The Persians were keeping the Greeks waiting for as long as possible so that Datis could ready some troops7

to send to the undefended Athens. They were waiting for a signal and put off fighting until the last possible moment. k Greeks weakened the centre and strengthened the wings, hoping not to get outflanked and surrounded. They also hoped to converge on the enemys centre. Elite Persians broke through the centre and were surrounded by the Greek wings. Most of them were cut down. Persians fled to the northeast where they were cut down in the area between the sea and marsh. Others fled towards the ships. Only 7 ships were captured. The Persians collected their Eretrian prisoners and sailed to Athens. k When Darius learned of the Persian defeat at Marathon he immediately started preparing for an even greater expedition, sending out couriers to every part of his empire to raise the necessary troops. Before going off to war, Darius had to nominate 1 of his 7 sons as his heir. He nominated Xerxes, his eldest son from his 2nd marriage on the grounds that he had not been on the throne when the sons from his 1st marriage were born. Xerxes cause was aided by Demaratus who was the one who brought this matter to light.

480: XERXES INVADES- THE SECOND PERSIAN INVASIONk Xerxes initially showed no interest in invading Greece but after the Egyptian rebellion was put down he held a conference to discuss this. Mardonius reminded him of the grave insult Athenians paid them and promised8

him glory if he undertakes this task. He encouraged the campaign in the hope of becoming governor of Greece himself. Aleuadae of Thessaly offered his zealous assistance out of the long standing enmity between themselves and Athens. Artabanus tried to persuade Xerxes not to start the campaign on the grounds that the Greeks are said to be great fighters and not to be underestimated. He recounts the invasion of Scythia when the bridge was broken, stranding them and reminds Xerxes that the Hellespont can be broken. After a prophetic dream, Xerxes decides to go on the campaign. k Xerxes ordered a canal to be cut through Mt.Athos to prevent the fleet from wrecking like it did before. The Phoenicians, army and natives were forced to cut the canal. Herodotus thought that this was Xerxes way to show off his power and to leave something that hell be remembered by. k Pythius a wealthy Lydian offered to furnish money for the expenses of the war and Xerxes rewarded his generosity by giving him 7000 gold Darics which made Pythius fortune 4000000 exactly. Another example of Xerxes showing off his power and wealth. k After arriving at Sardis, Xerxes sent envoys to every place in Greece except Athens and Sparta with demands for earth and water. He believed the Greeks who refused to comply before would be frightened into submission now that he has his huge army. He didnt want to give Athens or Sparta an opportunity to pay him another insult by refusing and didnt want to give them a chance to spare themselves. All Boeotians except Plataeans and Thespians submitted.9

k 2 bridges were constructed to cross the Hellespont from Abydos. 1 bridge was constructed by the Phoenicians using flax for cables and the other by the Egyptians using papyrus; but after they were completed they broke up in a storm. In his fury, Xerxes had the Hellespont whipped 300 times and beheaded the men responsible for building the bridges. New bridges were made using 316 vessels for the Black Sea side and 314 vessels for the other. The ships were joined by cables and moored by heavy anchors at right angles to the bridge to lessen the strain on the cables. The new cables were a mix of both flax and papyrus. Palings were constructed on both sides to prevent the horses from seeing over and getting frightened of the water. k Xerxes reviews his troops and calls Demaratus to witness his glory. Demaratus tells Xerxes that no matter how large his army is, the Greeks will still oppose him as they have something they truly believe in- their freedom and law, to fight for. The Greeks, especially Spartans fear losing this more than the Persians fear their king.

480: THE GATHERING OF ALLIESk Athens: sent people to the Delphic oracle and rejected the first prophecy as it was too morbid and depressing. The second prophecy tells them of a wooden wall that will be their salvation. Some interpreted this as being the Acropolis but Themistocles convinced most of the people that it meant ships and the Athenians should use the newly found wealth from the silver mines in10

Laurium to build a fleet. Because of Themistocles, Athens became a big maritime power. k Spies: Greeks sent spies to Persia who were found out and told by Xerxes to look upon his army and tell the Greeks about the enormity of it in the hope that itll scare the Greeks into submission. k Argos: Sparta and the Argives struck a 30 year truce. One story says that the Argives didnt fight because Sparta wouldnt share the control of the army. The other story says that Xerxes sent a messenger asking the Argives to take no part in it so they purposely asked for the control of the army, knowing that Sparta would refuse which would give them a legitimate excuse for not getting involved. k Gelon the tyrant of Syracuse: The Greeks asked him for help as he had lots of troops and money. Gelon offered 200 tiremes, 20000 hoplites, 2000 cavalry, 2000 archers, 2000 slingers and 2000 light horse men if he could be in control over either the army or navy. Both Sparta amd Athens refused so the Greeks ended up without his help. Gelon sent 3 penteconters with Cadmus to Delphi as a safeguard- if the Persians won, he was to give the money to them bu if they lost he was to bring them back.

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THE BATTLE OF THERMOPYLAE

k Thessalians didnt want to submit to the Persians and offered to oppose them if the Greeks sent a large force to defend the passage past Mt. Olympus but if the Greeks refuse, theyll have no choice but to submit as they cannot be expected, alone and unassisted, to give11

[their] lives merely to save the rest of them. The Greeks originally sent an army of 10000 but took the advice of Macedonians and withdrew after discovering there was another way into Thessaly (which Xerxes ended up taking) k The Greeks decided to make a stand in Thermopylae because the pass the Persians would have to pass through had mountains on one side and the sea on the other. They reinforced the wall that the Phocians built across the passage of Thermopylae. Because the pass is so narrow, it restricts the deployment of the Persian troops, limiting the number of soldiers that can fight the Greeks at once and preventing them from being surrounded. k 1000 Phocians volunteered to guard the mountain path that bypasses Thermopylae . Persians waited for 4 days for the whole army to arrive then Xerxes sent different contingents of his infantry to kill the Greeks for 2 days with no results and couldnt use his cavalry as the path was too narrow. Ephialtes, a native told Xerxes of the mountain path and guided the immortals over it during the night. The Phocians retreated and informed Leonidas, the Spartan king of the Persians movements. Leonidas dismissed the majority of the army and stayed behind with his 300 Spartans, Thespians and Thebans. The majority of the Spartans were delayed to the battle due to the religious festivals going on. Military operations were frequently hampered by the need to observe religious ceremonies. Leonidas was killed and a fight over his body was ensued. The Greeks took up position on a mound and were encircled. All of them except the12

Thebans died fighting and Leonidas body was mutilated. According to Herodotus, 20000 Persians were killed.

480: THE BATTLE OF ARTEMISIUMk The Greeks were thinking of abandoning Artemisium but the Euboeans paid Themistocles 30 talents to convince all the other commanders to stay whilst they evacuated their women and children from Euboea. Themistocles then gave 5 talents to Euribiades to bribe him into staying and 3 talents of silver to Adeimantus. k A fleet of 271 triremes under Spartan Eurybiades chose Artemisium as its anchorage with the plan to cut the Persian navys contact with their army. The Persian navy waited off Magnesian coast for the army to reach Thessaly but there were too many ships to beach and the storm that rages wrecked their fleet, causing great losses. After riding out the storm in the lee of Euboea, the Greeks returned to Artemisium. Persians made their headquarters at Aphetae, sending 200 vessels south to round Euboea but they were destroyed on the rugged coast. Some Athenian vessels told the others about their destruction. Xerxes ordered the Persians to break through and they took up battle positions. However the Persian ships were too crowded and fouled each other. They fought an indecisive battle but the Greeks suffered severely and when news of the defeat at Thermopylae reached them, they withdrew in the night. k After the battle, Themistocles carved messages in watering coves reminding the Ionians that they are13

fellow Greeks and that if they cant abandon the Persians they should at least remain neutral or fight badly.

480: THE PERSIANS MOVE SOUTHk Xerxes buried all the dead Persian troops except for 1000 and then pilled the 4000 dead Greeks up in one spot to make the Persians seem more formidable and amazing, beating the Greeks with less casualties as them. His men saw through his plan as it was completely illogical for the 1000 Persians to be scattered all over and 4000 Greeks lying all on the same spot. k The Thessalians sent an envoy to Phocis demanding 50 talents in exchange from protection from the Persians but the Phocians refused, saying that they could just as easily join the Persians too if they wanted to be traitors, nullifying that threat. k They have a long standing enmity, forming a competition of one-upmanship. The Phocians painted themselves white to differentiate themselves from the Thessalians during a night attack. The Thessalians thought they were ghosts and the Phocians killed 4000 of them. Phocians also dug a huge trench and filled it with big empty jars, then covered them with soil to conceal them. When the Thessalians rode over them, the horses fell into the jars and broke their legs. k The Thessalians acted as guides and led the Persians to Phocis. Many Phocians had already cleared out of14

Phocis but the Thessalians helped the Persians destroy Phocis. k Persians originally wanted to sack Delphi too except when they approached the shrine of Athene Pronaea, thunderbolts fell on them from the sky and 2 pinnacles of rock came crashing and rumbling amongst them, killing a large number. The sacred weapons were also brought out of the shrine with no human assistance. The Persians fled and Delphians came down upon them and attacked them with great slaughter.

480: THE DESTRUCTION OF ATHENS AND FORMATION OF THE GREEK FLEETk Athenians evacuated the city, they were sent to Aegina and Salamis. k A new fleet was formed, bigger than the one at Artemisium. Half of them came from Athens. k Persians siege the Acropolis and the Athenians were inside barricading themselves as they believe it was the wooden wall that the prophecy referred to, not the ships. k Persians eventually found a way in by climbing up a really steep hill. The Athenians killed themselves and those who sought sanctuary in the temple were slaughtered regardless.

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479: THE WAR COUNCILk Mnesiphilus went to Themistocles asking him to persuade Eurybiades to fight in Salamis. A war council was called and Adeimantus the Corinthian rejected the idea. k Themistocles illustrates the advantages of fighting in Salamis such as their unity of Greece as whole rather than separate states. They would also know the geography of the area well and the Persians wouldnt be able to utilise their superior numbers in narrow waters. If they let the Persians take the states above the Isthmus they army would march straight down to the Peloponnese and a blockade wouldnt be able to stop them as the Persians could just use the fleet to drop the army off around the Peloponnese to fight there as they choose. By fighting at Salamis, they stop the army from advancing futher than Attica. k Adeimantus tries to insult Themistocles by taunting him about the recent sack of Athens. Themistocles stands his grounds and issues an ultimatum to Eurybiades- either they fight at Salamis or the Athenians will take their ships (half of the fleet) and sail to Italy. Eurybiades agrees. k This illustrates the ever present self interested mindset of the Greek states. They all look out for their best interests.

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479: THE BATTLE OF SALAMISk Xerxes underestimated the Greek navy, thinking them to be demoralised. Phoenicians led the Persians into the narrow waters with the Ionians at the rear. As the ships passed a strait 1 km wide, they had to get out of line to make room for those behind them. The Ionians help back until they were passed the narrows. Eurybiades and the squadron moved down the channel to overlap the Phoenicians and line up with the Ionians. Aeginetans and Megarians positioned to strike at the flank of Ionians. Corinthians may have been sent to guard against the Egyptians entering the western end. The Persian ships rammed each other in confusion whilst the Greeks waited for a heavy swell that turned the Phoenician ships broadside which enabled Greek triremes to ram them. Some Phoenicans ran aground on the coast of Attica. Aeginetans prevented Persian centre from escaping by ramming them. Fighting went on until a west wind helped the remainder of the Persian ships to flee down the coast of Attica. Many Persians drowned. k Amid the confusion foing on at sea, Aristides landed on Psyttaleia with Athenian hoplites and cut down the Persian forces stationed there. k The Persian fleet sailed for Asia without delay. Xerxes had to protect his line of retreat and prevent a rebellion in Asia Minor. Greeks followed them to Andros and punished some islands. Mardonius is left behind and moves the army to Thessaly to wait out the winter with 300000 troops.

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479: FROM SALAMIS TO PLATAEAk Mardonius sent Alexander of Macedon to Athens with a message offering an alliance: Athens would be given back to the Athenians along with any other territory they want and they will be allowed self- government. Their temples will also be rebuilt and Alexander urged the Athenians to accept the offer as he didnt think they could beat the Persians. k Sparta sent her own envoys who begged Athens to reject the offer for any of the Greeks to do such a thing would be inconsistent with decency and honour and reminded them that they were the ones who started the war. k Gold was sent to Spartas enemies in the Peloponnese in the hope of undermining Spartas resistance. k Athens rejected Mardonius offer and evacuated to Salamis. The Peloponnesians were reluctant to send troops to defend Athens but by the time they did, it was pointless and Mardonius destroyed Athens again and evacuated to Boeotia.

479: THE BATTLE OF PLATAEAk Greeks from all over flooded in to take a stand against the Persians- approximately 38700. Persians built a huge stockade for protection in case of defeat. The Greeks were on the lower ranges. Mardonius sent Masistius and his cavalry to harass them. He was killed despite his gold armour which was fought over. k Argument began over who should hold one of the wings between the Tegeans and Athenians. They both18

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talked about their past achievements but everyone felt that the Athenians deserved it more. They had the left wing with the Plataeans, the left centre was miscellaneous, right centre were the Peloponnesians and the right wing were the Spartans and Tegeans. Herodotus paints them as self sacrificing- taking whatever positions they were dealt for the sake of the war. Greeks moved to Asopus ridge which was a good position. Mardonius had to protect the Thebans and sent his cavalry to stop Greeks from getting water from the river. Mardonius then waylaid the food wagons and killed the animals. Persians fould the Gargaphia spring. War council was held. They decided to move during the night. Centre moved closer to Plataea. Spartans kept to high ground and Athenians moved along low ground so they had more to go. Mardonius led the troops across the Asopus as he thought they were fleeing except he face faced with the Spartans and Tegeans. Athenians were forved to fight off the Thessalians as they were behind. The centre divided in 2: Megarians and non Peloponnesians helping the Athenians and Peloponnesians closing the gap between Athenians and Spartans. Many helping the Athenians were cut down. Spartans waited behind their shields and suddenly charged. Mardonius was killed and the troops fled to the stockade. Artabazus retreated and returned to Asia. When the other Greeks arrived, the stockade was taken and the Persians slaughtered.

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k The serpent column was built to commemorate their victory and had the names of the Greek states that fought in Plataea in scripted.

479-432: THE PENTECONTAETIAk Athens began preparing for the next war against Persia and started building ships for their fleet again in addition to rebuilding Athens. They kept attacking city states that helped Persia to punish them and started fortifying their walls, making long walls that lead out from Athens to the sea. Sparta saw this as a threat and asked Athens to refrain from building the fortifications as it can be used as a strong base if the Persians return and capture it. The Peloponnesians were capable of serving the needs of everyone, both as a refuge and an attack base. k Themistocles sent to Sparta under the guise of discussing the long walls, leaving behind the other delegates so that he can delay meeting the government by insisting on waiting for his fellow delegates. However the Spartan government heard about the rising fortifications and under Themistocles suggestion, sent envoys to Athens to see it for them. The Athenians detained the envoys until Themistocles return and kept them from seeing the long walls. When the wall was finally high enough to resist attack, Themistocles spoke openly to the Spartan authorities about the fortification and that they should recognize that Athens is capable of making up her own mind about the interests of her people and all of Hellas too.20

It was only on the basis of equal strength that equal and fair discussions on the common interest could be held and now that Athens and Sparta are of equal strength, they dont answer to Sparta anymore.

478-445: THE DELIAN LEAGUEk Aims: to compensate themselves for their losses by ravaging the territory of the King of Persia. An aggressive, offensive war against Persia initially attracted states to the congress. Their long term objective was to maintain the freedom of the Greeks by organising a defensive alliance so that in any future attacks upon their territory, the Greeks would be well prepared to resist. k Finance: some states were to provide money and others were to provide ships according to their ability to pay. Those who provided ships retained control of them but members became tired of service and preferred to provide money rather than ships. The money was stored in Delos/ k Autonomy of allies: initially independent states but later on rebellious states lost their autonomy and became subject to Athens. k Council: Athens mainly controlled the vote by her patronage or intimidation of smaller states k Leadership: Pausanius was originally the Spartan leader of the league; however he was arrogant, rude and hated by the allies who rejected him and his successor Dorcis. Sparta was afraid of being disgraced by her officers sent abroad and was content to21

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relinquish their leadership. She was having domestic problems and was uninterested in pursuing the punishment of Persians. Athens accepted the hegemonia. Eion: sieged by Athens as they were occupied by Persians and was a supply depot for them. The gold mines of Mt. Pangaeus were also nearby. Under the command of Cimon, they captured it and enslaved them. Carytus: coerced to join the league out of a fear of collaboration with the Persians. Athens deprived a neutral state of its independence which was met with outrage by the Greeks. Naxos: was an important ship contributing member who wished to secede and rebelled in 469. The rebellion was put down and Naxos lost its autonomy. League had the right to insist that a member fulfil its obligations as the contribution to the war effort was compulsory. Thasos: revolted over a dispute over markets. Athens used the league forces to siege Thasos. Thasos asked Sparta for help who was prevented from sending help by an earthquake and a secession of the helots in the Peloponnese. The Thasians eventually gave up and accepted Athenian terms; the destruction of their walls and navy along with the indemnity and tribute that it has to pay. The Spartans humiliated the Athenians by sending their troops home that were supposed to help them with the revolt, after Cimon painstakingly convinced the Assembly to do. Egypt: Athens helped the revolt of nearly the whole of Egypt from the King Artaxerxes of Persia under the22

initiative of the King of Libya. After a failed negotiation with Sparta for the invasion of Attica, Artaxerxes sent Megabazus with a large army to subdue them. The Egyptians and their allies were defeated and Hellenes driven out. The Hellenes took refuge on the island of Prosopitis and besieged them for 18 months. The channels around the island were drained and the island was captured. 6 year of war came to nothing. 50 triremes from Athens sailed out to relieve the forces, unaware of what happened and most of the ships were lost. Athens uses their defeat to showcase the threat that the Persians pose in order to justify moving the treasury from Delphi to Athens. k Megara and Corinth: Corinthian and their allies moved down to Megara, thinking that the Athenians were too occupied with Egypt to do anything. Instead, the Athenians sent their old men and young people to fight against the Corinthians. After a dispute over who won, they had a last battle, putting the Athenians as the winners. k Aegina: there was a battle at sea off Aegina between Aegina and Athens. The battle was won by Athenians who captured 70 ships. Athens besieged Aegina who eventually surrendered despite the 300 hoplites sent by the Peloponnese and was forced to pay tribute, hand over the fleet and tear down the fortifications. k Sparta and Phocis: Phocians campaigned against Doris. Spartans came to the assistance of the Dorians and took back the temple at Delphi and gave it back to the Delphians. The Athenians then marched out and took the temple back to give to the Phocians again.

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k Euboea: Revolted from Athens. Pericles crossed over there and subdued the island with the Athenians. Its future status was defined by the peace terms except for Hestiaea where the inhabitants were driven out and the land given to the Athenians. k Samos: war between Samos and Miletus. Athenians sailed out there and established a democracy after being asked to by Miletus. They took 50 boys and 55 men as hostages and left a garrison behind. Some Samians got the help of the Persian Governor of Sardis and were able to rescue the hostages and overthrow the democracy again to prepare to attack Miletus again. Athenians sailed against them and forced them to surrender. They handed over their fleet, pulled down walls, gave hostages and agreed to pay reparations in instalments at regular intervals.

460-445: THE IMPERIAL POLICY OF ATHENSk Aspects of imperial policy: a commitment to the continuing existence and expansion of the league which saw Athens becoming more ruthless in her treatment of her allies and following a policy more in her own interests than in theirs. Exploiting the weaknesses of Sparta by building up a land empire in central Greece. Continuing Athenss hostility to Persia. k Changing relations with her allies: as time went by, Athens started using league forces to promote her interests rather than to work towards a common goal. Her rule over them became iron fisted and ruthlessly subjugated any rebel states.24

k Increased demand on allies: allies became weary of sending ships to fight Athenian fights so they paid tribute money instead. This suited Athens whose navy grey at the expense of allies and the allies grew inexperienced in and ill prepared for war. The maritime allies were expected to play a part in Athenss attempt to build up a land and naval empire. The allies had to send military contingents to fight the Peloponnesians in Boeotia at the Battle of Tanagra. k Treasury controlled by Athens: the treasury was first moved to Athens under the pretence of it being safer there. The congress of allies that used to control the treasury stopped meeting after 454-453, making the league revenue Athenss own treasury. The Athenian assembly now decided how the funds were to be used. k Garrisons: were placed in rebellious cities like Erythrae. They served a military purpose and were a political device. Used to protect the Athenian inspectors sent out to install puppet governments favourable to Athens. k Democratic form of government: Athens mostly sent up democratic forms of government closely modelled on her own. Generally the majority of the people favoured a democracy. Usually replaced oligarchies. k Oaths of loyalty: sworn in support of Athens. k Interference in the law: in the Erythrae decree the interference by Athens is only concerned with political cases such as people accused of treason. In the Chalcis decree, the actions of local courts were restricted severely. As time went by, Athens demanded that trials concerning allies should be referred to25

Athenian law courts, which was an effective method of democratic control. k Religion: subject states contributed to Athenian religious festivals k Cleruchies: settlements of Athenian citizens abroad which strengthened Athenss hold on her empire as they were located at strategic points in the Aegean, creating completely loyal settlements. The best land was taken and given to the Athenian settlers from the lowest classes who were able to be raised to the hoplite status. This allowed Athens to raise the standards of the poorest class and implanted amongst the allies a healthy fear of rebellion. The cleruchies became watchdogs of the empire, providing safe ports of call for the fleet.

460-429: PERICLEAN DEMOCRACYk Pericles was related to the distinguished Alcmaeonids and was taught by various intellectuals which allowed him to be freed from the superstitions help by the Athenians, yet still hold an interest in Athenian politics. He was rational, determined, honest, far sighted with an intense patriotism and idealism. He was a great orator and used this to control the masses. k Elected as a general and was re elected 15 times. His intelligence and integrity enabled him to respect the liberty of the people and hold them in check at the same time. k His contribution to Athens: he introduced the payment of jurors and other state appointed positions. Chief archonships were opened for small nobles and later26

the Thetes. He took steps to make the league more manageable- establishing democratic governments, garrisons and cleruchies, oaths taken and treaties signed. He wanted to ensure that the unskilled masses shouldnt be debarred from benefitting from the national income and yet shouldnt be paid for doing nothing. To solve this problem he commissioned many buildings such as the Parthenon, statue of Athena, temple of Hephaestus and the hall of mysteries at Eleusis. Pericles built another long wall from Athens to Phalerum. Athens became the centre of trade in the Aegean and entered the trade of the western Mediterranean.

435-432: THE SPIRAL INTO THE PELOPONNESIAN WARk The dispute over Epidamnus: there was a civil dispute in Epidamnus over the political ruling system. The democrats drove the aristocrats out and asked Corcyra to help them make a settlement with the exiled party. The Corcyraeans refused to receive the ambassadors and the people of Epidamnus turned to Corinth for help. Corinth and Corcyra fought a sea battle, with Corcyra emerging as the winners and they started to attack the allies of Corinth. Corcyra feared retribution and asked Athens for an alliance and Athens agreed to a defensive alliance because of Corcyras large fleet and their strategic position which would allow the Athenians to stop aid from going to the Peloponnesians if war broke out without breaking the 30 year peace27

treaty between Athens and Sparta as Corcyra was neutral. Athens sent 10 ships to monitor events, with the instructions to only take action if Corcyra was attacked by Corinth. k Corinth took offense at this and maintained that this was a violation of the peace treaty between Sparta and Athens as she is an ally of Sparta. At this point neither Sparta nor Athens considered it so and they were intent on keeping peace. k Corinth sought to cause trouble for Athens to force the Spartans into action. Potidaea was an old Corinthian colony in addition to a member of the league. The Corinthian magistrates that are received by Potidaea encouraged Potidaeas revolt. Athens demanded that they hand over the magistrates and pull down the city walls but they refused, forcing the Athenians and Peloponnesians to send forces to Potidaea. The Peloponnesians were defeated and Potidaea was besieged by Athens, leaving the Spartans and Athenians with a choice. Sparta must lead the Peloponnesians in a war against Athens or risk losing her most powerful ally. Athens could abandon her attempt to subdue Potidaea but a concession such as that can prompt other states to rebel. k Pericles prepared for a war by re organising the states finances by the means of 2 special decrees which established 2 funds: 1. After all debts were paid, the surplus was to be deposited in a special fund for the maintenance of walls and the navy. 2. Building programmes were brought to an end but money was put aside for emergency repairs.28

k

k

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3. Renewed Athenss alliances with the towns of Leontini in Sicily and Rhegium in Italy. 4. Issued the Megarian decree which excluded the Megarians from the markets and ports of the Athenian empire. This was simply a demonstration of Athenian power to the Peloponnesians and Corinthians. Relations with Megara were strained since the Athenian garrison were murdered. Pericles wanted to recover control of Megara so that it could be used to block the land route between Boeotia and the Peloponnese. Both Thucydides and Pericles saw war as inevitable and the only uncertain aspect would be how it is initiated. Because of this, Pericles actively sought to initiate it as he thought it would be better to have it while he was around to control it. Some Athenians popped in to Spartas assembly in an attempt to cool off the animosity between them and remind Sparta of both Athenss glorious deeds and their shared burden of making unpopular decisions as leaders of large groups. They went on to say that none of this is their fault as they were given the empire and they should settle their differences by arbitration. Corinth went on to illustrate Athenss strength in a threatening manner to goad the Spartans into action by implicitly insulting them. Your inactivity has done harm enough. King Archidamnus wanted more time to prepare for a war as Athens is wealthier, superior in numbers and has a bigger fleet. They need to build up their fleet and army as well as putting together a public fund. He

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reassures the Spartans that they arent being cowards by being cautious. k The Spartan Ephor Stenelaidas wanted to actively pursue the war, reminding the Spartans that the Athenians made no attempt to contradict the fact that they are acting aggressively against our allies and because they have good allies... [they] ought not to betray them to the Athenians. They need to strike against them and strike fast to send a message that their actions will not be tolerated. Long discussions are rather for those who are mediating aggression themselves.

431-414: THE PELOPONNESIAN WARk The Thebans wanted to gain control of Plataea before war broke out so they went into the city during peace time and issued a proclamation demanding the Plataeans submission. The Plataeans gathered together secretly and attacked the Thebans before dawn. They Thebans were defeated and prevented from retreating. Those who werent killed were taken for prisoners. Plataea threatened the Thebans to execute the prisoners if they didnt leave their land but when they left, the prisoners were killed anyways. Themistocles considers this as the first act of war, k King Archidamus attacked Oenoe, Eleusis and Archane, sparing the Athenian plains as he didnt want to fight against Athens and was close friends with Pericles. He was waiting for negotiations and arbitrations to go through with Athens and didnt want to cross the point of no return by attacking Athens30

directly. Pericles wanted the people to stay behind in the walls instead of going out to fight the Spartans directly as it would be too risky, with the Spartans as better fighters. Many people accused him of cowardice but he was untouchable as he was a shrewd politician and had built up over the years a group of soldiers, administrators and politicians... accepting his informal leadership. The Athenians took an offensive stance and sent out ships to ravage parts of the Peloponnese.

430: THE PLAGUEk A plague broke out from Ethiopia and spread. 1/3 of the population died and the survivors were permanently weakened which affected the number of fighting men available. People were desperate and scared and became uninhibited and apathetic to the law. Pericles rejected the overtures of peace and was suspended from his position. He was quickly re elected when the people realised there was no one else with his leadership qualities, unfortunately he contracted the plague and died in 429. k A new kind of politician emerged; often tradesmen whose policies appealed to the working class as they benefitted from the war and were more inclined to pursue an aggressive war. k The richer classes who carried the financial burden of the war and the famers whose lands were continually devastated were more inclined to follow the advice of Nicias, a conservative who wished to see the war come to an end.31

k Athens owed to the plague the beginnings of a state of unprecedented lawlessness.

428-427: LESBOSk Lesbos revolted as Athens was busy with campaigns. The city Mytilene led the revolt, with the plan of uniting the while of Lesbos sans Methymna. They were going through negotiations with the Spartans, asking to be accepted into their alliance. k The Methymnians informed the Athenians of the treachery who then sent a small fleet to demand the cessation of their activities. The oligarchs refused and Athens besieged the city, getting help from their cleruchies in Imbros and Lemnos. k Mytilene appealed to Sparta for help in Olympia, following the Olympic Games. They admitted that the Spartans should be unsure with their request as they betrayed their previous alliance which casts them in a poor light with no honour and because of this the worth of their word is reduced but they could no longer take part in such an unhealthy alliance. Its aim changed from the liberation of the Hellenes from Persia to the subjugation of the Hellenes to Athens. In the past, the Lesbians didnt mind this changing alliance as much because they were on good terms with Athens being one of the remaining ship contributors and felt that Athens left them some32

independence. The Lesbians feel that now is a good time to attack because of the plague that decimated the Athenian population and if they attack now, they will be weakened so much that next summer when the Peloponnesians invade again, they wont be able to resist. k The Lesbians went on to continue persuading the Spartans to help their cause by reminding them of the large Lesbian fleet that the Spartans need and that theyll show the other allies how easy it is to revolt and shake control Athens has on her allies. k The Spartans decided to invade Attica and instructed their allies to gather at the isthmus with 2/3 of their total forces. The Spartans were the first to arrive but the other allies were slow in coming in as they were busy harvesting their crops. They mounted an invasion of Attic, hoping to distract Athenian attention from Lesbos to let the revolt run its natural course, while giving a freer hand to the 42 Peloponnesian ships going to help Mytilene. The Athenians werent distracted and Mytilene starved into surrender. k Cleon induced the resolve that the entire population should be put to death but the following day, less dramatic measures were decided upon.

416: THE MELIAN DIALOGUEk The Athenians launched a campaign against Melos who was a Spartan colony that was initially neutral but became aggressive after Nicias initiated the aggression. They sent a representative to the Melians

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k k

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k k k k

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and suggested that they address the assembly. Each side would present the case in turn. Melos: the discussion was coloured by the threat that the Athenian troops posed. Athens: the empire was theirs by the defeat of the Persians and the standard of justice depends on the equality of the power. Melos: So fair play and just dealings are important Athens: They arent afraid of falling to a power but are afraid of falling to those within the Empire. The Melians should be spared from unnecessary trouble in joining the Delian League Melos: How is it good for them to be slaves and Athens masters Athens: Melos would be saving itself from destruction Melos: so Athens cant agree to friendly neutrality Athens: allowing friendship shows our allies a sign of weakness so they have to treat them the same as others Melos: do your subjects believe that theres no distinction between unconnected people and subjects Athens: allies dont see the difference between right and wrong. The only independents are strong enough to stay independent. Melos: This must be a threat to all neutral states in Hellas. Athens: we arent concerned about states on the mainland but the islanders like Melos who are unhappy with Athenian constraints already and therefore present the most obvious threat.

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k Melos: they have to stand up to Athenian slavery or be shown as cowards k Athens: no it isnt a fair fight k Melos: in war sometimes fortune levels the odds. If they surrender they are defeated but if they resist they have hope k Athens: hope is an expensive commodity which they shouldnt sacrifice themselves on. k Melos: they trust the gods for fortune and the Spartans for assistance k Athens: The gods give favours to them as theyre doing a religious act. As for the Spartans, they only serve their own purpose and only do what they feel is right. k Melos: Spartans will feel that betraying a colony is wrong and will help us. k Athens: One only follows self interest to be safe, whereas the path to honour involves danger which the Spartans dont like. k Melos: We feel the Spartans would endanger themselves for us as we are so close to the Peloponnese and are of the same race. k Athens: They will never cross to an island as we rule the seas k Melos: They might send others and the Cretan sea is big enough to hide a fleet. Dont trouble yourself with us and instead look to those closer to you. k Athens: Youre caught up in the concept on honour and dishonour. Theres no dishonour is surrendering to the greatest city in Hellas. k The Melians said that they cant give up 700 years of liberty in such a short time but welcome the Athenians35

to stay and be friends. Athenians besieged the city and Melos fell. Males from 18-60 were executed. Women and kids were enslaved. Their land was divided amongst settlers. After war, Spartans resettled the survivors of Melos

415: THE SICILIAN EXPEDITIONk Historical causes of the Sicilian campaign: 1. A growing interest in western trade and colonisation coupled with discontent within the empire that worried the politicians about the future revolts. This made them believe that Athens should make its political influence felt among the Ionian cities of Sicily and Italy. 2. Athens formed alliances with Rhegium of Italy and Leontini of Sicily to keep watch on Syracuse. There were rivalries between the Dorians led by Corintian Syracuse and the Ionians led by Leontini. An embassy was sent from Leontini to appeal to the Athenians to help them fight against Syracuse to prevent the unification of Sicily under Syracuse and stop western help to Peloponnese. 3. Athens found the colony of Thurii, causing alarm in the Sicilians. 4. Western trade rivalry against the Corinthians: The death of Pericles meant that a more aggressive attitude to the west was taken. k The assembly debates: 1. Alcibiades: talked about the rich rewards such as corn, wheat and minerals. Said it would cut the Peloponnesians off from supplies and naval36

support. Theres a possibility of the conquest of Sicily- saw it as the stepping stone to further conquests in the western Mediterrian. 2. Nicias: Reminded them that theres a danger at home as many states hadnt accepted the peace and were openly at war with Athens. The empire is instable and Athens needed to recuperate from the plague and financial strains of war. Theres a danger of being involved with distant allies and the difficulty of controlling Sicily should Athens triumph. Told them of the folly of listening to an ambitious and reckless spendthrift who hoped this would bring him great profit. 3. Alcibiades responded saying that they could become the leader of all Greek cities by using what is gained in Sicily. Theres a looming threat of Athens becoming inactive. k The mutilation of the hermae: the night before the fleet was supposed to leave, nearly all the hermae which stood outside the private houses were mutilated. Alcibiades was accused and recalled at an opportune moment. k The Athenians sent a delegation to Egesta to look into the finance of Egesta. Egestians had falsely led Athens to believe that they had lots of money. They took the Athenians to the temple of Aphrodite at Eryx and showed them the treasure laid up there in offerings... looked imposing...value in money was comparatively small. They entertained the ships crew in their private houses and collected all the gold and silver cutlery in Egesta, borrowing others from neighbouring cities and let each host produce them at the banquet37

as though they were his own property. When the crew got back to Athens they told every one of the vast quantities of valuable objects which they had seen. When the news got round that the money in Egesta did not exist, they were much blamed by the soldiers. k The Syracussans put garrisons into some of the cities of the Sicels whilst ambassadors were sent to others. Troops were dispatched to the fortified posts in the country and horses and arms were checked to see that everything was in order. k The debate at Camarina: The Syracussans attempted to convince the Camarinians to join them in the fight against Athens. They believe that Sicily should fight together as one as it is the only way to stop the Athenians from taking over Sicily. The Athenians denied this and said that they just want to renew a former alliance. They go on to say that the states subjugated by them were those who joined the Persians in attacking Hellas. They claimed that the subjects were the ones who harmed them by being just as ready to act in the service of Persia. In the end the Camarinians decided to remain neutral and not help either side. k Lamachus died in the Sicilian expedition, leaving Nicias in charge of the expedition. He was overly confident and allowed the Spartans to slip through their guard and help the Syracussans. The extra help boosted the morale of the Syracussan army who were about to surrender and their newly found confidence persuaded some more Sicilian states to become allies and help in the war against Athens. The Syracussans and their allies eventually hunted down the Athenians38

and took them as prisoners and proceeded to sell them as slaves.

413: THE OCCUPTATION OF THE PLAIN OF DECLEAk The Spartans fortified the plain and used it as a hostile post against the country. The occupation resulted in so much devastation of property and loss of manpower and was one of the chief reasons for the decline of Athenian power. k The Athenians were prevented from enjoying the use of their land throughout the year. Sheep, farm animals and agriculture were lost which meant that the Athenians needed to get their supplies from Euboea which needed to go by sea round Sunium, making the trip more expensive. Everything that the city needed had to be imported, so that made it more of a fortress than a city. k The Athenians called on the Thracians in the beginning of the fortification but they arrived too late to do any good. Because they were struggling with money, they sent the Thracians back, under the command to do whatever damage that could be done to the enemy on their voyage back. k The Thracians burst into Mycallesus, sacked the houses and temples, and butchered the inhabitants, sparing neither the young nor the old, but methodically killing everyone they met, women and children alike, and even the farm animals and every living thing

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k They broke into a boys school, the largest in the place into which children had just entered, and killed every one of them. k It was a small city, but in the disaster just described its people suffered calamities as pitiable as any which took place during the war. k This highlighted the different style of warfare that the Peloponnesian war started. The Hellenes became more interested in winning and saving their lives rather than their honour. The unspoken honour code between the Greeks is broken which unleashes an anarchic, merciless and barbaric style of warfare.

406: THE BATTLE OF ARGINUSAEk Occured in the Arginusae islands near Lesbos. k Athenian fleet commanded by 8 strategoi versus the Spartan fleet under the command of Callicratidas. k Precipitated by a Spartan victory which resulted in the blockading of the Athenian fleet under Conon at Mytilene. k To relieve Conon, the Athenians assembled a scratch force composed largely of newly constructed ships manned by inexperienced crews. This inexperienced fleet was thus tactically inferior to the Spartans, but its commanders were able to circumvent this problem by employing new and unorthodox tactics, which

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allowed the Athenians to secure a dramatic and unexpected victory. k The grateful Athenian public voted to bestow citizenship on the slaves and metics that manned the ships. k Their joy was tempered by the aftermath of the battle, in which a storm prevented the ships assigned to rescue the survivors of the 25 disabled or sunken Athenian triremes from performing their duties, and a great number of sailors drowned. A fury erupted at Athens when the public learned of this, and after a bitter struggle in the assembly six of the eight generals who had commanded the fleet were tried as a group and executed. k The trial of the generals en bloc was illegal, which shows just how much power the Athenian public holds and the danger they pose to true justice and equality under the law.

405: THE BATTLE OF AEGOSPOTAMIk Lysander was reinstated and with the help of his friend the Persian prince Cyrus who named him satrap of Asia Minor. With the Persian resources, he was able to rebuild the Spartan navy. k He seized several Athenian held cities and attacked numerous islands. To divert the Athenians navy, he struck westward at Attica, Aegina and Salamis which prompted the Athenian navy to set out in pursuit and Lysander sailed around them to set up a base at Abydos near the Hellespont.

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k The Athenians caught up with Lysander after he sacked Lampsacus, and they set up camp on a beach nearby although their base was at Sestos as they wanted to keep a close watch on Lysander. k The Athenians sailed by the Spartans daily, insulting them in an attempt to antagonize them enough to fight. The Spartans stayed in their base until one day Lysander sailed out when the Athenians were foraging for food and took most of the ships on the beach without any fighting at all. k Only 9 ships escaped, led by the general Conon. The Athenians were left with no navy and Lysander was free to capture cities on his way home. k Without a fleet to import grain, Athens starved and surrendered in 404 BC.

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