INDEX

S. NO. SUBJECT NAME PAGE NO.

SPECIMEN COPY

. -

. -

1. PHYSICS 1-6

2 CHEMISTRY 7 13

3 MATHEMATICS 14 24

4. BIOLOGY 25-33

5. SOCIAL SCIENCE 34-49

6. MENTAL ABILITY 50-60

7. ANSWER KEY 61-63

CLASS - VII (VISTAAR-ADVANCE)

© Copyright reserved 2013-14.

All right reserved. Any photocopying, publishing or reproduction of full or any part of this study material is strictly prohibited. This material belongs to only the enrolled student of RESONANCE. Any sale/resale of this material is punishable under law. Subject to Kota Jurisdiction only.

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PAGE # 1

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND ITS EFFECT

ELECTRIC CURRENT

The electric current is a flow of electric charges (calledelectrons) in a conductor (metal wire). It is the amountof electric charge passing through a given point ofconductor in one second. If a charge of Q coulombsflows through a conductor in time t second, then themagnitude of the electric current I flows through it isgiven by :

tQ

I

The S.I. unit of charge is coulomb (C)

1C = Charge of 6.25 × 1018 electrons.

(a) Unit of Electric Current :

The S.I. unit of current is Ampere. When one coulombof charge flows through any cross-section of aconductor in 1 second, the electric current flowingthrough it is said to be 1 ampere.

s1C1

A1

Instrument used to measure current is calledammeter. It should have a very low resistance. It isconnected in series in the circuit.

CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

(a) Open Electric Circuit :

An electric circuit through which no electric currentflows is known as open electric circuit. The electriccircuit will be open circuit if the plug of the key is takenout or if the connecting wires break from any point.

+ �

Bulb K

(b) Closed Circuit :

An electric circuit through which electric current flowscontinuously is known as closed circuit.

+ �

Bulb K

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

The path of flow of electricity from one terminal of the

cell and returning to the other is called an electrical

circuit.

For flow of electricity, the circuit must be made of con-

ductors. Insulators in the path of electrical circuits

makes the circuit incomplete.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS AND CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

Scientists use certain symbols to draw electrical

circuits. An electrical circuit drawn using these

symbols is called a circuit diagram. The symbols used

to indicate different components are called circuit

symbols. Figure shows some components and their

circuit symbols.

(a) Electrical circuit (b) Circuit diagrams

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PAGE # 2

NOTE : Notice that the key or switch can be placedanywhere in the circuit.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CELL AND BATTERY

The positive terminal of one cell is connected to the

negative terminal of the next cell. Such a combination

of two or more cells is called a battery.

+ �BettaryCell

+ �

Cells connected in series i.e. battery

If two cells are connected in series as in the above

case, their combined strength is the sum of their

respective strengths. In this case, the combined

strength is 1.5 V + 1.5 V = 3 V. Similarly, if three identical

cells, each of strength 1.5 V, are connected in series,

their combined strength will be

1.5 V + 1.5 V + 1.5 V = 4.5 V

ILLUSTRATIONS

Look at the circuit given in figure (a) and figure (b).

Read the instructions in each case and answer the

questions given.

1. Which bulb B1/B

2 in figure (a) will glow when

(a) only K1 is closed ?

(b) K1 and K

2 are closed ?

K3

K2

K1

B2

B1

(a)

K1B2B1

K2 B3

(b)

(c) K1, K

2 and K

3 are closed ?

(d) only K2 and K

3 are closed ?

Sol. (a) No bulb will glow, (b) Bulb B1 will glow, (c) B

1 and B

2

both will glow and (d) No bulb will glow.

2. Which bulb B1/B

2/B

3 in figure (b) will glow when

(a) only K1 is closed ?

(b) only K2 is closed ?

(c) both K1 and K

2 both are closed ?

Sol. (a) Bulb B3 will glow, (b) No bulb will glow and (c) All

will glow.

EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

(a) Heating Effect of Current :

The wire gets hot when an electric current passesthrough it. This is the heating effect of the electriccurrent.

Example :

(i) Electric Heater :

(ii) Electric Iron :

The amount of heat produced in a wire depends on itsmaterial, length and thickness. Thus, for differentrequirements, the wires of different requirements, thewires of different materials and different lengths andthicknesses are used.

The filament of an electric bulb gets heated to such ahigh temperature that it starts glowing.

FUSE

A fuse is a small piece of wire made of lead and tin andmounted in porcelain holder. It is placed in the path ofmain electric cables that enters the house as well asin each sub unit of house. As soon as an excess ofelectricity flows through the wire, the wire gets heatedup and melts, thus preventing further flow of electricity.

Fuse� Use of fuse : To protect our electrical appliances from

excess electric current, which may otherwise burn theappliance.

(b) Chemical Effect of Current (Electroplating)

When an electric current is passed through watercontaining sulphuric acid, the water breaks up into itscomponents hydrogen and oxygen. Therefore an

PAGE # 3

electric current can cause a chemical change. Thiseffect of electric current is used in electroplating .Electroplating :The method of plating one metal objectwith another metal by means of electricity is calledelectroplating. The metal which is to be electroplatedis made cathode and the metal to be deposited ismade anode while the soluble salt of the same metalserves as the electrolyte. When a current is passed, athin film of metal is deposited on the metal, whichbecomes electroplated.Eg. : Let we are having a steel razor blade is to beelectroplated with copper.

� Aim : To plate a stainless steel razor blade with copper.

� Materials required : Glass beaker, copper sulphatesolution, two pieces of connecting wire (50 cm long), acell, stainless steel razor blade.

� Method : Remove the insulation from the ends of bothwires. Tie one end of a wire to the stainless steel razorblade and tape the other bare end to the negativeterminal of the cell. Tape one end of the other wire tothe positive terminal of the cell and dip its other endinto the copper scrub the razor blade clean and dip it inthe solution.

After electricity passes through the circuit for some time,you will find a reddish-brown deposit on the blade.This is the coating of copper. If you continue this forsome more time, you will find that your blade is slowlygetting plated with copper.

(c) Magnetic Effect of Current :

We know that a moving magnet can generate an electriccurrent. Also we can say that electric current canproduce a magnetic effect. A coil, through which whenan electric current flows behave like a magnet with itstwo poles.

Eg. : Electric bell shows magnetic effect of current.

(i) Electromagnets :

� Aim : To make our own magnet with electricity.

� Materials required : Iron nail, cell, connecting wires.

� Method : Remove the insulation from each end of thewire. Coil the wire tightly around the nail as shown infigure and tape the two ends of the wire to the twoterminals of the cell. Now hold the iron nail over somecommon pins.

The coil in the above activity behaves like a magnetwhen electric current flows through it. When the electriccurrent is switched off, the coil losses its magnetism.Such coils are called electromagnets.

(ii) Factors which effect the strength of electromagnet :

(A) magnetic effect of current depends on number ofturns.

(B) magnetic effect of current depends the value ofcurrent.

(C) magnetic effect of current depends on the nature ofcore inside the coil.

ELECTRICAL BELL

When the switch of an electric bell is pressed, the circuitis completed and current flows through the coils of theelectromagnet. It gets magnetised and attracts the ironstrip towards itself. This brings the hammer in contactwith the gong and the sound of the bell is heard. Dueto the displacement of the iron strip from its originalposition, it loses contact with the contact screw due towhich the circuit of the electromagnet breaks. Currentstops flowing and the electromagnet loses itsmagnetism. Hence, the iron strip comes back to itsoriginal position, which once again completes thecircuit. The entire process is repeated as long as theswitch is kept pressed. The hammer would strike thegong again and again and the ringing of the bell wouldbe heard.

An intermittent (uni-drectional) current flows throughan electric bell, when it rings

PAGE # 4

CALCULATE THE COST OF ELECTRICITY

Commercial unit of electric energy : Kilowatt - hour(kWh) :

Electric energy is required to run the electric lamps,heaters, refrigerators, televisions and other electricappliances. The department of electricity sells theelectric energy to the consumers in units calledkilowatt-hours (kWh). If our electricity bill shows that wehave paid for 10 units, then it means the electricappliances of our house have consumed 10kilowatt-hours. So, 1 unit = 1 kWh.A kilowatt-hour is the amount of electric energy used by1000 Watt electric appliance (say a heater) when itoperates for one hour.

kWh is also known as �Board of Trade Unit� (B.O.T.)

(e) Relation between kWh and Joule :1 kWh = 1000 Wh( 1 kW = 1000 W)

Now1 W = 1 Js�1 and 1h = 60 × 60 s = 3600 s.

1 kWh = 1000 Js-1 × 3600 s = 3600000 J = 3.6 × 106 J

1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J

3. Calculate the cost of electricity for a house in which 7bulbs of 100 Watt each and 3 fans of 60 Watt each areused for 5 hours a day, for a period of 30 days, if thecost of one unit is Rs. 5.

Sol. Each bulb of 100W consumes 100 Watt hour of energy,when used for 1 hour.7 bulbs of 100W each when used for 1 hour consume,7 × 100 = 700 Watt hour or 700 Wh of energy.

Thus, 7 bulbs of 100W each when used for 5 hourseach day consume, 700 × 5 = 3500 Wh or 3.5 KWh.

In this way, we can calculate the total electricity used in30 days i.e. Total electricity consume, [(7 × 100) + (3 × 60)] × (5 × 30) = (700 + 180) × 5 × 30 =

132000 Wh = 132 KWh.If the cost of each unit is Rs. 5.0, then the total cost =132 × 5 = Rs. 660.

ELECTRICAL CELLS

Electrical cells are the sources of electric current.Electrical cells are of two types primary and secondary.Voltaic, Daniel and dry cells are examples of primarycells, while Edison cell, lead-acid accumulator areexample of secondary cells.

(a) Primary Cells :

The cells which cannot be charged again and againare known as primary cells.

Dry Cell : The outer case of the cell is made of zinc. Thecylindrical sides are covered with thick Cardboard orpaper, while the bottom which is the negative terminalis bare. Inside the zinc container, is a moist paste of

ammonium chloride. A carbon rod is placed at thecentre of the zinc container with a brass knob protrudingout at the top. This is the positive terminal of the cell. Itis surrounded by a closely packed mixture of graphiteand manganese dioxide in a muslin bag. The top issealed to avoid evaporation of moisture, but leaving asmall hole for the escape of ammonia gas.

The strength of a fresh dry cell is 1.5 V. Cells of thiskind which become useless once the chemicals insidethem are used up are known as primary cells.

(b) Secondary Cell :

Cells which are reusable and rechargable.

Lead accumulator (Reusable and rechargeable cells) :

Some cells can be reused by recharging them from anexternal electrical source. Such cells are calledsecondary cells, storage cells or accumulators. Thesecondary cell is one which consists of a vessel madeof a hard rubber, glass or celluloid, containing dilutesulphuric acid. It are immersed two lead grids, onecontaining lead dioxide (positive terminal) and the othermade up of lead (negative terminal). Six such storagecells connected in series makes up your motor carbattery. Each cell has a strength of about 2V, togetherthey make up 12V. After the cell is used up, it can berecharged and reused.

PAGE # 5

DANGER OF ELECTRICITY

(i) If the current happens to pass through the heart, itcause the heart muscles to contract and generallydeath occurs.

(ii) A strong electric shock can give the body a big shockthat can damage the body cells. Such a shock occurson touching a live electric wire suddenly.

(iii) Handling electrical appliances in wet places is verydangerous.

(iv) Electricity could turn dangerous due to looseconnections in switches, improper wiring, overloading(i.e. passing excess current above the rated capacity),improper earthing.

SAFETY MEASURES IN USING ELECTRICITY

(i) The wires used in the circuit should be of goodquality and with good insulation.

(ii) Defective and damaged plugs, sockets and switchesmust be immediately replaced.

(iii) All connections in plugs, switches and sockets mustbe made of a proper insulating material.

(iv) Extension cords must not be overloaded and mustbe regularly tested.

(v) Switches and plugs should not be touched with wethands.

(vi) The main switch should be immediately switchedoff in case of fire or short circuit.

(vii) Always use a safety fuse of proper rating andmaterial in an electric circuit.

(viii) All appliances must be properly earthed.

(ix) Rubber sole shoes should be worn while repairingelectric circuit. This protect the body from electricshocks.

(x) The inside of socket are made of conductingmaterial and therefore must not be touched.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP

1. The switch is in the OFF state. It means that (A) the circuit is open. (B) the circuit is closed. (C) there is no key in the circuit. (D) there is no battery in the circuit

2. If a battery consists of three cells then it is represented by (A) six long lines. (B) six short lines. (C) three pairs of long and short lines. (D) four pairs of long and short lines

3. Wires are used to (A) stop the flow of current . (B) connect various components in the circuit. (C) mark the connections. (D) know about the direction of current.

4. An electric current produces :(A) Magnetic effect (B) Chemical effect

(C) Heating effect (D) All of the above

5. Which is the False statement ?

(NTSE-Stage-I/Raj./2009)(A) Fuse wire has low resistance and melting point.

(B) Heater wire has high specific resistance and

melting point.

(C) In these days M.C.B. is used in place of fuse wire.

(D) Current does not flow in close circuit.6. The magnetic field around a current carrying coil lasts :

(A) for three hours(B) as long as current flows through it(C) till its half�life period

(D) till the field is permanent

7. Strength of an electromagnet increases by :(A) increasing the number of turns of the coil(B) increasing the current flowing through the coil(C) using soft iron core for the coil(D) all of the above

8. Electric bell works on the principle of :

(A) chemical effect of current

(B) magnetic effect of current

(C) heating effect of current

(D) all of the above

9. An electric bell when ringing :

(NTSE-Stage-I/Haryana./2008)(A) carries no electric current

(B) carries continuous current

(C) carries intermittent current

(D) has a permanent magnet to make it work

PAGE # 6

10. Which is the best conductor ?

(NTSE-Stage-I/Bihar/2007)

(A) Carbon (B) Copper

(C) Iron (D) Aluminium

11. The process by which a chemical change takes place

in a substance when electric current is passed through

it is called :

(A) electrolysis

(B) electroplating

(C) electrodes

(D) thermionic conduction

12. An electrolyte is :

(A) a light electric cell

(B) a liquid that conducts electricity

(C) a metal

(D) none of the above

13. Cathode is :

(A) positively charged electrode

(B) negatively charged electrode

(C) a positively charged ion formed in the electrolyte

(D) a negatively charged ion formed in the electrolyte

14. Ammonium chloride in dry cell is :

(A) a paste

(B) in liquid state

(C) in solid state

(D) in gaseous state

15. Positive electrode of a dry cell is made of :

(NTSE-Stage-I/Bihar/2007)

(A) copper (B) zinc

(C) carbon (D) brass

16. ............. acts as positive electrode in the lead � acid

storage cell.

(A) Lead (B) Carbon

(C) Lead oxide (D) Lead sulphate

17. Electro-chemical cell used in torches is :

(A) Voltaic cell (B) Daniel cell

(C) Fuel cell (D) Leclanche dry cell

18. Which of the following is not the advantage of dry cell ?

(A) It is compact and convenient to use

(B) It can be recharged

(C) It is handy to carry

(D) None of them

19. Which of the following is an example of secondary cell :

(A) Voltaic cell (B) Daniel cell

(C) Lead accumulator (D) Dry cell

20. The unit for measuring household electrical energy is :

(A) Watt hour (B) Joules

(C) Kilowatt hour (D) Kilowatt

21. 1 kilowatt hour equals to :

(A) 3.6 × 106 kJ (B) 3.6 × 106 J

(C) 3.6 MJ (D) Both (B) and (C)

SUBJECTIVE DPP

1. Explain the following terms : (a) electrical circuit (b)

circuit symbols (c) primary and secondary cells (d) volt

(e) watt.

2. What are the conditions for electricity to flow in an

electrical circuit ?

3. What do you mean by open and closed circuit?

4. Draw a neat labelled diagram of the inside of a dry cell.

What is the strength expected of a dry cells.

5. With the help of a diagram, explain how you would

electroplate a stainless steel spoon with copper.

6. How can an iron nail be converted to an electromagnet ?

7. A building uses 20 lights of 60 W each, 15 fans of 40 W

each and 2 table lamps of 100 W each for 5 hours a day.

How many units of electricity are used (a) in one day (b)

in the month of April ? What would be the cost of electricity

for the month of April, if one unit costs Rs.4.0 ?

PAGE # 7

GENERAL CHEMISTRY

INTRODUCTION

Chemistry is defined as that branch of science whichdeals with the composition and properties of matterand the changes that matter undergoes by variousinteractions.

Anything that occupies space, has mass and offersresistance is called matter.

ATOM

An atom is the smallest particle of an element thatcan take part in a chemical reaction. The size of anatom is indicated by its radius which is called "atomicradius" (radius of an atom). Atomic radius ismeasured in "nanometres"(nm).1 metre = 109 nanometres or 1nm = 10-9 m.Hydrogen atom is the smallest atom of all having anatomic radius 0.037nm or 0.37 Å (1 Å = 10�10 metre)Maharishi Kanad told that if we keep dividing matter(padartha) on and on, we will get the smallest particlecalled as parmanu (which was later termed as atomby John Dalton).

SYMBOL

"A symbol is a brief representation of the name of theelement". Berzelius, a Swedish chemist, was the firstto introduce the system of using letters as symbols

for the elements.

(a) Symbols may be derived from the first letter of theEnglish name of the element.e.g. Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N) etc.

(b) Symbols may be derived from the first letter andanother significant letter of the name of element.e.g. Aluminium (Al), Bromine (Br), Calcium (Ca) etc.

(c) Symbols may be derived from their Latin namesof the elements.e.g. Copper (Cuprum-Cu), Iron (Ferrum-Fe), Silver(Argentum-Ag), Sodium (Natrium- Na), Potassium(Kalium -K),Gold ( Aurum -Au) etc.

DALTON'S ATOMIC THEORY

(i) Matter consists of small indivisible particles calledatoms.

(ii) All atoms of an element are identical.

(iii) The atoms of an element are different from theatoms of any other element.

(iv) A compound is formed by combination of atomsof two or more elements in simple ratio.

e.g. Ratio between H and O in water is 2 : 1 by volume.

(v) Atoms take part in chemical reactions.

(vi) Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed.

MERITS

(i) Dalton�s theory explains the law of conservation of

mass and law of constant proportion.

(ii) Atoms of elements take part in chemical reactionthis is true till today.

DEMERITS

(i) The atom is no longer supposed to be indivisible.

(ii) He could not explain that why do atoms of sameelement combined with each other.

(iii) Atoms of the same element may not necessarilybe identical in all aspects. e.g. isotopes.

(iv) Atoms of different elements may not necessarilybe different in all aspects. e.g. isobars.

MODERN ATOMIC THEORY

(a) Structure of an atom :

An atom consists of two parts -

(i) Nucleus : Nucleus is situated in the centre of anatom.

All the protons & neutrons are situated in the nucleus,therefore, the entire mass of an atom is almostconcentrated in the nucleus.The overall charge of nucleus is positive due to thepresence of positively charged protons.The protons & neutrons are collectively callednucleons.The radius of the nucleus of an atom is of the order of10�13 cm and its density is of the order of 1015 g/cm3.

(ii) Extra nuclear region : In extra nuclear partelectrons are present which revolve around thenucleus in orbits of fixed energies.

The maximum number of electrons that can beaccommodated in a shell is given by the formula2n2.(n = number of shells i.e. 1,2,3 -------)

K L

2 8

M N

18 32+N

ucleus Electron shells

Maximum number ofelectrons which can be accommodated in the various shells

First energy levelSecond energy level

Third energy levelFourth energy level

(b) Composition of an atom :

It consists of three elementary particles electron,proton and neutron. These are known as sub-atomicfundamental particles.

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PAGE # 8

Property Electron Proton Neutron

1. Discovery J.J. Thomson E. Goldstein James Chadwick

2. Symbol e p n

3. Nature Negatively charged Positively charged Neutral

4. Relative charge -1 +1 0

5. Absolute charge 1.602 × 10-19

C 1.602 × 10-19

C 0

6. Relative mass 1 1

7. Absolute mass 9.109 × 10-28

g 1.6725 × 10-24

g 1.6748 × 10-24

g

18371

ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)

Z = no. of protons = no. of electrons (in electrically

neutral atoms).

e.g.13

Al Z = 13

p = 13

e = 13

Each element has a unique atomic number.

MASS NUMBER (A)

A = no. of protons + no. of neutrons (total no. of

nucleons)

A = p + n

A = Z + n

e.g. Al2713

Z = 13

A = 27

p = 13

e = 13

n = A � Z

= 27 � 13 = 14

(a) Atomic Mass of an Element :

Actual masses of the atoms of the elements are very,

very small. For example, one atom of hydrogen (H)

has a mass of 1.673 x 10-24 gram. To avoid the

inconvenience in using such small and complicated

figures in our calculations, it was necessary to define

atomic mass in such a way that we get simple figures

for them. Carbon-12 atom is that atom of carbon which

has 6 protons and 6 neutrons in its nucleus, so that

its mass number is 12.

Carbon-12 atom has been assigned an atomic mass

of exactly 12 atomic mass units, written as 12 u.

Definition of atomic mass : Atomic mass express as

to how many time mass of an atom of an element is

heavier than12

1th mass of carbon -12 atom.

Note :

Atomic Mass Unit (u) = One-twelfth the mass of a

Carbon-12 atom.

1u = 1.6605 × 10�24 g.

One atomic mass unit (1u) is defined as exactly one-

twelfth the mass of an atom of Carbon-12.The atomic

mass of an element is the relative mass of its atom

as compared with the mass of a Carbon-12 atom

taken as 12 units.

The arrangement of electrons in different shells is

known as the electronic configuration of the element.

If the outermost shell has its full quota of 8 electrons

it is said to be an octet. If the first shell has its full

quota of 2 electrons, it is said to be duplet.

(a) Bohr - Bury scheme for distribution of

electrons in various shells :

Name of shells K L M N

Number of shells 1 2 3 4

Maximum Number of 2 8 18 32

electrons (2n2 )

PAGE # 9

(b Electronic Configuration of some

Elements -

Atomic number

Symbols of the element

Name of the element

Electronic configuration

1 H Hydrogen 12 He Helium 23 Li Lithium 2,14 Be Beryllium 2,25 B Boron 2,36 C Carbon 2,47 N Nitrogen 2,58 O Oxygen 2,69 F Fluorine 2,710 Ne Neon 2,811 Na Sodium 2,8,112 Mg Magnesium 2,8,213 Al Aluminium 2,8,314 Si Silicon 2,8,415 P Phosphorus 2,8,516 S Sulphur 2,8,617 Cl Chlorine 2,8,718 Ar Argon 2,8,819 K Potassium 2,8,8,120 Ca Calcium 2,8,8,2

(c) Significance of Electronic Configuration :

(i) Electronic configuration of an atom helps us tounderstand the chemical reactivity of the element.

(ii) When the outermost shell of an atom is completelyfilled as per Bohr-Bury scheme then the element isunreactive.(iii) When the outermost shell of an atom is notcompletely filled according to Bohr-Bury rule, theelement is reactive. An atom can get the noble gas electronicconfiguration in three ways -� By losing one or more electrons.

� By gaining one or more electrons.

� By sharing one or more electrons with other atom or

atoms.

The outermost shell of an atom is known as thevalence shell. The electrons present in the valenceshell of an atom are known as valence electrons.The remainder of the atom i.e. the nucleus and otherelectrons is called the core of the atom. Electronspresent in the core of an atom are known as coreelectrons.e.g.The electronic configuration of the sodium (Na) atomis :-Na (11) K L M

2 8 1

Thus, valence electrons in Na atom = 1 and coreelectrons in Na atom = 2 + 8 = 10

(a) Valency :

Valency of an element is the combining capacity ofthe atoms of the element with atoms of the same ordifferent elements.

The valency of an element = number of valenceelectrons(when number of valence electrons are from 1 to 4)The valency of an element = 8� number of valence

electrons. (when number of valence electrons aremore than 4)

(b) Variable Valency :

Certain elements (metals and non - metals ) exhibitmore than one valency.(i) Among the metals iron, copper, silver etc. showvariable valency. For lower valency a suffix -ous andfor higher valency a suffix -ic is attached at the end ofthe name of the metal.e.g.Ferrous = Fe+2

Ferric = Fe+3

(ii) Among the non - metals nitrogen, phosphorus,sulphur etc. show variable valency.

(c) How Do Atoms Exist ?

The atoms of only a few elements called noble gases(such as helium, neon, argon and krypton etc.) arechemically unreactive and exist in the free state (assingle atoms). Atoms of most of the elements arechemically very reactive and do not exist in the freestate (as single atoms).Atoms usually exist in two ways:(i) in the form of ions and(ii) in the form of molecules

When atoms form molecules or ions, they becomestable (because in doing so they acquire the stable

electron arrangement of noble gases).

IONS

The charged particles formed by an atom on the gainor loss of one or more electron(s) are called ions.

Cation Anion

Ion

(a) Cation

The loss of an electron by an atom leads to theformation of a cation.e.g. Na � e� Na+

11e� 10e�

(b) Anion :

The gain of an electron by an atom leads to formationof an anion.e.g. Cl + e� Cl�

17e� 18e�

PAGE # 10

RADICALS

A molecule of an inorganic compound is made up oftwo electrically charged species which are known asradicals.Types of radicals :

(a) On basis of charge :

(i) Basic radicals : The positively charged radical isknown as the basic radicalE.g.. K+, Ca2+, Fe3+, etc.

(ii) Acidic radicals : The negatively charged radicalis called acidic radical.E.g. Cl�, SO

42�, Br� etc.

(b) Number of element :

(i) Simple radicals : When a radical consists of onlyone element , it is called simple radical.e.g. Ag+, Ba2+, Cl�, Br�, S2� etc.

(ii) Compound radicals: When a radical consists ofmore than one type of elements , it is called acompound radical.e.g. NO

3�, SO

42�, NH

4+, BO

33�, PO

43� etc.

LIST OF COMMON ELECTROVALENT POSITIVE RADICALS

Monovalent Electropositive Bivalent Electropositive Trivalent Electropositive

Tetravalent Electropositive

1. Hydrogen H 1. Magnesium Mg 2+ 1. Aluminium Al 3+ 1. Stannic [Tin (IV)] Sn 4+

2. Ammonium NH 4 2. Calcium Ca 2+ 2. Ferric [Iron (III)] Fe 3+ 2. Plumbic [Lead (IV)] Pb 4+

3. Sodium Na 3. Zinc Zn 2+ 3. Chromium Cr 3+

4. Potassium K 4. Plumbous [Lead (II)] Pb 2+

5. Cuprous [(Copper (I)] Cu 5. Cupric [(Copper) (II)] Cu 2+

6. Argentous [Silver (I)] Ag 6. Argentic [Silver(II)] Ag 2+

7. Mercurous [Mercury(I)] Hg22 7. Stannous [Tin (II)] Sn

2+

8. Ferrous [Iron (II)] Fe 2+

9. Mercuric [Mercury (II)] Hg 2+

10. Barium Ba 2+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

LIST OF COMMON ELECTROVALENT NEGATIVE RADICALS

Monovalent Electronegative Bivalent Electronegative

Trivalent Electronegative

Tetravalent Electronegative

1. Fluoride F�

1. Sulphate SO 42- 1. Nitride N3- 1. Carbide C4-

2. Chloride Cl� 2. Sulphite SO 32- 2. Phosphide P3-

3. Bromide Br� 3. Sulphide S2-3. Phosphite PO3

3-

4. Iodide I� 4. Thiosulphate S2O32- 4. Phosphate PO4

3-

5. Hydride H� 5. Zincate ZnO22-

6. Hydroxide OH� 6. Oxide O2-

7. Nitrite NO2� 7. Peroxide O2

2-

8.Nitrate NO3� 8. Dichromate Cr2O7

2-

9. Bicarbonate or Hydrogen carbonate HCO3� 9. Carbonate CO3

2-

10. Bisulphite or Hydrogen sulphite HSO3� 10. Silicate SiO 3

2-

11. Bisulphide or Hydrogen sulphide HS�

12. Bisulphate or Hydrogen sulphate HSO4�

13. Acetate CH COO3�

PAGE # 11

MOLECULES

A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two (ormore) atoms chemically bonded together by meansof attractive forces.

OrA molecule is the smallest particle of a substance(element or compound) which has the properties ofthat substance and can exist in the free state.Molecules can be formed either by the combinationof atoms of the "same element" or of "differentelements".

There are two types of molecules: molecules ofelements and molecules of compounds.

(a) Molecules of Elements :

The molecule of an element contains two (or more)similar atoms chemically bonded together. Forexample, a molecule of hydrogen contains 2hydrogen atoms combined together and it is writtenas H2 representing Hydrogen gas. Similarly, Ozonegas has 3 oxygen atoms combined together, so ozoneexists in the form of O3. The noble gases like helium,neon, argon and krypton etc., exist as single atomsHe, Ne, Ar and Kr respectively. So, their atoms andmolecules are just the same.

(b) Molecules of Compounds :

The molecule of a compound contains two (or more)different types of atoms chemically bondedtogether.For example, molecule of hydrogen chloride(HCl) contains one atom of hydrogen (H) chemicallybonded with one atom of chlorine (Cl). Some moreexamples of the molecules of compounds are : sulphurdioxide (SO2), methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3).

Note :

Every compound is a molecule, but every molecule isnot a compound.

(c) Atomicity:

The number of atoms present in one molecule of anelement or compound is called its atomicity. Forexample, the atomicity of noble gases is 1, that ofhydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen etc. is 2 each and of ozoneis 3. Thus, noble gases, hydrogen and ozone arerespectively monoatomic, diatomic, and triatomicmolecules.

Note :Atomicity of phosphorus is 4 and sulphur is 8.

Note :A compound which consists of molecules and notions, is called a molecular compound.

CHEMICAL FORMULA

Molecule of an element or a compound may berepresented by symbols of the elements present inone molecule of the compound. It is known as achemical formula.

E.g. HCl is the formula of hydrogen chloride and NaCl isthat of sodium chloride.

(a) Significance of a Chemical Formula :

(i) Names of the elements present in the compound.(ii) Number of atoms of each element.(iii) Molecular weight of the compound.(iv) The relative proportion of weights of the elements.

(b) Writing a Chemical Formula :

Step-IWrite the symbol of the positive ion or the radical tothe left and that of the negative ion or radical to theright.

Step-IIPut the valence number of each radical or the ion onits top right. Divide the valence number by the highestcommon factor, if any, to get a simple ratio. Now ignorethe (+) and (�) signs. Interchange the valence

numbers of radicals or ions.

Step-IIIShift the valence numbers to the lower right side ofthe radical or ion. If the compound radical receivesnumber more than 1, enclose it within brackets. Donot enclose simple radicals within brackets.

Names of compounds

PAGE # 12

S.No. Compounds Common Names Chemical Names

1 CaO Lime Calcium oxide

2 NaHCO3 Baking soda Sodium hydrogen carbonate

3 Na2CO3.10H2O Washing soda Sodium carbonate decahydrate

4 CaCO3 Limestone Calcium carbonate

5 Ca(OH)2 Slaked lime Calcium hydroxide

6 CuSO4. 5H2O Blue vitriol Copper sulphate pentahydrate

7 NaCl Common salt Sodium chloride

8 Na2CO3 Soda ash Sodium carbonate

9 NaOH Caustic soda Sodium hydroxide

10 KOH Caustic potash Potassium hydroxide

11 CaOCl2 Bleaching powder Calcium oxychloride

12 CaSO4.1/2 H2O Plaster of paris Calcium sulphate hemihydrate

13 CaSO4. 2H2O Gypsum Calcium sulphate dihydrate

14 FeSO4. 7H2O Green vitriol Ferrous sulphate heptahydrate

15 H2SO4 Oil of vitriol Sulphuric acid

List of atomic masses of some common elements :

AtomicNumber Element Symbol

Atomicmass

1 Hydrogen H 12 Helium He 43 Lithium Li 74 Beryllium Be 95 Boron B 116 Carbon C 127 Nitrogen N 148 Oxygen O 169 Fluorine F 1910 Neon Ne 2011 Sodium Na 2312 Magnesium Mg 2413 Aluminium Al 2714 Silicon Si 2815 Phosphorus P 3116 Sulphur S 3217 Chlorine Cl 35.518 Argon Ar 4019 Potassium K 3920 Calcium Ca 40

MOLECULAR MASS

The molecular mass of a substance may be defined

as the relative mass of its molecule as compared to

the mass of an atom of carbon (carbon-12) taken as

12 units.

OR

Molecular mass expresses as to how many times a

molecule of a substance is heavier than 1/12th of the

mass of an atom of carbon (carbon-12).

Eg. A molecule of water is 18 times heavier than

1/12th of the mass of carbon atom. Therefore, the

molecular mass of water is 18u. Similarly, the

molecular mass of CO2 is 44u.

Calculation : The molecular mass is equal to sum of

the atomic masses of all the atoms present in one

molecule of the substance.

Eg. The molecular mass of Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)

can be calculated as follows:

Molecular mass of H2SO4 = Mass of 2 H atoms +

Mass of 1 S atom + Mass of 4 O atoms

= (2 x 1) + (1 x 32) + (4 x 16) = 2 + 32 + 64 = 98u.

Thus, the molecular mass of Sulphuric acid is 98u.

PAGE # 13

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP

1. The magnitude of charge on an electron in coulomb

is -

(A) 1.76 × 1011 (B) 1.6 × 10�19

(C) 9.1 × 1011 (D) none of these

2. The mass of a proton -

(A) 1.0073 amu (B) 1.673 × 10�24g

(C) 1.673 × 10�27 kg (D) all of these

3. The charge on an atom is -

(A) Positive (B) Negative

(C) Neutral (D) None of these

4. Atoms as a whole are neutral because -

(A) the number of electrons is equal to the number of

neutrons

(B) the number of electrons is equal to the number of

protons.

(C) the number of neutrons is equal to the number of

protons.

(D) the number of electrons is equal to the sum of the

number of protons and the number of neutrons.

5. The element having no neutron in the nucleus of its

atom is -

(A) hydrogen (B) nitrogen

(C) helium (D) boron

6. The protons and neutrons are collectively called -

(A) deutrons (B) positrons

(C) mesons (D) nucleons

7. Atomic number of an element represents -

(A) number of neutrons in the nucleus.

(B) atomic mass of an element.

(C) valency of an element

(D) number of protons in the nucleus.

8. Atomic size of the order of -

(A) 10�8 cm (B) 10�10 cm

(C) 10�13 cm (D) 10�6 cm

9. Which of the following element will become stable

after losing an electron ?

(A) Helium (B) Iodine

(C) Sodium (D) Oxygen

10. Atomic mass of an element is the number of times bywhich the mass of its atom is greater than -

(A) th121

mass of carbon atom

(B) th121

mass of hydrogen atom

(C) th121

mass of oxygen atom

(D) th121

mass of helium atom

11. The difference between ions and atoms is of -(A) relative size(B) electronic configuration(C) presence of charge(D) all of these

12. How many types of atoms are present in a moleculeof sugar ?(A) 49 (B) 3(C) 22 (D) 11

13. An element (A) is tetravalent electropositive andanother element (B) is divalent electronegative. Theformula of the compound formed from these elementswill be -(A) A2B (B) AB(C) AB2 (D) A2B3

14. The electronic configuration of the sodium [Na] atomis -(A) 2, 8,2 (B) 2, 8, 1(C) 2, 8 (D) 2, 8, 8, 1

15. The correct chemical formula of aluminium sulphateis -(A) Al2(SO4)3 (B) Al2(SO3)4(C) Al3(SO4)4 (D) AlSO4

SUBJECTIVE DPP

1. Differentiate between electron, proton & neutron withrespect to their charge and mass.

2. Write the electronic configuration of potassium(Z = 19). What is the number of valence electrons in it ?

3. What is the significance of electronic configuration ?

4. Why is the valency of inert gases zero ?

5. Write the formulae of following compound withthe help of the valency of their constituentparticle.(i) Ferric sulphate(ii) Mercuric chloride(iii)Calcium bicarbonate

PAGE # 14

RATIONAL NUMBERS

Definition : Numbers that can be expressed in the form

qp

, where q is a non-zero integer and p is any integer

are called rational numbers.

Each of the numbers 32

, 75

, 5

11

,

97

is a rational

number.

SOME RESULTS ON RATIONAL NUMBERS

(i) Every integer is a rational number but a rational

number need not be an integer.

Explanation : We know that

1 = 11

and so on. Also. � 1 = 11

and so on.

(ii) Every fraction is a rational number but a rational

number need not be a fraction .

We know that 5

3

is a rational number but it is not a

fraction because its denominator is not a natural

number.

(iii) A rational number qp

is said to be in the standard

form if q is a positive integer and the integers qp

have

no common divisor other than 1.

e.g. Standrad form of 6

3

is 21

.

Positive Rational Number : A rational numbers qp

is

positive, if p and q are either both positive or both

negative.

Each of the rational numbers 32

, 95

, 127

,

113

is a

positive rational number.

Negative Rational Number : A rational number qp

is

negative, if p and q are of opposite signs.

73

, 9

5

, 2615

Equivalent Rational Numbers : To convert a rational

number to an equivalent rational number, either

multiply or divide both its numerator and denominator

by a non-zero integer.

RATIONAL NUMBERS

NOTE : (i) Two rational numbers are equal if they havethe same standard form.

(ii) If yx

is a rational number and m is any non-zero

integer, then yx

= mymx

.

For example, 83

= 4843

=

3212

(iii) If yx

is a rational number and m is a common

divisor of x and y, then

yx

= mymx

4527

= 345

3)27(

=

159

=3153)9(

=

53

(iv) If x and y are positive integers, then the rational

numbers yx

and y�x�

are both positive and the rational

numbers yx�

and y�x

are both negative.

(v) ba

= dc

only when a × d = b × c

(vi) If there are two rational numbers with commondenominator, then one with the larger numerator islarger than the other. .

(vii) Every positive rational number is greater than zero.

(viii) Every negative rational number is less than zero.

(ix) Every positive rational number is greater than everynegative rational number.

LOWEST FORM OF A RATIONAL NUMBER

Lowest Form of a Rational Number :

Definition : A rational number qp

is said to be in the

lowest form or simplest form if p and q have no commonfactor other than 1.Every rational number can be put in the lowest formusing the following steps :

Step I Obtain the rational number qp

Step II Find the HCF of p and q say m

Step III If m = 1, then qp

is in lowest form.

Step IV If m 1, then mqmp

is the lowest form of q

p.

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PAGE # 15

Ex.1 Find whether the following rational numbers are in thelowest form or not.

(i) 7917

(ii) 32024

Sol. (i) We observe that 17 and 79 have no common factor,i.e., their HCF is 1.

Therefore, 7917

is in the lowest form.

(ii) We have,24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 and 320 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 5

Thus, HCF of 14 and 320 is 2 × 2 × 2 = 8.

Therefore, 32024

is not in the lowest form.

Ex.2 Express each of the following rational numbers to thelowest form.

(i) 1612

(ii) 7260

Sol. (i) We have,12 = 2 × 2 × 3 and 16 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2

HCF of 12 and 16 is 2 × 2 = 4.

So, 1612

is not in lowest form.

Dividing numerator and denominator by 4, we have

1612

= 416412

=

43

43

is the lowest form of 1612

.

(ii) We have60 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 and 72 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3

HCF of 60 and 72 is 2 × 2 × 3 = 12

Dividing numerator and denominator of 7260

by 12.

We get 65

.

REPRESENTATION OF RATIONAL NUMBERS ON REALLINE :Draw any line. Take a point 0 on it. Call it 0 (zero). Setoff equal distances on the right as well as on the left of0. Such a distance is known as a unit length.Clearly, the points A, B, C, D, E represents the integers1, 2, 3, 4, 5 respectively and the points A', B', C', D', E',represents the integers � 1, � 2, � 3, � 4, � 5 respectively.

BA C D EOA'B'C'D'E'

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Thus, we may represent any integer by a point on thenumber line. Clearly, every positive integer lies to theright of 0 and every negative integer lies to the left of 0.Similarly we can represent rational numbers. Considerthe folllowing examples :

Ex.3 Represent 5

13and

513

on the number line.

Sol. Draw a line. Take a point O on it, Let it represent 0.

Now, 53

253

25

13 .

From 0, set off unit distances OA,AB and BC to the rightof O. Clearly, the points A, B and C represent theintegers 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Now, take 2 units OAand AB, and divide the third unit BC into 5 equal parts.Take 3 parts out of these 5 parts to reach at a point P.

Then the point P represents the rational number 5

13.

C' P' B' A' O A B P C

-13/5 -2 -1 0 1 2 313/5

Again, from O, set off unit distances to the left. Letthese segments be OA', A' B', B' C', etc. Then, clearlythe points A', B' and C' represent the integers �1, � 2,

� 3 respectively.

Now,

53

2513

Take 2 full unit lengths to the left of O. Divide the thirdunit B'C' into 5 equal parts.Take 3 parts out of these 5 parts to reach a point P'.

Then, the point P' represents the rational number .513

Thus, we can represent every rational number by apoint on the number line.

Some important notes :

(i) Every rational number represented by a point on thenumber line is greater than every rational numberrepresented by points on its left.

(ii) Every rational number represented by a point onthe number line is less than every rational numberrepresented by points on its right.

COMPARING TWO RATIONAL NUMBERS

Comparing two rational numbersIn order to compare any two rational numbers, we canuse the following steps :

Step I Obtain the given rational numbers.

Step II Write the given rational numbers so that theirdenominators are positive.

Step III Find the LCM of the positive denominators ofthe rational numbers obtained in step II.

Step IV Express each rational number (obtained instep II) with the LCM (obtained in step III) as commondenominator.

Step V Compare the numerators of rational numbersobtained in step IV. The number having greaternumerator is the greater rational number.

PAGE # 16

Ex.4 Which of the two rational numbers 53

and 32

is

greater ?

Sol. Clearly, 53

is a positive rational number and 32

is a

negative rational number. We know that every positive

rational number is greater than every negative rational

number.

53

> 32

.

Ex.5 Which of the two rational numbers 75

and 52

is greater ?

Sol. Clearly, denominators of the given rational numbers

are positive. The denominators are 7 and 5. The LCM

of 7 and 5 is 35. So, first express each rational number

with 35 as common denominator.

75

= 5755

=

3525

and 53

= 7573

=

3521

Now, compare the numerators of these rational

numbers.

25 > 21 3525

> 3521

75

> 53

.

Ex.6 Which of the two rational numbers 94

and 125

is

greater ?

Sol. First write each one of the given rational numbers with

positive denominator.

Clearly, denominator of 94

is positive. The

denominator of 125

is negative.

So, express it with positive denominator as follows

125

= )1()12()1(5

=

125

Write the rational numbers so that they have a common

denominator 36 as follows :

94

= 4944

=

3616

and 12

5 =

31235

=

3615

� 15 > � 16 3615

> 3616

12

5 >

94

125

> 94

.

Ex.7 Arrange the rational numbers 10

7,

85

, 3

2

in

ascending order.Sol. First write the given rational numbers so that their

denominators are positive.

85

= )1(8)1(5

=

85

and 3

2

= )1(3)1(2

=

32

Thus, the given rational numbers with positivedenominators are :

107

, 85

, 32

Now, LCM of the denominators 10, 8 and 3 is :2 × 2 × 5 × 2 × 3 = 120

Now write the numbers so that they have a commondenominator 120 as follows :

107

= 1210127

=

12084

, 85

= 158155

=

12075

and 32

= 403402

=

12080

Comparing the numerators of these numbers, we get� 84 < � 80 < � 75

120

84 <

12080

< 120

75

107

< 32

< 85

10

7 <

32

< 8

5

.

OPERATIONS ON RATIONAL NUMBERS

Some Important Notes :

(i) For any two rational numbers qp

and qr

we define :

qp

+ qr

= qrp

(ii) For any two rational numbers qp

and sr

to find

qp

+ sr

first convert qp

and sr

to equivalent rational

numbers having denominator equal to the LCM ofq and s and then they are added.

(iii) For any two rational numbers qp

and sr

,

qp

� sr

= qp

+

sr

ofnegative

(iv) For any two rational numbers qp

and sr

,

qp

× sr

= sqrp

PAGE # 17

(v) The reciprocal of a non-zero rational number qp

is

pq

and written as

1�

qp

= p

q.

(vi) For any two rational numbers qp

and sr

( 0 ),

qp

÷ sr

= rqsp

.

Ex.8 A car is moving at an average speed of 3654

km/h.

How much distance will it cover in 721

hours ?

Sol. Distance covered by the car in 1 hour = 36 54

km

= 5

184km.

Distance covered by the car in 721

hours

=

215

5184

km

= 276 km.

Hence, the required distance is 276 km.

Ex.9 The product of two rational numbers is 98�

. If one of

the numbers is 15

4� . Find the other..

Sol. Let the required number be x. Then,

154�

× x = 98�

x = 98�

154�

x = 98�

× 4�

15=

98�

× 415�

x =

4915�8�

x = 49

158

x = 3

10.

Hence, the other number is 3

10.

Insertion of Rational Numbers Between Two GivenRational Numbers :Between any two rational numbers infinitely many

rational numbers can be inserted.

Ex.10 Find some rational numbers lying between two given

rational numbers, say between 52

and 53

.

Sol. The four rational numbers 51

, 50

, 51

and 52

lie

between 52

and 53

.

If required, we can insert more rational numbers

between 52

and 53

by the technique as discussed

below.

The rational numbers52

and 53

can also be written

as 5020

and 5030

respectively

Clearly, 5019

, 5018

, ...500

, ..., 5029

are rational

between 52

and 53

.

Ex.11 Insert 10 rational numbers between 113

and 118

.

Sol. We know that� 3 < � 2 < �1 < 0 < 1 < 2 < 3 < 4 < 5 < 6 < 7 < 8

113

< 112

< 11

1 <

110

< 111

< 112

< 113

< 114

< 115

< 116

< 117

< 118

Hence, 10 rational numbers between 13

3 and

118

:

112

, 11

1,

110

, 111

, 112

, 113

, 114

, 115

, 116

and 117

Ex.12 Insert 100 rational numbers between 13

3 and

139

Sol. We have,

133

= 1013103

=

13030

and 139

= 1013109

=

13090

We know that� 30 < � 29 < � 28 < ..... � 1 < 0 < 1 < 2 < 3 < .... < 90

130

30 <

13029

< 130

28 < ... <

1301

< 130

0 <

1301

< 130

2 < .... <

13090

Hence 100 rational numbers between 13

3 =

13030

and 139

= 13090

are

130

29,

13028

, ... ,130

1 ,

1300

,130

1, .... ,

13070

.

PAGE # 18

OBJECTIVE DPP

1. Choose the rational number which does not lie between

rational numbers 52

� and 51

� .

(A) 41

� (B) 103

�

(C) 103

(D) 207

2. By what rational number should 39

8 be multiplied to

obtain 26 ?

(A) 4

507(B)

4507

(C) 4407

(D) None

3. Choose the rational number which does not lie between

rational numbers 53

and 32

.

(A) 7546

(B) 7547

(C) 7549

(D) 7550

4. How many rational numbers exist between any twodistinct rational numbers ?(A) 2 (B) 3(C) 11 (D) Infinite numbers

5. Which of the following statements is true ?

(A) 32

125

187

94

(B) 32

94

125

187

(C) 187

125

94

32

(D) 187

94

32

125

6. By what rational number should 39

4 be multiplied to

obtain 18 ?

(A) 2

351(B)

2351

(C) 1324

(D) None of these

7. Which rational number is exactly in middle between

the two rational numbers 21

&31

?

(A) 125

(B) 65

(C) 121

(D) 53

8. Two rational numbers between 1511

and 2017

is :

(A) 43

,65

(B) 53

,21

(C) 21

,75

(D) 75

,76

9. Standard form of 55

33

is :

(A) 5

3

(B) 53

(C) 5533

(D) None of these

10. If 6x

= 3

7

, then the value of x is :

(A) � 14 (B) 14

(C) 21 (D) �21

11. What should be added to 95

to get 1 ?

(A) 94

(B) 94

(C) 9

14(D)

914

12. What should be subtracted from 43

to get 65

?

(A) 1219

(B) 1219

(C) 121

(D) 12

1

13. The additive inverse of a rational number yx

is :

(A) xy

(B) yx

(C) � yx

(D) � xy

PAGE # 19

14. In rational number operation �multiplication� is :

(A) Commutative (B) Associative

(C) Both A and B (D) None of these

15. In the following rational numbers, x is a positiveinteger. Which among these is the least ?

(A) 3x

(B) 4x

(C) 5x

(D) 6x

16. What will be the correct sign in the following between

51

and 32

?

(A) = (B) >

(C) < (D)

17. Which rational numbers are equal to their reciprocals ?(A) 0, 1 (B) � 1, 0

(C) �1, 1 (D) �1, 0, 1

18. Identify rational number between 31

and 54

.

(A) 41

(B) 109

(C) 3017

(D) 1107

19. A rectangular sheet of paper is 5 21

c m long and 1032

cm wide. Perimeter of its rectangle is :

(A) 3

57cm (B)

347

cm

(C) 3

37cm (D)

397

cm

20. Standard form of 52

117

is :

(A) 52117

(B) 4

9

(C) 49

(D) 23

SUBJECTIVE DPP

1. What should be added to 92

to get � 1 ?

2. What should be subtracted from 32

to get 65

?

3. A car is moving at an average speed of 40 52

km/hr..

How much distance will it cover in 721

hours ?

4. The product of two rational numbers is 916

. If one of

the numbers is 34

, find the other..

5. The cost of 221

metres of cloth is Rs 78 43

. Find the

cost of cloth per metre.

PAGE # 20

DEFINITIONS

Equation : A statement of equality involving one or more

variables (literals) is called an equation.

Linear equation in one variable : An equation involving

only one literal number (variable) with the highest

power one is called a linear equation in one variable.

Standard form of a linear equation in x is ax + b = 0,

where a, b R and a 0.

For example : 3x � 7 = 5, 4x

+ 5 = 3, 3x � 2y = 7

and 2x

+ 3x

= 4 are linear equations.

SOLVING AN EQUATION

Property - 1 : We can add the same number to both

sides of the equation;

Ex.1 Solve the equation x � 7 = � 2 and check the result.

Sol. We have, x � 7 = � 2.

In order to solve this equation, we have to get x by itself

on the L.H.S. to get x by itself on the L.H.S., We need to

shift � 7. This can be done by adding 7 to both sides of

the given equation. Thus,

x � 7 = � 2

x � 7 + 7 = � 2 + 7 [Adding 7 to both sides]

x + 0 = 5 [ � 7 + 7 = 0 and � 2 + 7 = 5]

x = 5

Thus, x = 5 is the solution of the given equation.

L.H.S. = 5 � 7 = � 2 and R.H.S. = � 2

Thus, when x = 5, we have L.H.S. = R.H.S.

Property - 2 : We can subtract the same number from

both sides of the equation.

Ex.2 Solve the equation x + 4 = � 2 and check the result.

Sol. In order to solve this equation, we have to obtain x by

itself on L.H.S. To get x by itself on L.H.S., we need to

shift 4. This can be done by subtracting 4 from both

sides of the given equation.

Thus, x + 4 = � 2

x + 4 � 4 = � 2 � 4 [Subtracting 4 from both sides]

x + 0 = � 6 [ 4 � 4 = 0 and � 2 � 4 = � 6]

x = � 6

Thus, x = � 6 is the solution of the given equation.

LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

Property - 3 : We can multiply both sides of the equation

by the same non-zero number.

Ex.3 Solve the equation 12y

= 48 and check the result.

Sol. In order to solve this equation, we have to get y by itselfon L.H.S. To get y by itself on L.H.S., we have to remove12 from L.H.S. This can be done by multiplying bothsides of the equation by 12 thus, we have

12y

= 48

12y

× 12 = 48 × 12 [Multiplying both sides by 12]

y = 576

Check : Putting, y = 576 in the given equation, we get

L.H.S. = 12576

= 48 and R.H.S. = 48.

Thus, for y = 567, we have L.H.S. = R.H.S

(iv) We can divide both sides of the equation by thesame non-zero number.

Ex.4 Solve the equation 32

x = 18 and check the result.

Sol. We have,

32

x = 18

Multiplying both sides by 23

= 18 ×23

32

× 23

× x = 27

x = 27Thus, x = 27 is the solution of the given equation.

Check Putting x = 27 in the given equation, we get

L.H.S. = 32

× 27 = 18 and R.H.S. = 18

Thus, for x = 27, we have L.H.S. = R.H.S.

Property - 4 : In an equation, we can drop a term fromone side and put it on the other side with the oppositesign. This process is known as transposition.

Ex.5 Solve : 3(x + 3) � 2 (x � 1) = 5 (x � 5).

Sol. We have,3(x + 3) � 2(x � 1) = 5(x � 5)

3x + 9 � 2x + 2 = 5x � 25

[Expanding brackets on both side] 3x � 2x + 9 + 2 = 5x � 25

x + 11 = 5x � 25

[Simplifying L.H.S. and R.H.S. separately] � 4x = � 36

x = 9

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PAGE # 21

APPLICATIONS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Ex.6 If 7 is subtracted from five times a number, the result

is 63. Find the number.

Sol : Let the required number be x. Then,

Five times x = 5x

When 7 is subtracted from five times x, we get 5x � 7.

It is given that when 7 is subtracted from five times x,

the result is 63. So, we obtain the following equation :

5x � 7 = 63.

We have,

5x � 7 = 63

5x = 63 + 7 [On transposing � 7 to R.H.S.]

5x = 70

5x5

= 5

70[Dividing both sides by 5]

x = 14.

Hence, the required number is 14.

Ex.7 The sum of two consecutive numbers is 53. Find the

numbers.

Sol. Let one number be x. Then, the next consecutive number

is x + 1. It is given that the sum of two consecutive

numbers is 53. So, we obtain the following equation :

x + (x + 1) = 53

2x + 1 = 53

2x = 53 � 1 [On transposing 1 on R.H.S.]

2x = 52

2x2

= 2

52[Dividing both sides by 2]

x = 26

One number = 26

Another number = 26 + 1 = 27.

Ex.8 Solve : 4x � 3 = 2x + 5.

Sol. 4x � 3 = 2x + 5

4x � 2x = 5 + 3

2x = 8

x = 28

x = 4

Verification : Putting x = 4 in both sides, we get

L.H.S.

= 4x � 3

= 4 × 4 � 3

= 16 � 3 = 13

R.H.S.

= 2x + 5

= 2 × 4 + 5

= 8 + 5

= 13

Since R.H.S = L.H.S it shows that solution is correct.

Ex.9 Solve : 4

1x3 �

35x2

= 25� 2x.

Sol.4

1x3 �

35x2

= 25� 2x

Multiplying both side of equation by 12 [L.C.M. of 4, 3, 2]

3 (3x � 1) � 4 (2x + 5) = 12

x2

25

9x � 3 � 8x � 20 = 30 � 24x

9x � 8x + 24x = 30 + 3 + 20

25x = 53

x = 2553

= 2253

.

Ex.10 Solve : 1x25x3

=

52

.

Sol.1x25x3

=

52

5 (3x + 5) = 2 (2x � 1) [Cross multiplication] 15x + 25 = 4x � 2

15x � 4x = � 25 � 2

11x = � 27

x = 1127

x = � 2115

.

Ex.11 Solve : 0.5 + 0.4x = 0.09

Sol.10

x5 +

10x4

= 100

9 [Multiplying each term by 100]

105

x 100 + 10

x4 100 =

1009

100

50x + 40x = 9 90x = 9

x = 909

x = 101

x = 0.1Verification : L.H.S= 0.5x + 0.4x= 0.5 0.1 + 0.4 0.1= 0.05 + 0.04= 0.09R.H.S. = 0.09L.H.S. = R.H.S.Hence verified solution x = 0.01 is correct.

PAGE # 22

Ex.12 The sum of the ages of father and son is 48 years.The quotient obtained by dividing the age of the son by

the age of the father is 51

. Find their ages.

Sol. Let the age of son be x years. Age of father = 48 � x years.

A.T.Q. x48

x

= 51

5 x = 1 (48 � x)

5x + x = 48 6x = 48

x = 648

x = 8 Age of son 8 years.Age of father = 48 � 8 years = 40 years.

OBJECTIVE DPP

1. The sum of five consecutive odd numbers is 1185,what are the numbers ?(A) 231, 233, 235, 237, 239(B) 229, 231, 233, 235, 237(C) 233, 235, 237, 239, 241(D) None of these

2. If 16

3x4x

, then x is equal to :

(A) 12 (B) 6(C) 3 (D) 4

3. Twelve years hence a man will be four times as he wastwelve years ago, then his present age is :(A) 20 years (B) 25 years(C) 28 years (D) 30 years

4. The sum of one half, one third and one fourth of anumber exceed the number itself by 12. The numberis :(A) 72 (B) 144(C) 180 (D) 244

5. If 7/494/32

xx

= 41

then x = ?

(A) 725

(B) 725

(C) 723

(D) 723

6. If 2

93

51

4

xxx

then the value of x is :

(A) � 7 (B) 7/2

(C) 7 (D) � 14

7. If 3232

2

xx

= 243

xx

then the value of x is :

(A) � 3 (B) � 2

(C) 3 (D) � 4

8. If 3 (x + 5) + 16 = 5 (x + 14) � 21, then x =

(A) x = � 8 (B) x = � 7

(C) x = � 6 (D) x = � 9

9. If twice a certain number is diminished by five, theresult is equal to twelve added to the number. Findthe number :(A) 18 (B) 16(C) 15 (D) 17

10. Find three consecutive integers such that four timesthe first plus one- half the second minus twice the thirdis equal to 24 :(A) 11, 12 and 13 (B) 12, 13 and 14(C) 13, 14 and 15 (D) 10, 11 and 12

11. Michael is 6 years older than Sabrina. Five years ago,Michael was thrice as old as Sabrina, find Michael�spresent age.(A) 8 years (B) 14 years(C) 16 years (D) 28 years

12. The difference between two numbers is 642. Whenthe greater is divided by the smaller, the quotient is8 and the remainder is 19. The numbers are :(A) 89 and 731 (B) 92 and 734(C) 87 and 729 (D) 85 and 727

13. Length of a rectangle is 2 m more than twice its breadth.If the perimeter of the rectangle is 58 m. Find its lengthand breadth.(A) Length = 20 m and breadth = 9 m(B) Length = 19 m, breadth = 10 m(C) Length = 17 m, breadth = 12 m(D) Length = 18 m, breadth = 11 m

14. Solve : babx

=

babx

.

(A) a (B) 2a(C) � a (D) � 2a

15. 75% of a number is added to 75, the result is thenumber itself. Find the number.(A) 300 (B) 75(C) 150 (D) None of these

16. Solve for x : 0.5 x + 3x

= 0.25 x + 7

(A) 12 (B) 14(C) 21 (D) 82

17. �I am a number. Tell my identity. Take me twelve times

over, and add a fifty ! To reach a double century, you stillneed thirty !� Who am I ?

(A) 10 (B) 12(C) 20 (D) 24

18. After 12 years, Pravallika will be 3 times as old as shewas 4 years ago. What is the present age of Pravallika ?(A) 16 years (B) 15 years(C) 14 years (D) 12 years

PAGE # 23

19. If three consecutive even whole numbers are added

together the result is 42. The numbers are :

(A) 12,13 and 14 (B) 12,14 and 16

(C) 13, 14 and 15 (D) 13, 15 and 17

20. Solve : 3

1y �

42y

= 1.

(A) 7 (B) 8

(C) 12 (D) 10

21. Age of father is 30 years more than his son. 5 years

ago father�s age was three times the son�s age. Find

their ages.

(A) 20, 50 (B) 30,60

(C) 40, 70 (D) 50,80

22. If 43

x = � 7 + x, then the value of x is :

(NTSE Stage-I/Raj./2007)

(A) 4 (B) � 37

(C) � 28 (D) 28

23. The denominator of a fraction is greater than numerator

by 6. If 3 is added to numerator and 2 is subtracted

from denominator, the fraction becomes 76

, then the

equation so formed is : (NTSE Stage-I/Raj./2007)

(A) 76

3x4x

(B)

76

4x3x

(C) 76

23

6xx

(D) 76

32

6xx

24. The value of x in

31x

x2

1x = 2, is :

(NTSE Stage-I/Raj./2007)(A) 1 (B) 2

(C) 3 (D) 0

25. If 2

5x3 =

002.2005.5

, then x =

(NTSE Stage-I/Haryana 2009)

(A) 35

(B) 3

10

(C) 3

5.12(D) 0

26. The sum of seven consecutive natural numbers is 1617.

How many of these numbers are not prime :

(NTSE Stage-I/Haryana 2007)(A) 4 (B) 2

(C) 5 (D) 7

27. Solve : 2x + 27

= 29

. (NTSE Stage - I/Gujrat-2007)

(A) 1 (B) 21

(C) 2 (D) 4

28. Adding 15 to three times a certain number yields 105.Find the number. (NTSE Stage - I/Gujrat-2007)(A) 35 (B) 20(C) 30 (D) 25

29. Three angles of a quadrilateral have the samemeasure. If the measure of the forth angle is 150º.

Find the measure of other angles. (NTSE Stage - I/Gujrat-2007)

(A) 50º (B) 70º

(C) 75º (D) 65º

30. Solve the equation :4x

� 5x

= 1.

(NTSE Stage - I/Gujrat-2007)(A) 20 (B) 9

(C) 1 (D) 9x2

= 1

SUBJECTIVE DPP

1. Mr. Joshi spends th41

of his leisure hours on reading

and 32

rd of the remaining watching the television. If

he spends 2 hr on watching the television. What is hisleisure ?

2. Ram's father is thrice as old as Ram was 2 years ago.Five years from now, Ram's father will be 6 years morethan 2 times of Ram's age. What is Ram's presentage ?

3. The population of town A is 4800 more than town B. If3100 people move from town B to town A, thepopulation of town A will be 11 times that of town B. Theoriginal total population of the two towns is :

4. There are some number of coins on the table,one-fourth of which are showing heads. If I turn overtwo coins, one-third of them show heads. How manycoins are there on the table ?

5. Of the three numbers, second is twice the first and isalso thrice the third. If the average of the three numbersis 44, the largest number will be ?

6. Solve : 3

8y =

7y47

and check the result.

7. Solve : 0.3x + 0.4 = 0.28x + 1.16

8. Find a number which when multiplied by 5 is increasedby 80.

PAGE # 24

9. Rahim�s father is three times as old as Rahim. If the

sum of their ages is 56 years, find their ages.

10. A purse has 25 paise coins and 50 paise coins. Thenumber of 25 paise coins is thrice the number of50 paise coins. If the total value of money in the purseis Rs.75, find the number of 25 paise 50 paise coins inthe purse.

11. In an isosceles triangle, the base angles are equal.The vertex angle is twice of either base angle. Whatare the angles of the triangle ?

12. The value of x, in expression : 2x37x6

=

3x25x4

.

13. A man�s age is four times the sum of the ages of his

three children. In 8 years he will be twice the sum of

their ages. What is man�s age ?

14. The perimeter of a rectangle is 60 cm. If the length is

twice the breadth, find the dimensions of the rectangle.

15. At a fair in shooting at a mark, a man receives 25 paise

if he strikes it and loses 10 paise if he misses it. He

has 40 shots and has to pay 50 paise. How many

times did he hit the mark ?

25PAGE # 25

Cell

� All living forms are composed of microscopic unitscalled as �Cells�.

� A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of allliving organisms.

� Study of structure and composition of cell is called as�Cytology�.

� Cell was first observed by �Robert Hooke� in a deadcork slice in the year 1665. He described about this inhis book �Micrographia�.

� The word cell was derived from a Greek word�Cellulae� which means small room.

� First living cell was discovered by A.V. Leeuwenhoek.

� The term protoplasm was coined by Purkinje in 1839.

� Protoplasm was discovered by �Felix Dujardin� andnamed as sarcode.

� Protoplasm consistency differs under differentconditions .t exists in sol-gel states.

� Protoplasm is an aggregate of various chemicals suchas water, ions, salts and other organic molecules likeproteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids, vitaminsetc.

� Living beings are divided into two group on the basisof number of cells.

(i) Unicellular : Living organisms are composed ofsingle cell, e.g.Amoeba, Euglena, Chlamydomonas,Paramoecium.

CELL

(ii) Multicellular : Living organisms are composed ofmany cells, e.g. Hydra, human, plants.

Cell Theory

Two biologists, �Schleiden and Schwann�� gave the�Cell theory� which was later on expanded by �RudolfVirchow�. He said � all cells arise from pre-existingcells.�

� Viruses are the exceptions of cell theory.

Cell Size

Size of cell is variable depending upon the type oforganism. Some are microscopic while some arevisible with naked eyes. Their size may vary from 0.2m to 18 cm.

� The largest animal cell is ostrich egg (15 cm. in diawith shell & 8 cm. in dia without shell)

� The longest animal cell is nerve cell. (upto 1m. or more)

� Smallest cells so far known are PPLOs

� e.g. mycoplasma ( 0.1 m in dia.)

Cell Membrane

� Singer and Nicholson gave the fluid mosaic model ofplasma membrane according to him it consists of abilayer of lipid in which proteins are embedded

Fluid mosaic Model of Singer & Nicholson.� Functions : Plasma membrane helps in transportation

of molecules inside or outside the cell.

� Terms related with transportation of molecules :

� Osmosis : The movement of solvent or water from theirhigher concentration to lower concentration of solventthrough a semipermeable membrane is called as

osmosis. Osmosis can also be called as �diffusion ofsolvents�.

� Endosmosis : Movement of solvent into the cell is calledas Endosmosis.

� Exosmosis : Movement of solvent outside the cell iscalled as Exosmosis.

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26PAGE # 26

� t is the outermost covering of the plant cells.

� t is absent in animal cells.

� Cell wall is rigid, strong, thick and non living structure.It is made up of cellulose.

� In fungi it is made up of chitin.

� In bacteria it is made up of peptidoglycan.

� Functions of cell wall :� t provides definite shape to the cell.

� t provides strength to the cell.

� t is permeable and allows entry of molecules of differentsizes.

� Nucleus is the most important cell organelle whichdirects and controls all its cellular activities.

� t is called as �Headquarter of the cell�/ �Controllingcentre of cell�.

� t was discovered by �Robert Brown in 1831�.

� n eukaryotes a well defined nucleus is present whilein prokaryotes a well defined nucleus is absent,

� Prokaryotes contain a primitive nucleus known asnucleoid or genophore.

� t has a double layered covering called as nuclearmembrane.

� Nuclear membrane has pores which regulate themovement of materials in & out of the nucleus.

� Nucleus contains chromatin material & nucleoplasm.

Nucleus

� Nucleolus :

� It was first observed by fontana.

� It is without a limiting membrane.

� It is the structure in which ribosomes are formed.

� Functions of the nucleus :

� t controls all the metabolic activities of the cell andregulates the cell cycle.

� t helps in transmission of hereditary characters fromparents to offsprings.

Cytoplasm

� Cytoplasm was discovered by Kolliker in 1862.

� It is the site of both biosynthetic and catabolicpathways.

� t can be divided into two parts :

(i) Cytosol : Aqueous soluble part contains variousfibrous proteins forming cytoskeleton.

(ii) Cell organelles : Living part of the cells having definiteshape, structure & function bounded by membranethere are three types of cell organelles.

� Double membranous (Plastids, Mitochondria)

� Single membranous (Golgi Apparatus, Endoplasmicreticulum, Vacuole, Lysosomes, Peroxisomes,Glyoxysomes)

� Non membranous (Ribosomes)

Mitochondria

� These are also absent in prokaryotes.

� It was first seen by Kolliker in striated muscle of insect.

� t is also called as �Power House of the Cell� or the�Storage Battery�.

� t is double membranous structure where outermembrane has specific proteins while inner membraneis folded inside to form chambers called Cristae.�Cristae� are the infoldings of inner mitochondrialmembrane.

27PAGE # 27

� Matrix possess enzymes for respiratory cycle like Kreb Cycle

Oxysome

Ribosome(70s)

Circular loop of DNA

Inner membrane Outer membrane

CristaeMatrix

Internal Structure of mitochondria

� ATP synthesizing units are called Oxysomes or F1

Particles.

� Space between inner and outer mitochondrialmembranes is called as perimitochondrial space.Thefluid present in mitochondria is called as matrix.

� Functions :

(i) ts main function is to produce and store the energyin the form of ATP.

(ii)t is the site of Kreb cycle of respiration.

(iii) Oxysome contains enzymes for ATP production.

� It is a double membranous discoidal structure, foundonly in plant cells.

� Term plastid was given by Haeckel.

� Chloroplast was discovered by A.V. Leeuwenhoek andnamed by Schimper.

� Plastids are three types

� Leucoplast : storage of food.

� Chromoplast : contain colourful pigments.

� Chloroplast : contain green pigments & site ofphotosynthesis.

(a) Chloroplast have Following Two Parts :

(i) Grana : t constitutes the lamellar system. Theseare found layered on top of each other, these stacksare called as Grana. Each granum of the chloroplastis formed by super imposed closed compartmentscalled Thylakoids.

� Functions : They are the sites of light reaction ofphotosynthesis as they contain photosynthetic pigmentchlorophyll. In each thylakoid Quantasomes arepresent which are called as Photosynthetic units. Eachquantasome possesses 230 chlorophyll molecules.

(ii) Stroma: It is a granular transparent substance alsocalled as matrix. Grana are embedded in it. Besidesgrana they also contain lipid droplets, starch grains,ribosomes etc.

Internal Structure of chloroplast

� Function : This is the site of dark reaction ofphotosynthesis. Also helps in protein synthesis due topresence of ribosomes.

� Chloroplasts are also known as �kitchen of the cell�.

� t was discovered by Porter, Claude and Fullam.

� These are present in all cells except prokaryotes andmammalian erythrocytes.

� They are made up of three components :

(i) Cisternae

(ii) Vesicles

(iii) Tubules

28PAGE # 28

� Endoplasmic reticulum of striated muscles are calledas sarcoplasmic reticulum.

(a) Types :

Endoplasmic reticulum is of two types

Rough ERSmooth ER

¦

¦

¦

¦

¦

Made of tubules mainly.Helps in steroid, lipids and.Polysaccharide synthesis.Ribosomes are absent .Helps in membrane biogenesis.

m

m

m

Made of cisternae& vesicles.Helps in proteinsynthesis.Containsribosomes on its surface.

(b) Functions of ER :

(i) t forms endoskeleton of cell.

(ii) t helps in synthesis of fats, steroids, cholesterol etc.

(iii) t helps in transportation of molecules.

(iv) SER plays a crucial role in detoxification of drugsand poisonous by-products.

Golgi Apparatus

� Golgi apparatus consists of a system of membranebounded vesicles arranged parallel to each other instacks called cisternae along with some large andspherical vacuoles.

� It was discovered by Camilo Golgi.

� In plants golgi body is called as Dictyosomes.

� It is absent in prokaryotes, mammalian RBC�s & sievecells.

� Functions :

(i) t helps in formation of middle lamellae

(ii) t is secretory in nature.

(iii) t helps in melanin synthesis

(iv) Lipids and proteins synthesized in endoplasmicreticulum are packed at golgi complex. They providethe site for assembly of new membrane material.

(v) It helps in the formation of acrosome.

Vacuoles

� These are membrane bounded regions in thecytoplasm containing water and other substances.

� They are bounded by a single membrane calledTonoplast.

� n animal cells vacuoles are smaller in size andnumerous while in plant cells a single large vacuole isfound which occupies about 90% of the volume of cell.

� Functions :

� t helps in maintaining osmoregulation in a cell.

� t stores toxic metabolic products of plant cell.

� t contains various coloured pigments likeanthocyanins.

Lysosomes

(Discovery : Christian de Duve) (Lyso = digestive, soma= body)

� These are tiny sac like structure containing enzymesof intracellular digestion.

� They are bounded by a single membrane.

� They occur in animal cells and a few in plant cells.

� They contain hydrolysing enzymes called acidhydrolases.

� Functions :

� They are kind of waste disposal system.

� They help in digesting foreign materials and worn outcells. So they are also called as �Suicidal Bags�.

Peroxisomes

� These structures were first described from liver andkidney cells by Rodhin (1954)

� In plant cells, they were first observed in germinatingseeds by Tolbert (1969)

� In green leaves of C3 plants, peroxisomes carry out

photorespiration.

� In animal cells they carry out lipid metabolism.

Glyoxysomes

� Beavers (1961) was the first person to discover theseorganelles and were described later by R.W.Briedenbach (1967).

� They are found in plant cells, particularly, in germinatingfatty seeds e.g. Ricinus (castor) and groundnut wherefat is being converted into carbohydrates by a processcalled glyoxylate cycle.

Ribosomes

� Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.

� Ribosomes are made up of ribonucleoprotein & naked.

� Ribosomes are smallest cell organelle.

� Ribosome are two types(i) 70 S in prokaryotic cell.

(ii) 80 S in eukaryotic cell.(s = Svedberg units)

� Functions : Ribosomes help in protein synthesis.

Three principal types of protein fi laments aremicrofilaments, microtubules, and intermediatefilaments, constitute the cytoskeleton.

� Microfilaments are made up of actin-like protein. They

(i) help in maintaining cell shape

(ii) are involved along with microtubules in cellmovements.

(iii) participate in intracellular transport.

29PAGE # 29

(iv) play an important role in movement of organelles.

� The intermediate filaments have 8-10 nm diameter. Inmost animal cells, they form a basket around thenucleus and are present in cell-cell junction.

Differences between a plant cell & an animal cell

Plant Cell Animal Cell Cell wall is present Cell wall is absent Plastids are found Plastids are absent

One large vacuole Numerous tiny vacuoles

are found Centriole is absent Centriole is present

� Types of Cells.

� On the basis of type of organization, cells are of twotypes :

(i) Prokaryotic cells : These are primitive andincomplete cells. They have less developed nucleuswithout nuclear membrane and nucleolus,e.g.Bacteria.

(ii) Eukaryotic cells : These are well developedcells.They have advanced nucleus with nuclearmembrane and nucleolus. e.g. Plants & animals.

Differences between prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell

Characters Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Nuclear body Incipient nucleus, No nuclear membrane Nucleolus absent DNA Single closed loop, (histones absent)

True nucleus, Nuclear membrane present Nucleolus present Multiple chromosomes, (histones present in chromosome)

Mitosis No mitosis Mitosis foundRespiratory system

In plasma membrane, (mesosomes)

In mitochondria

Photosynthetic apparatus in internal membranes, (Chromatophore)

In chloroplasts

Golgi bodies, Chloroplast, Endoplasmic reticulum. Mitochondria, Lysosomes

Absent Present

Ribosomes 70 S type 80 S typeCell wall Generally present. Present in plant cell.Vacuoles Absent PresentCapsule May be present Always absent

Some Important Points

(i) Centrosome :

� It is found only in animal cell.

� It consists of two centrioles.

� It is membraneless structure.

� It is made up of microtubules.

� It helps in cell division and spindle formation.

(ii) Cilia and flagella : These are thread likeappendages used for locomotion and emerge frombasal body.

(iii) Chromosomes : These are thread like structurescontaining hereditary information in form of genes.

(iv) There are four different types of membranes on thebasis of permeability :

(A) Permeable : They allow diffusion of both solventand solute molecules or ions through them, e.g. Cellwall of plant cell.

(B) mpermeable: They prohibit the diffusion of bothsolvent and solute particles through them, e.g.Cutinized cell wall, Lignified cell wall.

(C) Semipermeable: Allows diffusion of solventmolecules but do not allow the passage of solutemolecules, e.g. Parchment paper, Kidney membrane.

(D) Differentially permeable: t allows some solutesto pass through them along with the solvent molecules.e.g. Plasmalemma, Tonoplast.

(v) Plasmodesmata : Connections through which cellscommunicate chemically with each other through theirthick walls are called as �Plasmodesmata�.

(vi) Protoplasm was called as �Physical Basis of Life�by Huxley.

(vii) Euglena is the connecting link between plants andanimals as it lacks cell wall but has plastids.

(viii) Mesosomes in bacteria are analogous tomitochondria as they both help in cellular respiration.

(ix) Centre for cellular and molecular biology is situatedat Hyderabad.

(x)n animal cell the �Cell Coat� is present instead ofcell wall which provides them protection andrecognition. It is made up of glycocalyx.

(xi) ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the energycurrency of the cell i.e. energy in cell is stored in form ofATP molecules.

(xii) DNA is called as �Chemical Basis of Life�.

(xiii) DNA- structure explained by double helix modelwhich was proposed by Watson and crick. DNA is apolynucleotide chain.

30PAGE # 30

� One nucleotide is made up of : Phosphate group +deoxy ribose sugar + nitrogen base [A/T/G/C]

(xiv) Mitochondria, plastid and centrioles have their ownDNA molecules so they are called as �SemiautonomousCell Organelles�.

(xv) RNA (Ribose Nucleic acid) : RNA responsible forprotein synthesis in a living cell. RNA are of three type: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA. It is also a polynucleotide chainand one nucelotide is made up ofPhosphate group + ribose sugar + nitrogen base

[A/U/G/C](xvi) Gene is the sub unit of DNA

(xvii) Microscopy : Is the practice of using microscopefor the study of finer details of small objects includingcells and tissues.

Types of Microscope InventorSimple Robert HookeCompound AV LeeuwenhoekLight compound Janssen and Janssen Electrone Knoll and Ruska

Cell Division

Cell division was first observed by Nageli in plant cell(1842) and it was first studied by Prevost and Dumasin the fertilized egg of frog.

� Cell Cycle : It is a series of programmed cyclic changesby which the cell duplicates its contents and dividesinto two daughter cells. Cell cycle was discovered byHoward and Pelc.It is divided into two phases :

(i) Long non dividing (I � phase) or interphase.

(ii) Short dividing M � phase or mitotic phase

(i) Long non dividing (I � phase) or interphase orpreparatory phase : Interphase divided in the followingsteps.

� G1 (First growth phase),

� S(Synthesis phase),

� G2 (Second growth phase)

Mitotic division phase

D.N.A.Synthesis

(3-4 hr)G phase2

(1 hr)

M phase

(12 hr)

G phase1S-phase

(6-8 hr)

Cell cycle

(ii) Short dividing M � phase : t is the phase of celldivision. It consists of karyokinesis (nuclear division)and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division).It is of threetypes:

(a) Mitosis :

� Term mitosis was given by Flemming.

� It is also called as somatic division as it occurs duringformation of body cells.

� It is an equational division in which a parent cell dividesinto two identical daughter cells, each of them containsthe same number of chromosomes as are present inparent cell.

� It occurs in two steps :(i) Karyokinesis (ii) Cytokinesis

(i) Karyokinesis : Division of nucleus. It is divided infour steps :

(A) Prophase : Longest phase. In this chromatincondensed into chromosomes and nuclearmembrane disappears.

(B) Metaphase : Chromosomes are arranged at theequator & forming a metaphase plate. Chromosomesare shortest and thickest in this stage. This phase ismost suitable for study of chromosomes.

(C) Anaphase : Shortest phase of cell division.

Chromosomes are appeared in different shapes.

� V � Shaped (Metacentric)

� L � Shaped (Submetacentric)

� J � Shaped (Acrocentric)

� I � Shaped (Telocentric)

(D) Telophase : It is reverse of prophase

(ii) Cytokinesis : It is referred to the division of cytoplasm.In animals it occurs by formation of cleavage furrow inthe middle by constriction in plasma membrane. Inplants it occurs by cell plate formation.

� Note : Colchicine is a mitotic poison. It blocks thecompletion of metaphase.

(b) Meiosis :

� It occurs only once in the life cycle of organism.

� It is a double division in which a diploid cell dividestwice to form four haploid cells.

� It can be studied in anthers of unopened flowers inplants and in testis of grasshopper in animals.Itconsists of two phases :

(i) Interphase : Size of nucleus increases to threetimes. It also involves G

1 � S � phase in meiosis-I and

G1 � G

2 in meiosis-II.

(ii) M � phase : It occurs in two steps

(A) Meiosis � I,

(B) Meiosis � II

(A) Meiosis � I : Also called as reduction division.Diploid stage changes to haploid stage. It occurs infour steps.

� Prophase � I : It is the longest phase of meiosis. It hasfollowing stages :

31PAGE # 31

� Diplotene : Synaptinemal complex is dissolved, tetradsare cleared. At some places nonsister chromatids oftwo homologous chromosomes remain attached toform a chiasmata.

� Diakinesis : Terminalization

� Metaphase � I

� Anaphase � I

� Telophase � I

(B) Meiosis � II : It is also called as equational divisionand maintains the haploid number of chromosomes.No replication of DNA occurs in this stage (It is similarto mitosis)

� Prophase � II

� Metaphase � II

� Anaphase � II

� Telophase � II

Differences between mitotic and meiotic cell division

Mitosis MeiosisIt occurs in all somatic cells. It occurs in reproductive cells (germ cells)

In the resultant daughter cells, the number of chromosomes remains the same (i.e., diploid), hence, called equational division.

In resultant daughter cells, the number of chromosomes reduces to half (i.e., haploid), hence, called reductional division.

By mitosis two daughter cells are produced By meiosis four daughter cells are produced.

During mitosis no crossing over takes place During meiosis crossing over takes place.

Daughter cells have identical chromosomes which are also identical to that of parent cell (i.e. remains constant)

Chromosomes of the daughter cells are with combined components (genes) of both parents (i.e., genetic variability occurs)

� Significance of mitosis : It is essential for growth,repair, differentiation, maintenance of chromosomenumber etc.

� Significance of meiosis : It produces variations andessential for sexual reproduction. It maintains thechromosome number in each generation of livingorganisms.

(c) Amitosis :

It was discovered by Remak. In this division cells aredivided in to two into cells without any particular pattern.e.g. prokaryotic cells.

EXERCISE

1. The red colour of the tomato is due to(A) leucoplast (B) chromoplast(C) chloroplast (D) none of these

2. The cellular structure concerned with intra cellulardigestion is(A) mitochondria (B) chloroplast(C) ribosome (D) lysosome

3. Power house of the cell is(A) Mitochondria (B) Ribosome(C) Lysosome (D) Golgi body

� Leptotene

� Zygotene : Synaptenemal complex is formed between two homologous chromosomes.

� Pachytene : The exchange of segments between non sister chromatids of chromosome is called as crossing over.

32PAGE # 32

4. �Physical basis of life� is the term used for(A) Cytoplasm (B) Protoplasm(C) Nucleoplasm (D) Sarcoplasm

5. Cell was discovered by(A) Robert Brown (B) Robert Hooke(C) Leewenhoek (D) Whittaker

6. Prokaryotic cell is(A) bacterial cell (B) amoeba(C) nerve cell (D) human bone cell

7. Centrioles and centrosomes occur in the cell of(A) green plants(B) animals(C) bacteria and cyanobacteria(D) both B and C

8. Semi autonomous organelle is(A) endoplasmic reticulum(B) lysosome(C) peroxisome(D) chloroplast

9. Lysosomes are store house of -(A) proteins(B) hydrolytic enzymes(C) ATP(D) sugar

10. Who proposed the cell theory ?(A) Schleiden (B) Schwann(C) A and B both (D) None of the above

11. Enzymes are absent in(A) algae (B) plants(C) viruses (D) bacteria

12. In which of the following nucleoid is present ?(A) Plant cell (B) Animal cell(C) Green algae cell (D) Bacterial cell.

13. Cell organelle surrounded by a single unit membrane is(A) mitochondria (B) chloroplast(C) lysosome (D) nucleus

14. The basic unit of a nucleic acid is(West Bengal/2011/Stage-1/ntse)

(A) nucleoside (B) nucleotide(C) nucleoid (D) pentose sugar

15. Smallest cell so far known is(A) Bacteria (B) Cyanobacteria(C) PPLO (D) Virus

16. The bacterial cell wall made up of(A) polypeptide(B) cellulose(C) mucopolypeptide(D) lipid & protein

17. Protein packaging is done by(A) nucleus(B) nucleolus(C) golgi apparatus(D) E.R.

18. Dictyosomes are(A) class of ribosomes(B) respiratory particles(C) pigment storing granules(D) golgi bodies

19. In humans the number of chromosomes in a haploidcell is(A) 23 (B) 46 (C) 44 (D) 30

20. In metacentric chromosomes, position of centromereis �(A) terminal (B) middle(C) subterminal (D) none of these

21. In plant cells, cytokinesis occurs by �(A) cell plate(B) invagination(C) furrowing(D) all of these are correct

22. Chromosomes are distinctly visible in �(A) anaphase (B) metaphase(C) prophase (D) telophase

23. In electron microscope, the source of light used is �(A) ordinary daylight (B) ultraviolet(C) infrared (D) beam of electrons

24. Which nitrogen base is present only in RNA ?(NTSE Stage-I/Raj./07)

(A) Adenine (B) Guanine(C) Thymine (D) Uracil

25. If a nucleus is removed from a living cell, thereamaining part will be -

(NTSE Stage-I/Raj./07)

(A) Nucleoplasm (B) Protoplasm(C) Cytoplasm (D) Cell Sap

26. True statement is - (NTSE Stage-I/Raj./07)

(A) Plant cell has cell membrane.(B) Number of Ribosome is constant.(C) Protein synthesis is done in Plastids.(D) The Shape of animal cells is spherical

27. Synthesis of protien in cell occurs at -(A) Nucleus (NTSE Stage-I/Raj./08)

(B) Chloroplasts(C) Cell membrane(D) Ribosomes

28. Suicidal bags of cells are - (NTSE Stage-I/Raj./08)

(A) Lysosomes (B) Ribosomes(C) Centrosomes (D) Nucleosomes

29. Genetic characters of a Iiving being are transmitted tothe offsprings by - (NTSE Stage-I/Raj./08)

(A) Ribosomes (B) Chromosomes(C) Plasma (D) Lysosomes

33PAGE # 33

30. Elephants eat grass and both have cells. Read thefollowing statements regarding cells. Identify the correctones. (NTSE Stage-II/Raj./08)

(A) Elephant cells are bigger than grass cells.(B) Elephant cells have plastids and small vacuoles.(C) Grass cells have cell walls and vacuoles.(D) Grass cells have cilia and chloroplasts.(E) Elephant cells have cell membrane & mitochondria.

Which one of the following alternatives is correct ?(A) A and C (B) B and C(C) C and E (D) D and E

31. Largest Cell is - (NTSE Stage-I /Raj./09)

(A) Red Blood Cell (B) Green Algae Cell(C) Egg of ostrich (D) Animal Cell

32. The diagram below is of a plant cell or an animal cell.Identify the parts A, B and C.

(NTSE Stage-II/Raj/09)

Which one of the following alternatives is correct ?(A) Animal cell - plasma membrane, chromosomes,nuclear membrane(B) Plant cell - cell membrane, plastid, nuclearmembrane(C) Animal cell - cell membrane, cell vacuole,protoplasm(D) Plant cell - cell wall, chromosomes, cell organelle

33. Chromosomes are made up of -(NTSE\Stage-I/Bangalore\2011)

(A) proteins and carbohydrates(B) lipids and nucleic acids(C) nucleic acids and proteins(D) carbohydrates and lipids

34. In the given figure, solution-I is more dilute than solu-tion-II. In which direction will the movement of watertake place.

(NTSE /stage - 1 / Punjab / 2012)Semi permeable Membrane

WaterSolute

Solution-I Solution-II(A) From solution-I to solution-II(B) From solution-II to solution-I(C) Both 1 and 2(D) No net movement of water takes place

35. In a Mitochondrion, F1 particle is present on the(West Bengal /2011/Stage-1/ ntse)

(A) Inner surface of inner membrane(B) Outer surface of outer membrane(C) Outer surface of inner membrane(D) Inner surface of outer membrane

36. One of the following is found only in animal cells (ntse /stage - 1 / bihar/ 2011)

(A) Vacuole (B) Mitochondria(C) Ribosome (D) Centriole

37. What are the components of DNA ? (Delhi\2011\Stage-1\NTSE)

(A) Sugar, bases, proteins(B) Sugar, phosphate, bases(C) Phosphate, bases, polypeptides(D) Polypeptides, proteins, sugar

PAGE # 34

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

INTRODUCTION

(a) The Great Mughals

(i) Ruling as large a territory as the Indiansubcontinent with such a diversity of people andcultures was an extremely difficult task for any rulerto accomplish in the Middle Ages. Quite in contrastto their predecessors, the Mughals created anempire and accomplished what had hithertoseemed possible for only short periods of time.

(ii) From the latter half of the sixteenth century theyexpanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi, untilin the seventeenth century they controlled nearlyall of the subcontinent.

(iii) They imposed structures of administration andideas of governance that outlasted their rule,leaving a political legacy that succeeding rulers ofthe subcontinent could not ignore.

(iv) Today the Prime Minister of India addresses thenation on Independence Day from the ramparts ofthe Red Fort in Delhi, the residence of the Mughalemperors.

THE MUGHALS

(a) Who Were the Mughals

(i) The Mughals were descendants of two greatlineages of rulers. From their mother's side theywere descendents of Genghis Khan (died 1227),ruler of the Mongol tribes, China and Central Asia.From their father's side they were the successorsof Timur (died 1404), the ruler of Iran, Iraq andmodern-day Turkey. However, the Mughals did notlike to be called Mughals or Mongol. This wasbecause Genghis Khan's memory wasassociated with the massacre of innumerablepeople. It was also linked with the Uzbegs, theirMongol competitors.

(ii) On the other hand, the Mughals were proud oftheir Timurid ancestry, not least of all because theirgreat ancestor had captured Delhi in 1398.

(iii) They celebrated their genealogy prictorially, eachruler getting a picture made of Timur and himself.

(b) Mughal Military Campaigns

(i) Babar, the first Mughal emperor (1526-1530),succeeded to the throne of Ferghana in 1494when he was only 12 years old. He was forced toleave his ancestral throne due to the invasion ofanother Mongol group, the Uzbegs. After years ofwandering he seized Kabul in 1504. In 1526 hedefeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, atPanipat and captured Delhi and Agra. Table 1charts some of the major campaigns of theMughals.

BABUR ·1526-1530

1526 - defeated Ibrahim Lodi and his Afghan supportersat Panipat.

1527 - defeated Rana Sanga. Rajput rulers and allies atKhanua.

1528 - defeated the Rajputs at Chanderi;

Established 'control over Agra and Delhi before his death.

HUMAYUN 1530-1540, 1555-1556

(1) Humayun divided his inheritance according to thewill of his father: His brothers were each given aprovince.

The ambitions of his brother Mirza Kamranweakened Humayun's cause against Afghancompetitors. Sher Khan defeated Humayun atChausa (1539) and Kanauj (1540), forcing him toflee to Iran.

(2) In Iran Humayun received help from the SafavidShah. He recaptured Delht in 1555 but died thenext year after an accident in this building.

id24765843 pdfMachine by Broadgun Software - a great PDF writer! - a great PDF creator! - http://www.pdfmachine.com http://www.broadgun.com

PAGE # 35

AKBAR 1556-1605

Akbar was 13 years old when he became emperor.

His reign can be divided into three periods.

(1) 1556-1570 - Akbar became independent of the

regent Bairam Khan and other members of his

domestic staff. Military campaigns 'were launched

against the Suris and other Afghans, against the

neighbouring kingdoms of , Malwa and

Gondwana, and to suppress the revolt of his half-

brother Mirza Hakim and the Uzbegs. In 1568 the

Sisodiya capital of Chittor was seized and in 1569

Ranthambhor.

(2) 1570-1585 - military campaigns in Gujarat were

followed by campaigns in the east in Bihar, Bengal

and Orissa. These campaigns were complicated

by the 1579-1580 revolt in support of Mirza Hakim.

(3) 1585-1605 - expansion of Akbar's empire.

Campaigns were launched in the north-west.

Qandahar was seized from the Safavids, Kashmir

was annexed, as also Kabul, after the death of

Mirza Hakim. Campaigns in the Deccan started

and Berar, Khandesh and parts of Ahmadnagar

were annexed. In the last years of his reign Akbar

was distracted by the rebellion of Prince Salim,

the future Emperor Jahangir.

Jahangir 1605-1627

Military campaigns started by Akbar continued. The

Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, Amar Singh, accepted MughaI

service. Less successful campaigns against the Sikhs,

the Ahoms and Ahmadnagar followed. Prince Khurram,

the future Emperor Shah Jahan, rebelled in the last

years of his reign, The efforts of Nur Jaha, Jahangir's

wife, to marginalise him were unsuccessful.

Shah Jahan 1627-1658

Mughal campaigns continued in the Deccan under

Shan Jahan. The Afghan noble Khan jahan Lodi

rebelled and was defeated. Campaigns were

launched against Ahmadnagar; the Bundelas were

defeated and Orchha seized. In the north-west, the

campaign to seize Balkh from the Uzbegs was

unsuccessful and Qandahar was lost to the Safavids.

In 1632 Ahmadnagar was finally annexed and the

Bijapur forces sued for peace. In 1657-1658, there was

conflict over succession amongst Shah Jahan's sons.

Aurangzeb was victorious and his three brothers,

including Dara Shukoh. were killed. Shah Jahan was

imprisoned for the rest of his life in Agra.

PAGE # 36

Aurangzeb-1658-1707

(1) In the north-east, the Ahoms were defeated in1663, but rebelled again in the 1680s. Campaignsin the north-west against the Yusufzai and theSikhs were temporarily successful. Mughalintervention in the succession and intemal politicsof the Rathor Rajputs of Marwar led to theirrebell ion. Campaigns against the Marathachieftain Shivaji were initially successful. Buturangzeb insulted Shivaji who escaped from Agra,

declared himself an independent king andresumed his campaigns against the Mughals.Prince Akbar rebelled against Aurangzeb andreceived support from the Marathas arid theDeccan Sultanate. He finally fled to Safavid Iran.

(2) After Akbar's rebellion Aurangzeb sent armiesagainst the Deccan Sultanates. Bijapur wasarnnexed in 1685 and Golconda in 1687. From1698 Aurangzeb personally managed campaignsin the Deccan against the Marathas who startedguerrilla warfare. Aurangzeb also had to face therebellion in north India of the sikhs, Jats andSatnamis, in the north-east of the Ahoms and inthe Deccan of the Marathas. His death wasfollowed by a succession conflict amongst hissons.

Akbar ordered one of his close-friends andcourtiers, Abul Fazl, to write a history of his reign.Abul Fazl wrote a three-volume history of Akbar'sreign, titled Akbar Nama. The first volume dealtwith Akbar's ancestors and the second volumerecorded the events of Akbar's reign. The thirdvolume is the Ain-i Akbari. It deals with Akbar'sadministration, household, army the revenues andthe geography of his empire. It also provides richdetails about the traditions and culture of thepeople living' in India. The most interesting aspectabout the Ain-i Akbar is its rich statistical detailsabout things as diverse as crops, yields, prices,wages and revenues.

India during the emergence of Mughals

(c) Mughal Traditions of Succession

The Mughals did not believe in the rule ofprimogeniture, where the eldest son inherited hisfather's estate.

Instead they followed the Mughal and Timuridcustom of coparcenary inheritance, or a divisionof the amongst all the sons.

PAGE # 37

(d) Mughal Relations With Other Rulers

(i) The Mughal rulers campaigned constantly againstrulers who refused to accept their authority. But asthe Mughals became powerful many other rulersalso joined them voluntarily. The Rajputs are agood example of this. Many of them married theirdaughters into Mughal families and received highpositions. But many resisted as well.

(ii) The Sisodiya Rajputs refused to accept Mughalauthority for a long time. Once defeated, however,they were honourably treated by the Mughals,given their lands (watan) back as assignments(watan jagir). The careful balance betweendefeating but not humiliating their opponentsenabled the Mughals to extend their influence overmany kings and chieftains. But it was difficult tokeep this balance all the time.

(iii) For example Aurangzeb insulted Shivaji when hecame to accept Mughal authority.

THE MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION

(a) Mansabdars and Jagirdars

(i) As the empire expanded to encompass differentregions the Mughals recruited diverse bodies ofpeople. From a small nucleus of Turkish nobles(Turanis) they expanded to include Iranians,Indian, Muslims, Afghans, Rajputs, Marathas andother groups. Those who joined Mughal servicewere enrolled as mansabdars.

(ii) The term mansabdar refers to an individual whoholds a mansab, meaning a position or rank. Itwas a grading system used by the Mughals to fix(1) rank, (2) salary and (3) military responsibilities.Rank and salary were determined by a numericalvalue called zat. the higher the zat, the moreprestigious was the noble's position in court andthe larger his salary.

(iii) The mansabdar's military responsibility requiredhim to maintain a specified number of sawar orcavalary men. The mansabdar brought hiscavalyrmen for review, got them registered, theirhorses branded and then received money to paythem as salary.

(iv) Mansabdars received their salaries as revenueassignments called jagirs which were somewhatlike iqtas. But unlike muqtis, most mansabdarsdid not actually reside in or administer their jagirs.They only had rights to the revenue of theirassignments which was collected for them by theirservants while the mansabdars themselvesserved in some other part of the countary.

(v) Nobles with a zat of 5,000 were ranked higherthan those of 1,000. In Akbar's reign there were 29mansabdars with a rank of 5,000 zat; byAurangzeb's reign the number of mansabdars hadincreased to 79.

(vi) In Akbar's reign these jagirs were carefullyassessed so that their revenues were roughlyequal to the salary of the mansabdar. ByAurangzeb's reign this was no longer the caseand the actual revenue collected was often lessthan the granted sum.

(vii) There was also a huge increase in the number ofmansabdars, which meant a long wait before theyreceived a jagir. These and other factors created ashortage in the number of jagirs. As a result manyjagirdars tried to extract as much revenue aspossible while they had a jagir. Aurangzeb wasunable to control these developments in the lastyears of his reign and the peasantry thereforesuffered tremendously.

(b) Zabt and Zamindars

(i) The main source of income available to Mughalrulers was tax on the produce of the peasantry. Inmost places, peasants paid taxes through the ruralelites, that is, the headman or the local chieftain.The Mughals used one term- zamindars - todescribe all intermediaries, whether they werelocal headmen of villages or powerful chieftains.

(ii) Akbar's revenue minister, Todar Mal, carried out acareful survey of crop yields, prices and areascultivated for a 10-year period, 1570-1580. On thebasis of this data, tax was fixed on each crop incash. Each province was divided into revenuecircles with its own schedule of revenue rates forindividual crops. This revenue system was knownas zabt. It was prevalent in those areas whereMughal administrators could survey the land andkeep very careful accounts. This was not possiblein provinces such as Gujarat and Bengal.

(iii) In some areas the zamindars exercised a greatdeal of power. The exploitation by Mughaladministrators could drive them to rebellion.Sometimes zamindars and preasants of thesame caste allied in rebelling against Mughalauthority. These peasant revolts challenged thestability of the Mughal Empire from the end of theseventeenth century.

(iv) Akbar ordered one of his close friends andcourteirs, Abul Fazl, to write a history of his reign.Abul Fazl wrote a three-volume history of Akbar'sreign, titled Akbar Nama. The first volume dealtwith Akbar's ancestors and the second volumerecorded the events of Akbar's reign. The thirdvolume is the Ain-i Akbari. It deals with Akbar'sadministration, household, army, the revenuesand the geography of his empire. It also providesrich details about the traditions and culture of thepeople living in India. The most interesting aspectabout the Ain-i-Akbari is its rich statistical detailsabout things as diverse as crops, vields, prices,wages and revenues.

PAGE # 38

A CLOSER LOOK

(a) Akbars Policies

(i) The broad features of administration were laiddown by Akbar and were elaborately discussed byAbul Fazl in his book, the Akbar Nama, in particularin its last volume, the Ain-i- Akbari.

(ii) Abul Fazl explained that the empire was dividedinto provinces called subas, governed by a subadarwho carried out both political and military functions.Each province also had a financial officer or diwan.For the maintenance of peace and order in hisprovince, the subadar was supported by otherofficers such as the military paymaster (bakhshi),the minister in charge of religious and charitablepatronage (sadr), military commanders (faujdars)and town police commander (Kotwal).

(iii) Akbar's nobles commanded large armies and hadaccess to large amounts of revenue. While theywere loyal the empire functioned efficiently but bythe end of the seventeenth century many nobleshad built independent networks of their own. Theirloyalties to the empire were weakened by theirown self-interest.

(iv) While Akbar was at Fatehpur Sikri during the 1570she started discussions on religion with the ulama,Brahmanas, Jesuit priests who were RomanCatholics, and Zoroastrians. These discussionstook place in the Ibadat khana. He was interestedin the religion and social customs of differentpeople.

(v) Akbar's interaction with people of different faithsmade him realise that religious scholars whoemphasised ritual and dogma were often bigots.Their teachings created divisions and disharmonyamongst his subjects. This eventually led Akbarto the idea of sulh-i kul or "universal peace". Thisidea of tolerance did not discriminate betweenpeople of different religions in his realm. Insteadit focused on a system of ethics - honesty, justice,peace - that was universally applicable.

(vi) Abul Fazl helped Akbar in framing a vision ofgovernance around this idea of sulh-i-kul. Thisprinciple of governance was followed by Jahangirand Shah Jahan as well.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

(a) Impact of The Mughal Empire in The

Seventeenth Century and After

(i) The administrative and military efficiency of the

Mughal Empire led to great economic and

commercial prosperity. International travellers

described it as the fabled land of wealth. But these

same visitors were also appalled at the state of

poverty that existed side by side with the greatest

opulence.

(ii) The inequalities were glaring. Documents from

the twentieth year of Shah Jahan's reign inform us

that the highest-ranking mansabdars were only

445 in number out of a total of 8,000. This small

number a mere 5.6 per cent of the total number of

mansabdars - received 61.5 percent of the total

estimated revenue of the empire as salaries for

themselves and their troopers.

(iii) The Mughal emperors and their mansabdars

spent a great deal of their income on salaries and

goods. This expenditure benefited the artisans and

peasantry who supplied them with goods and

produce. But the scale of revenue collection left

very little for investment in the hands of the primary

producers - the peasant and the artisan.

(iv) The poorest amongst them lived from hand to

mouth and they could hardly consider investing in

additional resources - tools and supplies - to

increase productivity. The wealthier peasantry and

artisanal groups, the merchants and bankers

profited in this economic world.

(v) The enormous wealth and resources

commanded by the Mughal elite made them an

extremely powerful group of people in the late

seventeenth century. As the authority of the Mughal

emperor slowly declined, his servants emerged

as powerful centres of power in the regions.

(vi) They constitued new dynasties and held

command of provinces like Hyderabad and Awadh.

Although they continued to recongnise the Mughal

emperor in Delhi as their master, by the eighteenth

century the provinces of the empire had

consolidated their independent political identities.

Key words :

1. Dogma : A statement or an interpretation declared as

authoritative with the expectation that it would be

followed without question.

2. Bigot : An individual who is intolerant of another person's

religious belief's or culture.

3. Zat Ranking : Nobles with a gat of 5,000 were ranked

higher than those of 1,000.

In Akbar's reign there were 29 mansabdars with a rank

of 5000 zat, by Aurangzeb's reign the number of

mansabdars had increased to 79.

PAGE # 39

OBJECTIVE DPP-4.1

1. The Mughals were proud of their :(A) Mongol Dynasty (B) Uzbegs ancestry(C) Timurid ancestry (D) None of these

2. Babur succeeded to the throne of :(A) Delhi (B) Iran(C) Central Asia (D) Ferghana

3. Ist battle of Panipat was fought in :(A) 1530 (B) 1526(C) 1528 (D) 1529

4. Cannons were used in warfare by :(A) Uzbegs (B) Babur(C) Ibrahim Lodi (D) Mirza Muhammad

5. Battle of Khanua was fought between :(A) Aurangzeb & Sisodiya Rajput(B) Shah Jahan & Rathore Rajput(C) Babur & Rana Sanga(D) Akbar & Sher Shah Suri

6. Battle of Khanua was fought in :(A) 1526 (B) 1527(C) 1528 (D) 1529

7. Which Mughal ruler died in an accident :(A) Babur (B) Humayun(C) Jahangir (D) Shah Jahan

8. What was the age of Akbar when he became emperor :(A) 12 yrs. (B) 13 yrs.(C) 14 yrs (D) 15 yrs

9. Prince Salim was name of :(A) Shah Jahan (B) Aurangzeb(C) Jahangir (D) Akbar

10. The rank, salary & military responsibilities of amansabdar were determined by a numerical valuecalled :(A) Zat (B) Mansab(C) Jagirs (D) Iqtas

11. Sawar means :(A) Land revenue (B) Cavalrymen(C) Jagir (D) Trading tax

12. Zabt was a :(A) Revenue system (B) Military(C) Police (D) Judicial

13. Todar Mal was the revenue minister of :(A) Humayun (B) Akbar(C) Jahangir (D) Shah Jahan

14. Who wrote Akbar Nama :(A) Abul Fazal (B) Al-Baruni(C) Barani (D) Amir Khusro

15. How many volumes were there in Akbar Nama :(A) 1 (B) 2(C) 3 (D) 4

16. Match the following :A Military Pay master 1. TaiydarsB Charitable patronage 2. BakshiC Military Commanders 3. KotwalD Town Police Commander 4. Sadr(A) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3 (B) A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4(C) A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1 (D) A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2

17. Sulh-i-kul means :(A) Religions prominence(B) Universal peace(C) Despotic rule(D) Bigot

18. Match the following King Ruling Place

A. Queen Elizabeth 1. IranB. Shah Abbas 2. IndianC. Ivan IV Vasilyenich 3. EnglandD. Akbar 4. Russia(A) A-3, B-1,C-4, D-2 (B) A-2, B-4, C-3, D-1(C) A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1 (D) A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4

19. Sultan Suleyman was the ruler of :(A) Iran (B) Afghanistan(C) Ottoman Turkey (D) Cairo

SUBJECTIVE DPP-4.2

1. State the political condition of Indian of the time ofBabar's invasion?

2. Why is Babar called the founder of Mughal empire?

3. Briefly comment upon the struggle for power betweenHumayun and Sher Shah?

4. State the achievements of Sher Shah?

5. What were the relations between Jahangir and theMewar ruler?

6. How did Shah Jahan spend his last days?

7. What were the causes of unpopularity of Aurangzeb ?

8. What was the condition of agriculture during the Mughalperiod?

9. Discuss Mughal traditions of succession?

10. Explain the Mansabdari system of Mughals?

PAGE # 40

INSIDE OUR EARTH

INTRODUCTION

The earth, our homeland is a dynamic planet. It isconstantly undergoing changes inside and outside.

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

(a) Interior of The Earth

(i) Crust(Sial) :- Just like an onion, the earth is madeup of several concentric layers with one insideanother. The uppermost layer over the earth'ssurface is called the crust. It is about 35 k.m. Onthe continental masses and only 5 k.m. on theocean floors.

(ii) The main mineral constituents of the continentalmass are silica and alumina. It is thus called sial(si-silica and al-alumina). The oceanic crust mainlyconsists of silica and magnesium : it is thereforecalled sima (si-silica and ma-magnesium).

(iii) Mantle(Sima) :- Just beneath the crust is themantle which extends up to a depth of 2900 k.m..below the crust.

(iv) Core(Nife):- The innermost layer is the core with aradius of about 3500 k.m.. It is mainly made up ofnickel and iron and is called nife (ni-nickel and fe-ferrous i.e iron). The central core has very hightemperature and pressure.

(v) The crust forms only 0.5 per cent of the volume ofthe earth, 16 percent consists of the mantle and83 per cent makes the core.

(vi) The radius of the earth is 6371 k.m..

Fig. : Structure of the Earth

ROCKS AND MINERALS

(a) Meaning of Rocks

The earth's crust is made up of various types of rocks.

Any natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the

earth's crust is called a rock . Rocks can be of different

colour, size and texture.

(b) Table of Rock Types

Igneous(LatinWord- Ignis)

Sedimentary(Latin Word- Sedimentum)

Metamorphic(Greek Word- Metamorphose)(e.g., marble)

Extrusive[volcanic](e.g., Basalt)

Intrusive[plutonic](e.g., Granite)

Formed Mechanically(e.g., shaleclay, sandstonerocksalt)

Formed Chemically(e.g., gypsum)

FormedOrganically(e.g., chalk ,Dolomitelime stone )

Rocks Types

There are three major types of rocks : igneous rocks,sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks .

Igneous Rocks :

(i) When the molten magma cools, it becomes solid.Rocks thus formed are called igneous rocks. Theyare also called primary rocks. There are two typesof igneous rocks: intrusive rocks and extrusiverocks.

(ii) Lava coming out from the volcanoes is actuallyfiery red molten magma coming out from theinterior of the earth on its surface.

(iii) When this molten lava comes on the earth's

surface, it rapidly cools down and becomes solid.

(iv) Rocks formed in such a way on the crust are called

extrusive igneous rocks.

(v) They have a very fine grained structure. For

example, basalt.

(vi) The Deccan plateau is made up of basalt rocks.

Sometimes the molten magma cools down deep

inside the earth's crust.

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PAGE # 41

(vii) Solid rocks so formed are called intrusive igneous

rocks. Since they cool down slowly they form large

grains.

(viii) Granite is an example of such a rock. grinding

stones used to prepare paste/ powder of spices

and grain are made of granite.

Sedimentary Rocks :

(i) Rocks roll down, crack and hit each other and are

broken down into small fragments. These smaller

particle are called sediments. These sediments

are transported and deposited by wind, water, etc.

These loose sediments are compressed and

hardened to form layers of rocks.

(ii) These types of rocks are called sedimentary

rocks. For example, sandstone is made from

grains of sand. These rocks may also contain

fossils of plants, animals and other micro-

organisms that once lived on them.

(iii) Igneous and sedimentary rocks can change into

metamorphic rocks under great heat and

pressure. For example, clay changes into slate

and limestone into marble.

(iv) Rocks are very useful to us. The hard rocks are

used for making roads, houses and buildings.

Metamorphic Rocks

(i) The term 'metamorphic' is derived from the word

'metamorphosis'; which means 'change of form.

(ii) When igneous or sendimentary rocks are

subjected to extreme heat and pressure they

undergo a complete change in their form and

characteristics. Such rocks are called

metamorphic rocks.

(iii) The change may occur as a result of volcanic

activity, movements in the earth's crust or simply

due to heat and pressure deep inside the earth.

Marble, Slate, Gneiss and Quartzite are some

examples of metamorphic rocks.

(iv) They have been formed from limestone, shale,

granite and sandstone respectively.

ROCKS AND MINERALS

(a) Rock Cycle

(i) One type of rock changes to another type under

certain conditions in a cyclic manner.

(ii) This process of transformation of the rock from

one to another is known as the rock cycle. When

the molten magma cools; it solidifies to become

igneous rock.

(iii) These igneous rocks are broken down into small

particles that are transported and deposited to form

sedimentary rocks.

(iv) When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are

subjected to heat and pressure they change into

metamorphic rocks.

(v) The metamorphic rocks which are still under great

heat and pressure melt down to form molten

magma.

(vi) This molten magma again can cool down and

solidify into igneous rocks.

(b) Uses of Rocks and Minerals

(i) Rocks are made up of different minerals. Minerals

are naturally, occurring substances which have

certain physical properties and definite chemical

composition.

(ii) Minerals are very important to humankind. Some

are used as fuels. For example, coal, natural gas

and petroleum.

(iii) They are also used in industries - iron, aluminium,

gold, uranium, in medicine, in fertilisers, etc.

(c) Rock Distribution in India

(i) Granite is found in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,

Chota Nagpur Plateau, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,

Andhra Pradesh and the Deccan trap region

(Maharashtra).

(ii) Sandstone occurs in Vindhyachal and Aravali

ranges. Limestone occurs widely in peninsular

India. Coal mines occur in the basins of rivers

Godavari, Mahanadi and Damodar, Marble is

found in Rajasthan. The Indo-Ganetic plain is of

sedimentary accumulation.

(iii) Rocks have great economic value. The cotton soil

found in the Deccan trap is a product of extrusive

igneous rocks. Other soils like alluvium are also

result of disintegrated rocks. Stones used in

construction of houses and roads, dams. etc. are

all rock products. Rocks are source of precious

and useful metals. Iron ore, bauxite, copper, lead,

zinc and gold are found in igneous rocks. Non-

metallic minerals include sulphur which is used

for medicinal purposes. Coal and Petroleum are

important sources of energy.

PAGE # 42

(d) Flow Chart of Rock Cycle

Cooling and Solidification

MAGMA

METAMORPHIC ROCK

IGNEOUS ROCK

SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Weatheringand Erosion

Transportation of Eroded materials

DepositionConsolidation,Compaction And Cementation

Heating, Pressureand Chemical-action

Heating and Melting

Heating and Melting

Heating, Pressureand Chemical-action

Rock Cycle

OBJECTIVE DPP-2.1

1. Which of the following is correct? After metamorphism:(A) Granite changes to Graphite(B) Limestone changes to Marble(C) Clay changes to Quartzite(D) Sandstone changes to Schist

2. Which of the following is called �Primary Rocks� and�Parent Rocks� :(A) Igneous Rocks (B) Sedimentary Rocks(C) Metamorphic Rocks (D) None of the above

3. Mineral fuels, coal & petroleum are found in :(A) Igneous rocks (B) Sedimentary rocks(C) Metamorphic rocks (D) None of these

4. The uppermost layer over the earth surface is called :(A) Sima (B) Crust(C) Mantle (D) Nife

5. Where is the deepest mine in the world located ?(A) India (B) South Africa(C) Australia (D) Zaire

6. The main mineral constituents of the continental massare :(A) Silica and Alumina (B) Silica and Iron(C) Iron and Nickel (D) Silica and Nickel

7. Read the following :1. The crust forms only 0.5 percent of the volume ofearth .2. 16 percent consist of the mantle.3. 83 percent makes the core.Which is/are incorrect ?(A) 1 (B) 2(C) 3 (D) None of the above

PAGE # 43

8. The remains of the dead plants and animals trappedin the layers of rocks are called :(A) Sediments (B) Fossils(C) Ruins (D) Metamorphism

9. The rock which is made up of molten magma called is:(A) Igneous (B) Sedimentary(C) Metamorphic (D) Secondary rock

10. Match the following :(i) Extrusive Igneous Rock (1) Granite(ii) Intrusive Igneous Rock (2) Sandstone(iii) Sedimentary Rock (3) Marble(iv) Metamorphic Rock (4) BasaltAnswer Code :(A) i - 1, ii - 2, iii - 3, iv - 4(B) i - 4, ii - 1, iii - 2, iv - 3(C) i - 4, ii - 3, iii - 2, iv - 1(D) i - 1, ii - 4, iii - 3, iv - 2

11. Rocks which contain fossils are :(A) Sedimentary (B) Metamorphic(C) Extrusive (D) Intrusive

12. The thinnest layer of the earth is :(A) Crust (B) Mantle(C) Core (D) Nife

13. Stated below are some statement :(1) Sedimentary rocks are called secondary rocks(2) Sedimentary rocks are called stratified rocks(3) Sedimentary rocks are called primary rocksWhich statement are true?(A) 1 & 2 (B) 2 & 3(C) 1 & 3 (D) 1, 2 & 3

14. The innermost layer of the interior of earth is also knownas :(A) Sima (B) Nife(C) Sial (D) Keil

SUBJECTIVE DPP-2.2

1. Explain the three layers of the earth?

2. What are the uses of rocks to us?

3. What is the state of the middle zone in the mantle?

4. What are sediments?

5. Why igneous rocks are called primary rocks?

6. Describe the interior of the earth explaining any one

layer in detail. Illustrate your answer with a diagram.

7. Explain the formation of different types of rocks? Give

examples of each.

8. What do you know about the rock cycle ? Explain with

the help of a diagram.

9. Distinguish between the following :

(i) Magma and lava

(ii) Rocks and ores

(iii) Metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks

(iv) Intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks.

10. Discuss the "Rock Distribution in India" with a suitable

map.

PAGE # 44

STATE GOVERNMENT AND ITS ROLE IN HEALTH

Part - I

INTRODUCTION

(a) The State Government

(i) There are governments at three levels in India -local, state and national Governments found ineach state are known as state governments. Thepowers of a state government extend only withinthe boundaries of a state. The extent to which thestate government can exercise its powers ismentioned in the Constitution of India. Carrying

out administration is a major task, which involvesmany institutions. These institutions act and reactto many situations and take decisions for thewelfare of the people of that state.

(ii) The State Government has more or less the samestructure as that of the Central Government. It hasthree organs - the State Legislature, the StateExecutive, and the State Judiciary (or the HighCourt). Each of these organs perform a certainfunction which is clearly defined.

(iii) At present India is divided into 28 states and 7union territories as shown in the map below.

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COMPOSITION OF STATE GOVERNMENT

(a) Who is an MLA

(i) Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs) areelected by the people. They then becomemembers of the legislative assembly and alsoform the government. In this way we say that theMLAs represent people. The example below willhelp us to understand this better.

(ii) Every state in India has a Legislative Assembly.Each state is divided into different areas orconstituencies. For example, the state of HimachalPradesh is divided into 68 assemblyconstituencies. From each constituency, thepeople elect one representative who thenbecomes a Member of the Legislative Assembly(MLA). You would have noticed that people standfor elections in the name of different parties. TheseMLAs therefore, belong to different political parties.

(iii) How do people who are MLAs become ministersor chief minister ? A political party whose MLAshave won more than half the number ofconstituencies in a state can be said to be in amajority. The political party that has the majority iscalled the ruling party and all other members arecalled the opposition. For example, the LegislativeAssembly of the state of Himachal Pradesh has68 MLA constituencies.

(iv) Candidates from various political parties won the2003 assembly elections and became MLAs.Since the total number of MLAs in the LegislativeAssembly is 68, a political party would have neededto have more National Congress with 43 MLAshad the majority and it became the ruling party. Allother MLAs became the opposition. In this case,Bharatiya Janata Party was the major oppositionparty, since it had the largest number of MLAs afterthe Indian National Congress. Among theopposition were other parties, including those whohad been elected as independent candidates.

(v) After the elections, the MLAs belonging to the rulingparty will elect their leader who will become thechief minister. In this case, the Congress PartyMLAs chose Shri Virbhadra Singh as their leaderand he became the chief minister. The chiefminister the selects other people as ministers.After the elections, it is the Governor of the statewho appoints the chief minister and otherministers.

(vi) The Head of the State is the Governor. She/He isappointed by the Central Government to ensurethat the State Government works within the rulesand regulations of the Constitution.

(vii) The chief minister and other ministers have theresponsibility of running various governmentdepartments or ministries. They have separateoffices. A Legislative Assembly is a place where

all the MLAs, whether from the ruling party or fromthe opposition meet to discuss various things.Hence, some MLAs have dual responsibities : oneas an MLA and the other as a minister.

(b) The Government

(i) The word 'government' refers to governmentdepartments and various ministers who headthem. The overall head is the chief minister.

(ii) More correctly, this is called the executive part ofthe government. All the MLAs who gather together(assemble) in the legislative assembly are calledthe Legislature.

(iii) They are the ones who authorise and supervisetheir work.

(iv) It is from among them that the head of theexecutive or the chief minister is formed.

(c) Working of the Government

(i) The Legislative Assembly is not the place whereopinions are expressed about the work of thegovernment and action is demanded.

(ii) Newspapers, TV channels and other organisatiionregularly talk about the government policies. Indemocracy, there are various ways through whichpeople express their views and also take action.

(iii) The people in power like the chief minister andthe minister have to take action. They do so throughvarious departments like the Public WorksDepartment, the Agriculture Department, theHealth Department, the Education Departmentand so on. They also have to answer questionsthat are asked in the Legislative Assembly andconvince people asking the questions that propersteps are being taken.

(iv) At the same time, newspapers and the mediawidely discuss the issue and the government hasto respond, for example, by holding the pressconferences.

(v) The government can also decide to make newlaws for the state regarding sanitation and healthfacilities. For example, it may make it compulsoryfor municipal corporations to ensure that there areadequate toilets in every urban area. It may alsoensure that a health worker is appointed in everyvillage.

(vi) This act of making laws on certain issues is donein the Legislative Assembly of each state. Thevarious government departments then implementthese laws. Laws for the entire country are madein the Parliament.

(vii) In a democracy, it is the people who elect therepresentatives as Members of the LegislativeAssembly (MLAs) and, thus, it is the people whohave the main authority. The ruling party membersthe form the government and some members areappointed ministers.

PAGE # 46

(viii) These ministers are in charge of variousdepartments of the government such as health.

(ix) Whatever work is done by these departments hasto be approved by the members of the legislativeassembly.

Part - II

THE ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT IN HEALTH

(a) Introduction

In a democracy people expect the government to workfor their welfare. This could be through the provision ofeducation, health, employment, housing or thedevelopment of roads, electricity etc.

(b) Meaning of Health

(i) We can think of health in many ways. Healthmeans our ability to remain free of illness andinjuries. But health isn't only about disease.

(ii) Apart from disease, we need to think of otherfactors that affect our health. For example, if peopleget clean drinking water or a pollution freeenvironment they are likely to be healthy. On theother hand, if people do not get adequate food toeat or have to live in cramped conditions, they willbe prone to illness.

(iii) All of us would like to be active and in good spiritsin whatever we may be doing. It isn't healthy to bedull, in active, anxious or scared for long stretchesof time. We all need to be without mental strain.

(iv) All of these various aspects of our lives are a partof health.

(c) Healthcare in India

(i) India has the largest number of medical collegesin the world and is among the largest producersof doctors. Approximately 15,000 new doctorsqualify every year.

(ii) Healthcare facilities have grown substantially overthe years. In 1950, there were only 2,717 hospitalsin India. In 1991, there were 11,174 hospitals. In2000, the number grew to 18,218.

(iii) India gets a large number of medical tourists frommany countries. They come for treatment in someof the hospitals in India that compare with the bestin the world.

(iv) India is the fourth largest producer of medicinesin the world and is also a large exporter ofmedicines.

(v) Most doctors settle in urban areas. People in ruralareas have to travel long distances to reach adoctor. The number of doctors with respect to thepopulation is much less in rural areas.

(vi) About five lakh people die from tuberculosis everyyear. This number is almost unchanged sinceIndependence ! Almost two million cases ofmalaria are reported every year and this numberisn't decreasing.

(vii) We are not able to provide clean drinking water toall. 21 per cent of all communicable diseases arewater borne. For example, diarrhoea, worms,hepatitis, etc.

(viii) Half of all children in India do not get adequatefood to eat and are undernourished.

(ix) In order to prevent and treat illnesses we needappropriate healthcare facilities such as healthcentres, hospitals, laboratories for testingambulance services, blood banks, etc., that canprovide the required care and services that patientneed. In order to run such facilities we need healthworkers, nurses, qualified doctors and other healthprofessionals who can advice, diagnose and treatillnesses.We also need the medicines andequipment that are necessary for treating patients.These facilities are required to take care of us.

(x) India has a large number of doctors, clinics andhospitals. The country also has considerableexperience and knowledge in running a publichealthcare system. This is a system of hospitalsand heatlh centres run by the government. It hasthe ability to look after the health of a large sectionof its population scattered over hundreds ofthousands of villages.

(xi) Moreover, there has been a phenomenaladvancement in medical sciences whereby manynew technologies and treatment procedures areavailable in the country.

(xii) With all the above positive developments we arenot able to provide proper healthcare facilities topeople. This is the paradox - something that iscontrary to what we would expect. Our country hasthe money, knowledge and people with experiencebut cannot make the necessary healthcareavailable to all

HEALTHCARE SERVICES

(a) Public Health Services

(i) The public health services is a chain of healthcentres and hospitals run by the government. Theyare linked together so that they cover both ruraland urban areas and can also provide treatmentto all kinds of problems - from common illnessesto special services. At the village level there arehealth centres where there is usually a nurse anda village health worker.

(ii) They are trained in dealing with common illnessand work under the supervision of doctors at thePrimary Health Centre (PHC). Such a centre coversmany villages in a rural area. At the district level

PAGE # 47

the District Hospital that also supervises all thehealth centres. Large cities have manygovernment hospitals.

(iii) The health service is called 'public' for manyreasons. In order to fulfil its commitment ofproviding healthcare to all cit izens, thegovernement has established these hospitalsand health centres. Also the resources needed torun these services are obtained from the moneythat we , the public, pay the government as taxes.Hence, such facilities are meant for everyone.

(iv) One of the most important aspects of the publichealth system is that it is meant to provide qualityhealthcare services either free at a low cost, sothat even the poor can seek treatment.

(v) Another important function of public health is totake action to prevent the spread diseases suchas TB, malaria, jaundice, cholera, diarrhoea,chikungunya, etc.

(vi) This has to be organised by the government withthe participation of people otherwise it is noteffective. For example, when taking up a campaignto see that mosquitoes do not breed in water -coolers, roof tops, etc., this has to be done for allhouses in the area.

(vii) According to our Constitution, it is the primary dutyof the government to ensure the welfare of thepeople and provide health care facilities to all.

(viii) The government must safeguard the Right to Lifeof every person. If a hospital cannot provide timelymedical treatment to a person, it means that thisprotection of life is not being given.

(b) Private health facilities

(i) There is a wide range of private health facilitiesthat exist in our country. A large number of doctorsrun their own private clinics. In the rural areas,one finds Registered Medical Practitioners(RMPs). Urban areas have large number ofdoctors, many of them providing specialisedservices.

(ii) There are hospitals and nursing homes that areprivately owned. There are many laboratories thatdo tests and offer special facilities such as X - ray,ultrasound, etc. There are also shops from wherewe buy medicines.

(iii) As the name suggests, private health facilities arenot owned or controlled by the government. Unlikethe public health services, in private facilities,patients have to pay a lot of money for every servicethat they use.

(iv) Today the presence of private facilities can be seenall around. In fact now there are large companiesthat run hospitals and some are engaged inmanufacturing and selling medicines. Medicalshops are found in every corner of the country.

(c) Healthcare and Equality (i) In India, we face a situation whereprivate services are increasing butpublic services are not. What is thenavailable to people are mainly privateservices. These are concentrated inurban areas. As these services are runfor profit, the cost of these sercices israther high. Medicines are expensive.Many people cannot afford them or haveto borrow money when there is anillness in the family.

(ii) In order to earn more money, theseprivate services encourage practicesthat are incorrect. At times cheapermethods, though available, are notused. For example, it is common to finddoctors prescribing unnecessarymedicines, injections or saline bottleswhen tablets or simple medicines cansuffice.

(iii) In fact, barely 20 per cent of the population canafford all the medicines that they require duringan illness. Hence, even for those whom one mightnot think as being poor, medical expenses causehardship. It was reported in a study that 40 percent of people who are admitted to a hospital forsome illness or injury have to borrow money orsell some of their possessions to pay for theexpenses.

(iv) For those who are poor, every illness in the familyis a cause of great anxiety and distress. What isworse is that this situation tends to happen againand again. Those who are poor are in the firstplace undernourished. These families are noteating as much as they should. They are notprovided basic necessities like drinking water,adequate housing, clean surroundings, etc., andtherefore, are more lik ely to fall ill. The expenseson illness make their situation even worse.

PAGE # 48

(v) Sometimes it is not only the lack of money thatprevents people from getting proper medicaltreatment. Women, for example, are not taken to adoctor in a prompt manner. Women's healthconcerns are considered to be less important thanthe health of men in the family. Many tribal areashave few health centres and they do not runproperly. Even private health services are notavailable.

(d) Remedies

(i) There is little doubt that the health situation of mostpeople in our country is not good. It is theresponsibility of the government to provide qualityhealthcare services to all its citizens, especiallythe poor and the disadvantaged. However, healthis as much dependent on basic amenities andsocial conditions of the people, as it is onhealthcare services. Hence, it is important to workon both in order to improve the health situation ofour people , as it is on healthcare services. Henceit is important to work on both in order to improvethe health situation of our people. And this can bedone.

(ii) Look at the following example -

(iii) The Kerala experience : In 1996, the Keralagovernment made some major changes in thestate. Forty per cent of the entire state budget wasgiven to panchayats. They could plan and providefor their requirements. This made possible for avillage to make sure that proper planning was donefor water, food, women's development andeducation. This meant that water supply schemeswere checked, the working of schools andanganwadis was ensured and specific problemsof the village were taken up. Health centres werealso improved. All of this helped to improve thesituation. Despite these efforts, however, someproblems - such as shortage of medicines,insufficient hospital beds, not enough doctors -remained, and these needed to be addressed.

Let us look at an example of another country andits approach to issues of health.

(iv) The Costa Rican approach : Costa Rica isconsidered to be one of the healthiest countriesin South America. The main reason for this can befound in the Costa Rican Constitution. Severalyears ago, Costa Rica took a very importantdecision and decided not to have an army. Thishelped the Costa Rican government to spend themoney that the army would have used, on healtheducation and other basic needs of the people.The Costa Rican government believes that acountry has to be healthy for its development andpays a lot of attention to the health of its people.The Costa Rican government provides basicservices and amenities to all Costa Ricans. Forexample, it provides safe drinking water, sanitation,nutrition and housing. Health education is alsoconsidered very important and knowledge abouthealth is an essential part of education at all levels.

OBJECTIVE DPP-2.1

1. The number of Union Territories in India is :(A) 8 (B) 9(C) 7 (D) 6

2. The decisions of the executive are executed by the :(A) Minister (B) Chief Minister(C) Secretary (D) Governor

3. The tenure of a Governor is :(A) 6 yrs (B) 5yrs(C) 9yrs (D) 4yrs

4. Minimum age of the member of a legislative council is:(A) 21yrs (B) 25yrs(C) 30yrs (D) 35yrs

5. The governor of a state is :(A) Elected by the members of the legislative assembly(B) Elected by the people of the state(C) Appointed by the President of India(D) Appointed by the Prime Minister of India

6. The Constitution of India says that the strength of aLegislative assembly can :(A) Any number(B) Not more than 500 and not less than 60(C) Should be same as that of Rajya Sabha(D) Between 300 and 500

7. Which among the following union territories hasbecome a state recently ?(A) Goa (B) Chandigarh(C) Arunachal Pradesh (D) Delhi

8. Members of the legislative Assembly are elected by :(A) The people (B) The Prime Minister(C) The President (D) The Chief Minister

9. During the President�s rule in a state, who practicallyruns the Government of the state ?(A) The President of India(B) The Governor with the help of advisors(C) The Care taker Government(D) The Central Government

10. The number of states in India is :(A) 28 (B) 26(C) 22 (D) 30

11. Full form of ORS :(A) Oral rehydration solution(B) Opposite rehydration solution(C) Optical rehydration solution(D) None of the above

12. Who has been given the duty to safe guard the right tolife of every person in our Constitution ?(A) The government (B) Doctors(C) President (D) Advocate

PAGE # 49

13. Full form of OPD :

(A) Out patient department

(B) Open patient department

(C) Out patient doctor

(D) Open patient doctor

14. Public health services means :

(A) A chain of health centres and hospitals run by the

Government.

(B) A chain of health centres and hospitals run by the

Doctors.

(C) A chain of health centres and hospitals run by the

Officers.

(D) None of the above

15. India is the ____________ largest producers of

medicines in the world.

(A) First (B) Third

(C) Second (D) Fourth

16. What is the source of Income of government ?

(A) Taxes

(B) Government departments

(C) Hospitals

(D) All of the above

17. WHO means :(A) World Health Organisation(B) Wide Health Organisation(C) World Heavy Organisation(D) Wide Heavy Organisation

SUBJECTIVE DPP-2.2

1. Explain various levels of government.

2. Explain the meaning of ruling party and opposition party.

3. Explain the functions of the Governor.

4. Discuss the duties and responsibilities of the ChiefMinister.

5. Explain the purpose of a press conference. What areits uses for getting information.

6. Distinguish between public health services and privatehealth facilities.

7. Narrate the problems faced in private hospitals.

8. Explain the prociedure of election of MLAs.

9. Discuss the working of the State Government.

10. "Improvement in water and sanitation can control manydisease". Explain with the help of examples.

5050PAGE # 50

NUMBER SERIES

Series completion problems deals with numbers,alphabets and both together. While attempting tosolve the question, you have to check the pattern ofthe series. Series moves with certain mathematicaloperations. You have to check the pattern.Type of questions asked in the examination :(i) Find the missing term(s).(ii) Find the wrong term(s).

NUMBER SERIES

In this type of series, the set of given numbers in aseries are related to one another in a particularpattern or manner. The relationship between thenumbers may be� Consecutive odd/even numbers,

� Consecutive prime / composite numbers,

� Squares/cubes of some numbers with/without

variation of addition or substraction of some number,� Sum/product/difference of preceding number(s),

� Addition/subtraction/multiplication/division by

some number, and� Many more combinations of the relationship given

above.

Directions : (1 to 6) Find the missing numbers :

Ex 1. 12, 15, 18, 21, ?(A) 26 (B) 27(C) 23 (D) 24

Sol. (D) As per series, a, a + d, a + 2d, ..........a = 12, d = 3a + 4d = 12 + 4 × 3 = 24

Ex 2. 3, 6, 12, 24, ?, 96(A) 60 (B) 34(C) 48 (D) 36

Sol. (C) The pattern of the series areprevious term x 2Hence, the next term would be24 × 2 = 48

Ex 3. 11, 15, 21, 29, ?(A) 36 (B) 37(C) 39 (D) 38

Sol. (C) This series consists of increasing numbers.The pattern is +4, +6, +8,+10, ........Hence, the next term would be29 + 10 = 39

Ex 4. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ?(A) 36 (B) 49(C) 47 (D) 35

Sol. (A) The pattern of the series are 12 = 1, 22 = 4, 32 = 9, 42 = 16, 52 = 25Hence, the next term would be62 = 36Multiple Series : A multiple series is a mixture ofmore than one series :

Ex 5. 6, 12, 7, 11, 8, 10, 9, ? [Difference series]

(A) 8 (B) 9

(C) 11 (D) 12

Sol. (B) The sequence is a combination of two series

I 6, 7, 8, 9

II 12, 11, 10, �

The pattern followed in I is +1, + 1, + 1

The pattern followed in II is � 1, � 1, � 1

missing number = 10 � 1 = 9

Ex 6. 4, 7, 3, 6, 2, 5, ?

(A) 4 (B) 7

(C) 8 (D) 1

Sol. (D) The sequence is a combination of two series

I 4, 3, 2, ?

II 7, 6, 5

The pattern followed in I and II are � 1, � 1, � 1

missing number = 2 � 1 = 1

Directions : (7 to 8) Find the wrong term (s) :

Ex 7. 2, 6, 11, 17, 23, 32, 41

(A) 6 (B) 17

(C) 23 (D) 32

Sol. (C) This series consists of increasing numbers.

The pattern is +4, +5, +6,+7, +8,+9, ........

2, 6, 11, 17, 23, 32, 41

+4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9

24

The fifth term is not following the same rule. Hence,

23 is the wrong term and should be replaced by

24.

Ex 8. 13, 22, 31, 41, 49

(A) 13 (B) 22

(C) 31 (D) 41

Sol. (D) Common difference between the consecutive

terms is + 9

The fourth term is not following the same rule.

Hence, 41 is the wrong term and should be

replaced by 40.

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5151PAGE # 51

EXERCISE

Directions : (1 to 7) Find the missing numbers :

1. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ?(A) 13 (B) 15(C) 17 (D) 11

2. 2, 5, 10, 17, ?(A) 24 (B) 25(C) 26 (D) 27

3. 1, 10, 17, 22, 25 , ?(A) 26 (B) 25(C) 27 (D) 29

4. 1, 3, 7, 13, ?(A) 19 (B) 23(C) 21 (D) 25

5. 20, 19, 17, ?, 10, 5(A) 12 (B) 14(C) 13 (D) 15

6. 67, 62, 57, ? , 47(A) 51 (B) 52(C) 50 (D) 53

7. 2, 2, 4, 4, 6, 8, 8, ?(A) 10 (B) 12(C) 14 (D) 16

Directions : (8 to 10) Find the wrong term (s) :

8. 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 28, 47(A) 4 (B) 7(C) 18 (D) 28

9. 0, 0, 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, 21(A) 0 (B) 1(C) 5 (D) 21

10. 2, 5, 9, 11, 14(A) 2 (B) 5(C) 9 (D) 11

Directions : (11 to 16) Find the missing numbers :

11. 2, 3, 10, 15, 26, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2007)(A) 34 (B) 35(C) 36 (D) 37

12. 1, 4, 27, 16, 125, 36, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2007)(A) 216 (B) 343(C) 64 (D) 49

13. 1, 2, 4, 7, ?, 16 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2008)(A) 9 (B) 11(C) 12 (D) 13

14. 6, 8, 9, 12, 14, 18, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2008)(A) 21 (B) 19(C) 23 (D) 20

15. 1, 4, 9, ?, 25, 36 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)(A) 11 (B) 19(C) 21 (D) 16

16. 7, 12, 22, 37, ?, 82, 112 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)

(A) 62 (B) 57(C) 52 (D) 42

Directions : (17 to 22) Find the wrong term of the series :

17. 27, 34, 40, 45, 49, 53, 54 , 55 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2007)(A) 53 (B) 45(C) 56 (D) 34

18. 0, 2, 3, 6, 6, 20, 9, 54, 12 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2007)(A) 3 (B) 6(C) 20 (D) 12

19. 10, 15, 26, 35, 48, 63, 82 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2008)

(A) 48 (B) 26(C) 63 (D) 82

20. 2, 6, 10, 20, 30, 42, 56 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2008)

(A) 6 (B) 10(C) 20 (D) 30

21. 3, 9, 27, 82, 243 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2009)(A) 27 (B) 54(C) 82 (D) 162

22. 3, 6, 11, 18, 28, 38, 51, 66 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2009)(A) 18 (B) 28(C) 38 (D) 51

PAGE # 52

CODING-DECODING

CODING-DECODING

A code is �a system of signals�. Coding is,therefore, a method of transmitting a messagebetween sender and receiver which cannot beunderstood or comprehended by a third person.The coding decoding test is set up to judge thecandidate�s ability to decipher a particular word/message and break the code to decipher themessage. In coding, actual alphabets/words/terms/numbers are replaced by certain otheralphabets/words/terms/symbols etc. according toa specific rule. To solve these type of questions wehave to detect the rule and then answer thequestions.Decoding : It is a method to find the meaning ofsomething that has written in code.

LETTER-LETTER CODING

In these type of questions, the letters in a word arereplaced by certain other letters according to aspecific rule to form its code. The candidate isrequired to detect the coding pattern / rule andanswer the questions accordingly.

Ex 1. If in any code language, KUMAR is coded asLVNBS, How is EMOTIONAL coded in thatlanguage.(A) FNQUJQBM (B) FNPUJPOBM(C) GNPUJPOBM (D) GNQUJQOBM

Sol. (B)

Similarly,

E M O T I O N A L F N P U J P O B M

+1+1+1

+1+1+1+1+1+1

Ex 2. If GOOD is written HQRH how will you writeDREAM ?(A) ESPBN (B) ETHER(C) ETHPQ (D) ESHDR

Sol. (B)

G O O D H Q R H

+2+3+4

+1

Similarly,

D R E A M E T H E R

+2+3+4+5

+1

Ex 3. If RADIO is written PYBGM, then how wouldOQDKNG be written in that code ?(A) MOBIEL (B) MOBLIE(C) MOIBLE (D) MOBILE

Sol. (D)

R A D I O P Y B G M�2�2�2�2�2

Similarly,

O Q D K N G M O B I L E�2�2�2�2�2�2

Ex 4. If TRIANGLE is coded as SSHBMHKF, thenSQUARE would be(A) RRIASF (B) RPVBSF(C) RRTBQF (D) RPVBSD

Sol. (C)

T R I A N G L E S S H B M H K F�1

�1

�1

�1

+1

+1

+1

+1

Similarly,

S Q U A R E R R T B Q F�1

�1

�1

+1

+1

+1

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PAGE # 53

LETTER-NUMBER CODING

In these types of questions, either numerical code

values are assigned to a word or alphabetical code

letters are assigned to the numbers.

Ex 5. In a certain code, if TREE is coded as 7100, FROG

as 2159, how is FREE coded in that code ?

(A) 2100 (B) 3100

(C) 1003 (D) 1002

Sol. (A) T R E E F R O G

7 1 0 0 2 1 5 9

Hence, F R E E 2 1 0 0

Ex 6. In a certain code, C is coded as 0, E as 7, T as 4, I

as 9, P as 1, R as 3, and U as 5. How is 1904537

coded in that code ?

(A) PICTRUE (B) PICTURE

(C) RICTPUE (D) PCTUREI

Sol. (B) 1 P, 9 I, 0 C, 4 T,

5 U, 3 R, 7 E

Ex 7. If REASON is coded as 5 and BELIEVED as 7, what

is the code number for GOVERNMENT ?

(A) 6 (B) 8

(C) 9 (D) 10

Sol. (C) The number of letters in the word �1 = Code in

number for that word.

Ex 8. If FOX is coded as 45, what will be the code number

for BOX ?

(A) 41 (B) 49

(C) 55 (D) 60

Sol. (A) By their natural position numbers,

F 6, O 15, X 24

So, FOX = (6 + 15 + 24) = 45

Hence, BOX = (2 + 15 + 24) = 41

SUBSTITUTION CODING

In these types of questions, some particular objects

are assigned code names. Then a question is

asked that is to be answered in the code language.

Ex 9. If paper is called eraser, eraser is called bag, bag

is called scale, scale is called pencil and pencil

is called paper, what will a person write with ?

(A) Pencil (B) Paper

(C) Eraser (D) Bag

Sol. (B) A person will write with a pencil and a �pencil� is

called �paper�.

Ex 10. If water is called food, food is called tree, tree is

called sky, sky is called wall, on which of the

following does a fruit grow ?

(A) Water (B) Food

(C) Tree (D) Sky

Sol. (D) Clearly, a fruit grows on a �tree�. As given that

�tree� is called �sky�, a fruit grows on �sky�.

Ex 11. If brightness is called darkness, darkness is

called green, green is called blue, blue is called

red, red is called white and white is called yellow

then what is the colour of blood ?

(A) red (B) darkness

(C) white (D) yellow

Sol. (C) Colour of blood is �red� and red is called white

hence, the answer is �white�.

PUZZLE BASED CODING

In this type of questions, some messages are given

in the coded language and the code for a particular

word or message is asked. To analyses such

codes, any two messages bearing a common word

are picked up. The common code word will thus

represent that word. Proceeding similarly by picking

up all possible combinations of two, the entire

message can be decoded and the order for

individual words found.

Ex 12. In a certain code language 389 means run very

fast, 964 means come back fast and 487 means

run and come. Which digit in the language means

come ?

(A) 7 (B) 9

(C) 4 (D) 8

Sol. (C) In the second and third sentences, common

number is 4 and common code is �come�. Hence,

number 4 stands for �come�.

Ex 13. In a certain code language, ken poti means good

morning, hu shang means come on, and

hu ken sue means come for good. Which word in

that language does mean for ?

(A) shang (B) ken

(C) sue (D) hu

Sol. (C) In the second and third statements, the

common code word is �come� and the common

word is �hu�. So, �come� means �hu�. In the first and

third statements, the common code word is �good�

and the common word is �ken�. So, �good� means

�ken�. Thus, in third and above statements �for�

means �sue�.

PAGE # 54

Ex 14. In a certain code, 256 means you are good, 637

means we are bad and 358 means good and bad.

Which of the following does represent and in that

code ?

(A) 2 (B) 5

(C) 8 (D) 3

Sol. (C) In the first and third statements, the common

code digit is �5� and the common word is �good�.

So, �5� means �good�. In the second and third

statements, the common code digit is �3� and the

common word is �bad�. So, �3� means �bad�. Thus,

in third statement �8� means �and�.

Ex 15. In a certain code language, lim suk ta means boys

are clever and pu ne ta means boys and girls.

Which word in that language means boys ?

(A) lim (B) suk

(C) ta (D) pu

Sol. (C) In the first and second sentences, common

word is ta and common code is �boys�. Hence,

word ta stands for �boys�.

EXERCISE

1. If JAPAN is coded as KCSES, then the code for

CASTLE will be

(A) DCIJOB (B) DCJKRD

(C) DCKMSG (D) DCVXQK

2. If DOWN is coded as FQYP then how will WITH be

coded ?

(A) KYJV (B) IJYK

(C) YKVJ (D) JKVY

3. If BOX is coded as CDPQYZ, what will be the last

two letters of word in the same code for HERO ?

(A) N, M (B) M, N

(C) P, Q (D) Q, P

4. In a certain code, BODY is written APCZ. How would

DELHI be written in that code ?

(A) CFKGI (B) BFKGI

(C) CFKIH (D) CFKHI

5. If PAINTER is written in a code language as

NCGPRGP, then REASON would be written as :

(A) PCYQMN (B) PGYQMN

(C) PGYUMP (D) PGYUPM

6. If CRICKETER is coded as DQJBLDUDS, PLAYER

will be coded as :

(A) QMBZFS (B) OMZZDS

(C) QKBXFQ (D) QKBZDS

7. If POLITICS is coded as OPILITSC, then ARTICLESwill be coded as :(A) RAITLCES (B) RAITLCSE(C) NNUHPM (D) NNVHPN

8. In a certain language, if P is coded as 7, T as 3, Oas 4, R as 9 and A as 2, how is PARROT coded inthat code?(A) 372994 (B) 723349(C) 279943 (D) 729943

9. In a certain code, 5 is coded as Z, 7 as E, 2 as S, 9 asT, and 4 as W. How is 977452 coded in that code ?(A) SEEWZT (B) TEEWZS(C) ZEEWST (D) WEEZST

10. If ROSE is written as 6821, CHAIR is written as73456 then what will be REACH Written as(A) 61473 (B) 96713(C) 34719 (D) 69714

11. In a certain code, if GUN is coded as 309, DEAR as1498, how is UNDER coded in that code ?(A) 90148 (B) 39148(C) 09148 (D) 49138

12. If in a code language MENTAL is coded as 417253,then how is TEN & ANT coded in that language ?(A) 217,572 (B) 417,527(C) 217,527 (D) 172,534

13. If OX is coded as 39, what will be the code numberfor LION ?(A) 20 (B) 25(C) 38 (D) 50

14. If BOOK is coded as 43, what will be the codenumber for PEN ?(A) 53 (B) 33(C) 35 (D) 43

15. If air is called water, water is called green, greenis called dust, dust is called yellow and yellow iscalled cloud, which of the following does fish livein ?(A) Air (B) Water(C) Green (D) Dust

16. If pen is called pencil, pencil is called scale, scaleis called bag and bag is called book, which is usedto carry the books ?(A) Scale (B) Pen(C) Book (D) Bag

17. If orange is called butter, butter is called soap,soap is called ink, ink is called honey and honeyis called orange Which of the following is used forwashing clothes ?(A) Honey (B) Butter(C) Orange (D) Ink

PAGE # 55

18. If Eye is called Hand, Hand is called Mouth, Mouth

is called Ear, Ear is called Nose and Nose is called

Tongue, with which of the following would a person

hear ?

(A) Eye (B) Mouth

(C) Nose (D) Ear

19. In a certain code language, 743 means mangoes

are good, 657 means eat good food and 934

means mangoes are ripe. Which digit means ripe

in that language ?

(A) 5 (B) 4

(C) 9 (D) 7

20. In a certain code 786 means study very hard, 958

means hard work pays and 645 means

study and work. Which of the following is the code

for very ?

(A) 8 (B) 6

(C) 7 (D) Cannot be determined

21. In a certain code language pit dar na means I love

India, dar tok pa means India is great, and

tim na tok means with great love. In that language,

which word stands for with ?

(A) na (B) tok

(C) tim (D) pit

22. In a certain code language, pul ta nop means fruitis good, nop ko tir means tree is tall and

pul ho sop means eat good food. Which of thefollowing does mean fruit in that language ?(A) pul (B) ta

(C) nop (D) Data inadequate

23. If CLOTH is called GOLD and GOLD is called PAPERand PAPER is called CAKE, then JEWELLERYwould be made up of ? (NTSE Stage-II, 2007)(A) Gold (B) Cloth(C) Cake (D) Paper

24. In a certain code FORGET is written as DPPHCU. Inthe same code DOCTOR will be written as -

(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2008)(A) EPDUPS (B) ROTCOD(C) BPAUMS (D) CPBUNS

25. If MALE = 31 and PLAY = 54 than CLASS = ?

(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2008)(A) 35 (B) 31(C) 54 (D) 45

26. If RUM stands for TWO, what are the symbols forONE ? (NTSE Stage-I / Delhi/ 2007)(A) NMF (B) POF

(C) MLC (D) QPG

27. If QUIZ is written as RVJA how will you writeCLASS ? (NTSE Stage-I / Delhi/ 2008)(A) BHIMB (B) DMBTT(C) DMVSS (D) QNZTB

PAGE # 56

DIRECTION SENSE TEST

There are four directions such as North, South,East and West. The word NEWS came from North,East, West and South. There are four regions :(i) North-East ; (ii) North-West ;(iii) South-East ;(iv) South-West.

NORTH

S PE

AS

T

SOUTH

WE

ST O

III

III IV

RQ

The directions OP, OS, OQ and OR are :North-East direction ; North-West direction ;South-West direction ; and South-East directionrespectively.

NOTE : The candidate must distinguish between theregions and directions, i.e., between North-Eastregion and North-East direction. If you move withyour face Eastwards, your left hand is towards Northand your right hand is towards South. Similarly thepositions of the directions of the hands can befixed when you move in any of the other threedirections.

Ex 1. A man was facing East. He took Three pacesforward, turned right, walked another two pacesand then turned right again, took three paces andturned about. Which direction was he last facing ?(A) East (B) North(C) South (D) None of these

Sol. (A) Man walks three faces inEast, then moves 2 facestowards South, then turn rightand move three faces towardsWest, then he turned about. CD

A B

Now he was facing East.

Ex 2. A and B start walking from the same point. A goesNorth and covers 3 km; then turns right and covers4 km. B goes West and covers 5 km, then turnsright and covers 3 km. How far apart are they fromeach other ?(A) 10 km (B) 9 km(C) 8 km (D) 5 km

Sol. (B) The movement of A from X to Z (X to Y, Y to Z) andthe movement of B from X to D, (X to C, C to D) asshown in figure. Clearly, required distanceZD = (YD + YZ) = (XC + YZ) = (5 + 4) = 9 km.

D

C 5 km

3 km 3 km

Y 4 km

Z

X

Ex 3. went 15 m to the North, then turned West andcovered 10 m, then turned South, and covered 5 mthen turned East and covered 10 m. In whichdirection am now from my house ?(A) North (B) South(C) East (D) West

Sol. (A) Movement is shown from A to E.Final position is E which is in North of A (house).

10 m

10 m

C B

A

D15 m

5 m

E

Ex 4. A man walks 9 km due East and then 12 km dueSouth. How far is he from the starting point ?(A) 15 km. (B) 6 km.(C) 7 km. (D) None of these

Sol. (A) Movement of man is shown from A to C.Required distance = AC

AC = 22 BCAB

A B

C

9 km

12 km

= 22 129 = 225 = 15 km

Ex 5. Kishen walks 10 km towards North. Form there,he walks 6 km towards South. Then, he walks3 km towards East. How far and in which directionis he with reference to his starting point ?(A) 5 km, North (B) 5 km, North-East(C) 7 km, East (D) 7 km, West

Sol. (B) The movements of Kishen are as shown inFig. (A to B, B to C and C to D).AC = (AB � BC) = (10 � 6) km = 4 km. clearly, D is tothe North-East of A. Kishen's distance from starting point A = AD

= 2534CDAC 2222 = 5 km. So,

Kishen is 5 km to the North-East of his startingpoint.

4km

D

6km

3kmC

A

B

10km

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PAGE # 57

EXERCISE

1. Ramakant walks Northwards. After a while, he turnsto his right and a little further to his left. Finally, afterwalking a distance of one kilometre, he turns tohis left again. In which direction is he moving now?(A) North (B) South(C) East (D) West

2. Reena walks Eastwards after a while she turns toher left and then turn to her right. Finally she turn toher left. In which direction is she moving now ?(A) West (B) East(C) South (D) North

3. Shantha and Uma start from a fixed point. Shanthamoves 3 km Northward and turns right and thencovers 4 km. Uma moves 5 km Westwards, turnsright and walks 3 km, The distance betweenShantha and Uma now is -(A) 10 km (B) 9 km(C) 8 km (D) 6 km

4. Vijayan started walking towards South. After walking15 metre, he turned to the left and walked15 metre. He again turned to his left and walked15 metre. How far is he from his original positionand in which direction ?(A) 15 metre, North (B) 15 metre, South(C) 30 metre, East (D) 15 metre, East

5. Sita started from her house, walked 5 km Norththen 12 km West. How far away from her housewas she then ?(A) 12 km (B) 13 km(C) 14 km (D) 15 km

6. Mohan travels 7 km Eastwards, then he turns rightand travels 3 km and further turns right again andtravels 11 km. How far is he from the starting point?(A) 5 km (B) 14 km(C) 21 km (D) 23 km

7. A man starts from his office and goes 4 kmNorthwards, then he turns left and goes 3 km andreaches a point �X�. At what distance is he from thestarting point ?(A) 5 km (B) 4 km(C) 3 km (D) 6 km

8. Ramesh started from his house, walked 2 km Norththen 3 km West then 6 km South. How far awayfrom his house was he then ?(A) 2 km (B) 3 km(C) 4 km (D) 5 km

9. From point P, Akshay starts walking towards East.After walking 30 metres, he turns to his right andwalks 10 metres. He then turns to his right andwalks for 30 metres. He again turns to his rightand walks 30 metres. How far is he from Point Pand in which direction ?(A) Point P itself (B) 10 metre North(C) 20 metre West (D) 20 metre North

10. Starting from a point, a person walked 12 metres

North, he turned right and walked 10 metres, he

again turned right and walked 12 metres, then he

turned left and walked 5 metres. How far is he now

and in which direction from the starting point ?

(A) 10 metres towards West

(B) 15 metres towards East

(C) 10 metres towards West

(D) 5 metres towards West

11. A watch reads 4 :30, If the minute hand points to

West in which direction does the hour hand point ?

(A) North-West (B) South-East

(C) South-West (D) West

12. Vinod travelled 6 km South from the starting point

D, then turned right and moved 4 km and again

turned right and travelled 6 km and turned left and

travelled 8 km. Find out how many kilometers he

has to cover to reach his starting point D.

(A) 10 km (B) 12 km

(C) 14 km (D) 16 km

13. Suresh moves a distance of 7 km form a place P

towards North, then turns left and walks 4 km, again

turns towards right and walks 3 km, then again turns

right and walks 2 km to reach his destination Q.

Which direction is he facing now ?

(A) West (B) East

(C) North-West (D) South

14. A child goes 50 metre towards South and then

turning to his right, he goes 50 metre. Then, turning

to his left, he goes 30 metre. Again he turns to his

left and goes 50 metre. How far is he from his

initial position ?

(A) 30 metre (B) 40 metre

(C) 50 metre (D) 80 metre

15. Ramesh starts walking from his house at 4 PM

facing towards sun and walks 5 km. Then he turns

left and walks 8 km. Again turning to left he walks 13

km and reaches Mohan's house. In which direction

Ramesh's house is from Mohan's house ?

(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2008)

(A) North-West (B) North-East

(C) South-West (D) South-East

16. A man starts from his house and walks 3 km.

towards South, then he turns left and walks 5 km.

In which direction he is from his house ?

(NTSE Stage-I / Haryana/ 2009)

(A) South (B) East

(C) South East (D) North

PAGE # 58

RANKING & ORDERING -TEST

NUMBER QUIBBLE

In these type of questions, generally a set, groupor series of numerals is given and the candidateis required to find out how many times a numbersatisfying the conditions, specified in the questionoccurs.

Ex 1. How many 5's are there in the following sequencewhich are immediately followed by 3 but notimmediately preceded by 7 ?8 9 5 3 2 5 3 8 5 5 6 8 7 3 3 5 7 7 5 3 6 5 3 3 5 7 3 8(A) One (B) Two

(C) Three (D) FourSol. (C) 8 9 5 3 2 5 3 8 5 5 6 8 7 3 3 5 7 7 5 3 6 5 3 3 5 7 3 8

Clearly, there are three such numbers.

Ex 2. In the following number series how many 8�s arethere which are exactly divisible by the numberswhich are preceded and followed by it ?824517284842282698454832843183(A) 1 (B) 2(C) 3 (D) 4

Sol. (D) As per the question 824517284842282698454832843183Thus, four such numbers are there

ALPHABETICAL QUIBBLE

In these type of questions, generally a letter-seriesis given, be it the English alphabets from A to Z or arandomised sequence of letters. The candidate isthen required to trace the letters satisfying certaingiven conditions as regards their position in thegiven sequence or the sequence obtained byperforming certain given operations on the givensequence.

Ex 3. How many W's are there in the following series

which are immediately followed by W but not

immediately preceded by K ?

D W W D H K V D W Z D W W W D D W K W W D K K D

H C

(A) One (B) Two

(C) Three (D) None

Sol. (C) Clearly, W�s satisfying the given conditions canbe marked as under

D W W D H K V D W Z D W W W D D W K W W D K K

D H C

Ex 4. How many L�s are there which do not have Rpreceding them and also do not have T followingthem ?Z Q S T L R M N Q N R T U V X R L T A S L T Q R S L T(A) 1 (B) 2(C) 3 (D) 5

Sol. (C) Z Q S T L R M N Q N R T U V X R L T A S L T Q R S L T

ALPHA-NUMERIC QUIBBLE

In these type of questions a jumped sequence of

some letters, numbers and symbols is given and

the candidate is required to find out how many

times a number or a letter or a symbol satisfying

the conditions, specified in the question occurs.

Directions : (5 to 6) Study the following arrangement of

symbols, letters and numbers to answer the

questions given below it :

= F 2 K S 7 5 # $ P L V 8 @ M U E 6 Q G 9 3 & T Y

Ex 5. How many such letters are there in the

arrangement each of which is either immediately

preceded by a symbol or immediately followed by

a number, but not both ?

(A) Three (B) Four

(C) Five (D) None of these

Sol. (D) The letters satisfying the given conditions are

shown as under :

= F 2 K S 7 5 # $ P L V 8 @ M U E 6 Q G 9 3 & T Y

Clearly, there are 8 such letters.

Ex 6. How many such consonants are there in the above

arrangement each of which is immediately

followed by a consonant but not immediately

preceded by a symbol ?

(A) Nil (B) One

(C) Two (D) Three

Sol. (B) We know that of the 26 letters of English

alphabet, five letters namely A, E, I, O, U are vowels,

while remaining are consonants. The consonants

satisfying the given conditions may be shown as

under :

= F 2 K S 7 5 # $ P L V 8 @ M U E 6 Q G 9

3 & T Y Clearly, there is only one such consonant.

RANKING TEST

In these type of questions, generally the ranks of a

person both from the top and from the bottom are

mentioned and the total number of persons is

asked. However, sometimes this question is put

in the form of a puzzle of interchanging seats by

two persons.

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PAGE # 59

USEFUL TIPS

1. Position of person from upward = [Total number of persons - position of personfrom down] + 1

2. Position of person from downward= [Total number of persons - position of personfrom up] + 1

3. Position of person from right = [Total number of persons - position of personfrom left] +1

4. Position of person from left = [Total number of persons - position of personfrom right] + 1

5. Total number of persons= [Position of person from upward/right + positionof person from downward / left] � 1

Ex 7. Rohan ranks seventh from the top and twenty-sixthfrom the bottom in a class. How many studentsare there in the class ?(A) 31 (B) 32(C) 33 (D) 34

Sol. Clearly, the whole class consists of:(i) 6 students who have ranks higher than Rohan :(ii) Rohan ; and(iii) 25 students who have ranks lower than Rohan,i.e., (6 + 1 + 25) = 32 students.orTotal number of students = [Position of Rohan fromtop+ position of Rohan from bottom] � 1= [7 + 26] � 1 = 32

Ex 8. Anil and Sunil are ranked seventh and eleventhrespectively from the top in a class of 31 students.What will be their respective ranks from the bottomin the class ?(A) 20th and 24 th (B) 24th and 20th

(C) 25th and 21st (D) 26th and 22nd

Sol. (C) Number of students behind Anil in rank= (31 � 7) = 24So, Anil is 25th from the bottom.Number of students behind Sunil in rank= (31 � 11) = 20So, Sunil is 21st from the bottom.

ORDERING TEST

In such type of questions, clues are given regardingcomparisons among a set of persons or thingswith respect to their qualities. The candidate isrequired to analyses the whole information, form aproper ascending/descending sequence and thenanswer the given questions accordingly.

Ex 9. A is shorter than B but much taller than E. C is thetallest and D is shorter than A and taller than E.Which one is the shortest ?(A) A (B) E(C) B (D) D

Sol. (B) According to the given statementE < D < A < B < C

Ex 10. A is richer than B.C is richer than A.D is richer than C.E is the richest of all.If they are made to sit in the above degree ofrichness who will be in the middle position (centralposition) ?(A) A (B) B(C) C (D) D

Sol. (C) According to the given statement

C is in the middle position.

EXERCISE

1. How many even numbers are there in the followingsequence of numbers which are immediatelyfollowed by an odd number as well as immediatelypreceded by an even number ?8 6 7 6 8 9 3 2 7 5 3 4 2 2 3 5 5 2 2 8 1 1 9(A) One (B) Three(C) Five (D) None of these

2. In the following series, how many times the sumof two consecutive numbers results an evennumber ?1 2 3 4 6 3 4 2 5 9 3 6 7 4 1 2 3 6 7 6 5 4 3(A) 3 (B) 4(C) 5 (D) None of these

3. In the following number series, how many 8's arethere which are immediately preceded by anumber which does not divide it but followed by anumber which divides it ?2 8 2 8 3 8 5 8 8 5 3 2 8 2 3 8 4 7 1 5 8 3 8 2 8 6(A) 1 (B) 2(C) 3 (D) 4

4. In the following series of numbers, find out how manytimes, 1, 3 and 7 have appeared together, 7 being inthe middle and 1 and 3 on either side of 7 ?2 9 7 3 1 7 3 7 7 1 3 3 1 7 3 8 5 7 1 3 7 7 1 7 3 9 0 6(A) One (B) Two(C) Three (D) Four

5. The positions of how many digits in the number423157698 will remain unchanged after the digitswithin the number are arranged in ascendingorder ?(A) None (B) One(C) Two (D) Three

6. In the following series how many C�s are therewhich are immediately followed by �Y� but notimmediately preceded by �J� ?J C D Y J C Y O J H C Y Y Y C I J W C Y A C Y(A) one (B) two(C) three (D) four

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7. How many A�s are there in the following serieswhich are immediately followed by B as well asimmediately preceded by Z ?A M B Z A N A A B Z A B A Z B A P Z A B A Z A B(A) Nil (B) One(C) Two (D) Three

8. Rohan ranked eleventh from the top and twenty-seventh from the bottom among the students whopassed the annual examinations is a class. If thenumber of students who failed in the exams. was12, how many students did appear for theexaminations ?(A) 48 (B) 49(C) 50 (D) Can�t be determined

9. In a group of six children, Q is taller than P but notas tall as L. M is taller than N and O, but not as tallas P. Who is the shortest among them ?(A) N (B) O(C) M (D) Data inadequate

10. R earns more than H but not as much as T, Mearns more than R. Who earns least amongthem ?(A) H (B) R(C) T (D) M

11. How many A are in the given letter series whichdoes not has B just before it but has C just afterit ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2007)D A C B A C D A CB C A C B A C B A D C(A) 3 (B) 4(C) 5 (D) 6

12. If you write all the numbers from 201 to 250, thenhow many times will you write the numeral 2 ?(A) 70 (B) 65(C) 25 (D) 80

13. There are five friends A, B, C, D and E. A is shorterthan B but taller then E, C is tallest, D is littleshorter than B and little taller than A. If they arestanding in the order of their heights who will bein the middle ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2008)(A) D (B) C(C) A (D) B

14. In a class the rank of Sohan is sixteen from the topand fortynine from the bottom. The total number ofstudents in the class are -

(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2008)(A) 64 (B) 65(C) 66 (D) 67

15. In the following series how many times 7, 8, 9appear together when 7 being in the middle ?7 2 8 7 9 2 1 7 8 9 1 6 7 4 2 1 7 9 7 8 2 8 9 7 2

(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2009)(A) 1 (B) 2(C) 3 (D) 4

16. Five boys took part in a race, Raj finished beforeMohit but behind Gaurav, Ashish finished beforeSachin but behind Mohit. Who won the race ? (NTSE Stage-I / Haryana/ 2007)(A) Raj (B) Gaurav(C) Mohit (D) Ashish

17 If you are eleventh in a queue starting from eitherend, how many persons in the queue ?

(NTSE Stage-I / Haryana/ 2007)(A) 11 (B) 20(C) 21 (D) 22

18. Out of five Indian batsman Rahul scored more runthan Saurav but less than Yuvraj, Sahwag scoredmore than Yuvraj but less than Sachin. Who scoredthe most runs ?

(NTSE Stage-I / Haryana/ 2008)(A) Rahul (B) Sachin(C) Sahwag (D) Yuraj

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ANSWER KEY

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND ITS EFFECTS(PHYSICS)

Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. A C B D D B D B C B

Ques. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Ans. A B B A C C D B C C

Ques. 21

Ans. B

GENERAL CHEMISTRY(CHEMISTRY)

Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A. B D C B A D D A C A

Q. 11 12 13 14 15

A. D B C B A

RATIONAL NUMBERS (MATHEMATICS)

Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. C B D D C B A A B A

Q. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Ans. C B C C A C C C D C

LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE(MATHEMATICS)

Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. C B A B B C A D D A

Q. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Ans. B A A C A A A D B D

Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Ans. A D B A B B B C B A

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CELL (BIOLOGY)

Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

A. B D A B B A B D B C C D C B C

Q. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

A. C C D A B A B D D C A D A B CQ. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37A. C A C A A D B

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE(HISTORY)

Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. C D B B C B B B C A

Ques. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Ans. B A B A C A B A C

INSIDE OUR EARTH (GEOGRAPHY)

Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. B A B B B A D B A B

Ques. 11 12 13 14

Ans. A A A B

STATE GOVERNMENT AND ITS ROLE IN HEALTH (CIVICS)

Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. C C B C C B D A B A

Ques. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Ans. A A A A D A A

NUMBER-SERIES(MENTAL ABILITY)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. D C A C B B D D C C

Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Ans. B B B A D B A C A B

Que. 21 22

Ans. C B

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CODING-DECODING

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. D C C C C C B D B A

Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Ans. C A D C C C D C C C

Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Ans. C B D C C D B

DIRECTION SENCE TEST

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. D D B D B A A D D B

Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16

Ans. C B B D A C

RANKING & ORDERING-TEST

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. D B C C D C D B D A

Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Ans. A B A A B B C B