The Big PictureCapturing the Forest then the Trees

Sociology is classified as being one of the social sciences.

Please name the other social sciences and define these disciplines

Science is the study of the material Science is the study of the material world using human reason.world using human reason.

Science, by definition, limits Science, by definition, limits itself to what can be observed, itself to what can be observed, measured and verified, known as measured and verified, known as empiricism.empiricism.

Political Science The scientific study of how societies govern the

people; Analyzes the role of government in regulating

people’s behavior, as well as How and to what degree it serves to protect

societal members of threats (i.e., internal and external)

as well as influencing/regulating services, goods and resources (i.e., energy, commodities, etc.)

Psychology concerned with the behavior, feelings and

thoughts of individuals as influenced by social stimuli and/or the person’s physiology.

The subfield of abnormal psychology is concerned with mental disorders, ranging from psychoses to neuroses

The applied field of clinical psychology offers direct patient-care mechanisms to treat mental problems in individuals.

Anthropology. Anthropology is a broad social science concerned with the

study of humans from a social, biological and cultural perspective

Physical anthropology divides into two areas, one related to tracing human evolution and the study of primates, and the other concerned with contemporary human characteristics stemming from the mixture of genetic adaptations and culture.

Sociocultural anthropology is concerned with broad aspects of the adaptation of humans to their cultures— with social organization, language, ethnographic details, and, in general, the understanding of culturally mitigated patterns of behavior

Economics It is perhaps the oldest of the social sciences,

with its concern with wealth and poverty, trade and industry

Concerned with understanding how societis distribute, value and produce and/or import goods and services.

Microeconomics is largely concerned with issues such as competitive markets, wage rates, and profit margins. Macroeconomics deals with broader issues, such as national income, employment, and economic systems

Sociology It is the social science discipline that

study’s human society and social interaction, in group settings.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY A cross-disciplinary social scientific

discipline. Social psychologist study the relationship

between (the) individual(s) in affecting the Social groups and societal context as well

as how social group affiliation and society Affect (the) individual(s).

Dimensions Of Comte’s Positivism Methodological - the application of

scientific knowledge to physical and social phenomena.

Social and political - the use of such knowledge to predict the likely results of different policies so the best one could be chosen.

August Comte The “founder of

sociology.” Comte believed objective

knowledge was attainable only through science rather than religion.

Positivism is a belief that the world can be understood through scientific inquiry.

Theory

A set of logically interrelated statements that attempt to describe, explain and predict outcomes.

Levels of Sociological Analysis

Class lets begin to identify the various Sociological Theories

There are 4 major sociological theories; Please someone, identify the most

conservative theory among the 4; We will be talking about each of the

theories, comparing and contrasting them in terms of the Marriage and Family Institution, what you indicated is the most popular of all the social institutions.

Marriage and Family Discussion

Drawn from the textbook I adopted for my marriage and family course;

Lamanna, Mary Ann & Agnes Riedmann. 2000. (7th Edition) Marriages and Families: Making Choices in a Diverse Society. Wadsworth Thomas Learning Publishing Company. ISBN 0-534-52507-5

Major Sociological Theoretical ApproachesMajor Sociological Theoretical ApproachesI . Symbolic InteractionI . Symbolic Interaction

Levels of Analysis Micro-SociologicalMicro-Sociological

Nature of Society A social reality A social reality continuously created continuously created through social through social interaction.interaction.

Basis ofSocial interaction

Shared symbols and Shared symbols and meaningsmeanings

Focus of Analysis Individuals of social Individuals of social actorsactors

Major Sociological Theoretical ApproachesMajor Sociological Theoretical ApproachesII. Social II. Social Exchange; aka Post ModernismExchange; aka Post Modernism

Levels of Analysis Micro-SociologicalMicro-Sociological

Nature of Society A social reality A social reality continuously created continuously created through social interaction.through social interaction.

Basis ofSocial interaction

Social Reciprocity Social Reciprocity Elementary Forms of Elementary Forms of Social BehaviorSocial Behavior

Focus of Analysis Postindustrialization, consumerism, Postindustrialization, consumerism, and global communications bring and global communications bring into question assumptions about into question assumptions about social life and the nature of realitysocial life and the nature of reality

Major Sociological Theoretical Major Sociological Theoretical ApproachesApproaches

III. Structural/FunctionalIII. Structural/Functional

Levels of Analysis Macro-SociologicalMacro-Sociological

Nature of Society A social system consisting A social system consisting of interdependent unitsof interdependent units

Basis ofSocial interaction

Consensus deriving from Consensus deriving from shared beliefs and values.shared beliefs and values.

Focus of Analysis Social order and the Social order and the perpetuation of societyperpetuation of society

Levels ofAnalysis

Macro-Macro-

SociologicalSociological

Nature ofSociety

A social order characterized by A social order characterized by competing groups and classes, competing groups and classes, each pursuing its own interestseach pursuing its own interests

Basis ofSocial interaction

Conflict and coercionConflict and coercion

Focus ofAnalysis

Competition for control of limited Competition for control of limited resourcesresources

IV. CONFLICT THEORYIV. CONFLICT THEORY

Chapter 2Chapter 2

Sociological Research Sociological Research MethodsMethods

Chapter Outline Why is Sociological Research

Necessary? The Sociological Research Process Research Methods Ethical Issues in Sociological Research

Sharpening Your Focus What is the relationship between theory

and research? What are the steps in the conventional

research process? What can qualitative methods add to our

understanding of human behavior?

Theory and Research Cycle A theory is a set of logically interrelated

statements that attempt to describe, explain, and predict social events.

Research is the process of systematically collecting information for the purpose of testing an existing theory or generating a new one.

The theory and research cycle consists of deductive and inductive approaches.

Conventional Research Model

1. Select and define the research problem.

2. Review previous research.

3. Formulate the hypothesis.

4. Develop the research design.

5. Collect and analyze the data.

6. Draw conclusions and report the findings.

Theory and Research Cycle

Deductive Approach

1. Theories generate hypotheses.

2. Hypotheses lead to observations.

3. Observations lead to the formation of generalizations.

4. Generalizations are used to support the theory, suggest modifications to it, or refute it.

Inductive Approach1. Specific observations suggest

generalizations.2. Generalizations produce a tentative

theory.3. The theory is tested through the

formation of hypotheses.4. Hypotheses may provide suggestions

for additional observations.

Sociology and Scientific Evidence Many sociologists believe that two basic

scientific standards must be met:

1. Scientific beliefs should be supported by good evidence or information.

2. These beliefs should be open to public debate and critiques from other scholars, with alternative interpretations being considered.

Sociology and Scientific Evidence Sociology involves debunking,

unmasking false ideas or opinions. Two approaches:

Normative Empirical

Hypothesis Defined

A predict statement derived from a theoretical perspective, that ascribes how two or more variables relate to each other.

Variables The independent variable is presumed

to cause or determine a dependent variable.

The dependent variable is assumed to depend on or be caused by the independent variable(s).

Demonstrating Cause-and-Effect Relationships

1. You must show that a correlation exists between the variables.

2. You must ensure that the independent variable preceded the dependent variable.

3. You must make sure that any change in the dependent variable was not due to a variable outside the stated hypothesis.

Cause and Effect Relationships

Why do older African American men have a lower rate of suicide than older white males?

Questions like this are the foundation for study as sociologists try to understand cause-and-effect relationships.

Variables Independent Dependent Intervening

Hypothesized Relationships Between Variables Causal Relationship

Hypothesized Relationships Between Variables Inverse Causal Relationship

Hypothesized Relationships Between Variables Multiple-cause Explanation

Question In a medical study, lung cancer could be

the _____ variable, while smoking could be the ______ variable.

a. dependant, independent

b. independent, dependant

c. valid, reliable

d. reliable, valid

Answer: a In a medical study, lung cancer could be

the dependant variable, while smoking could be the independent variable.

Operational Definition An explanation of an

abstract concept in terms of observable features that are specific enough to measure the variable.

The operational definition of an A may be an exam average of 90% or above.

QuestionValidity is the extent to which a study or

research instrument:A. accurately measures what it is

supposed to measure.B. yields consistent results.C. approximates a true experiment.D. relies on other variables to preserve

validity.

Answer: A Validity is the extent to which a study or

research instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.

Validity The extent to which a study or research

instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.

Reliability The extent to which a study or research

instrument yields consistent results when applied to different individuals at one time or to the same individuals over time.

Sharpening Your Focus Why is it important to have a variety of research

methods available?

Why is a code of ethics for sociological research necessary?

Triangulation Combining multiple methods in a given

study. Triangulation refers not only to research

methods but also to multiple data sources, investigators, and theoretical perspectives in a study.

Multiple data sources include persons, situations, contexts, and time.

ASA Code of Ethics

1. Disclose research findings in full and include all possible interpretations of the data.

2. Safeguard the participants’ right to privacy and dignity while protecting them from harm.

ASA Code of Ethics

3. Protect confidential information provided by participants.

4. Acknowledge research collaboration and disclose all financial support.

Sampling In random sampling, every member of

an entire population being studied has the same chance of being selected.

In probability sampling, participants are deliberately chosen because they have specific characteristics, possibly including such factors as age, sex, race/ethnicity, and educational attainment.

Research and Social Factors Sociological research

looks at factors that motivate suicide bombers.

Some researchers might ask why suicide bomber Raed Abdel-Hameed Mesk would take his own life while committing a terrorist attack.

Research Methods Specific strategies or techniques for

systematically conducting research.

Qualitative Research Method

1. Researcher begins with a general approach rather than a highly detailed plan.

2. Researcher has to decide when the literature review and theory application should take place.

Qualitative Research Method3. The study presents a detailed view of

the topic.4. Access to people or other resources that

can provide necessary data is crucial.5. Appropriate research method(s) are

important for acquiring useful qualitative data.

Survey Research

Describes a population without interviewing each individual.

Standardized questions force respondents into categories.

Relies on self-reported information, and some people may not be truthful.

Survey Definitions Respondents are persons who provide data for

analysis through interviews or questionnaires. A questionnaire is a printed research

instrument containing a series of items to which subjects respond.

An interview is a research method in which an interviewer asks the respondent questions and records the answers.

Surveys and Polls Conducting surveys

and polls is an important means of gathering data from respondents.

Computer-assisted Telephone Interviewing

The widespread use of answering machines, voice mail, and caller ID may make this form of research more difficult in the twenty-first century.

Research Methods: Field Research Study of social life in its natural setting. Observing and interviewing people where

they live, work, and play. Generates observations that are best

described verbally rather than numerically.

Field Research

How might sociologists study the ways in which parents and their college-age children cope when the students first leave home.

Approaches to Field Research

Participant observation Collecting observations while part of the

activities of the group being studied. Ethnography

Detailed study of the life and activities of a group of people over a period of years.

Approaches to Field Research Case Studies - In-depth, multifaceted

investigation of a single event, person, or social grouping. A collective case study involves

multiple cases. An unstructured interview is an extended,

open-ended interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee.

Ethnographic Research Sociologist Elijah

Anderson’s 14 year study of two Philadelphia neighborhoods— one populated by low-income African Americans, the other racially mixed but increasingly middle- to upper income and white—is an example of ethnographic research.

Research Methods: Secondary Analysis of Existing Data

Materials studied may include: books, diaries, poems, graffiti, movies,

television shows, advertisements, greeting cards, music, art, and even garbage.

Experiments Study the impact of certain variables on

subjects’ attitudes or behavior. Designed to create “real-life” situations. Used to demonstrate a cause-and-effect

relationship between variables.

Non Laboratory Settings

Natural experiments may be conducted when an unforeseen event occurs. What adaptation strategies did these people use during the massive power outage in the northeastern United States?

Effective Research Methods Which methods might

be most effective in learning about the problems of the homeless, such as these street people warming themselves on a warm grate in Moscow, Russia?

Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods

Research Method

Strengths Weaknesses

Experiments (Laboratory,

Field, Natural)

Control over research.

Ability to isolate experimental

factors.Little time and

money required.Replication possible,

except for natural experiments.

Artificial Reliance on volunteers or

captive audiences.Ethical questions of

deception.

Statistics: What We Do and Don’t Know

Homelessnessin the U.S.

Suicide in the U. S.

Explanation The homeless often avoid interviews with census takers.

Critics assert the actual number may be 3 million and that the government intentionally

undercounts them.

Census data places Latino/as in the category of whites.

Other than African Americans, people of color are listed as nonwhite—other.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods

Research Method

Strengths Weaknesses

Survey Research

(Questionnaire, Interview, Telephone

Survey)

Useful in describing features of a large population without

interviewing everyone

Relatively large samples possible

Multivariate analysis possible

Potentially forced answers

Respondent untruthfulness onemotional issues Data that are not

always “hard facts” presented as such

in statistical analyses

Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods

Research Method

Strengths Weaknesses

Secondary Analysis of

Existing Data (Existing Statistics, Content Analysis)

Data readily available.

inexpensive to collect.

Longitudinal and comparative studies

possible.Replication possible.

Difficult to determine accuracy of data.

Failure of data gathered by others to meet goals of current

research.Questions of privacy when using diaries,

other personal documents.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods

Research Method

Strengths Weaknesses

Field Research

(Participant Observation, Case Study, Ethnography, Unstructured

Interview)

Gain insider’s view.Useful for studying behaviors in natural

settings.Longitudinal studies

possible.Documentation of social problems of groups possible.

Problems generalizing results.

Nonprecise data measurements.Inability to test

theories.Difficult to make

comparisons.Not representative.

Quantitative and Qualitative Research Quantitative research focuses on data

that can be measured numerically. Qualitative research focuses on

interpretive description rather than statistics to analyze underlying meanings and patterns of social relationships.

Analyzing Content Examination of cultural artifacts or forms of

communication to draw conclusions about social life.

Cultural artifacts are products of individual activity, social organizations, technology, and cultural patterns.

Among the materials studied are diaries, love letters, poems, books, and graffiti, movies, television, advertisements, and greeting cards.

Correlation Versus Causation A study might find that exposure to a suicide

hot line is associated with a change in attitude toward suicide.

If some of the students who were exposed to the hot line also received psychiatric counseling, the counseling may be the “hidden” cause of the observed change in attitude.

Correlations alone do not prove causation.

Hawthorne Effect A phenomenon in which changes in a

subject’s behavior are caused by the researcher’s presence or by the subject’s awareness of being studied.

Understanding Statistical Data Presentations

1. Read the title.

2. Check the source and explanatory notes.

3. Read the headings for each column and row.

4. Examine and compare the data.

5. Draw conclusions.

Statistics: What We Do and Don’t Know

Homelessness in the U.S.

Suicide in the U. S.

Research Finding

At least 250,000 people in the U.S.

are homeless.

At least 32,439 Americans committed

suicide in 2004.

Possible Problem

Does that underestimate the

number of homeless people?

Are suicide rates different for some categories of U.S.

citizens?

U.S. Suicides, by Sex and Method Used, 1984 and 2004

Method Males Females

1984 2000 1984 2000

Total 22,689 25,566 6,597 6,873

Firearm 14,504 14,523 2,609 2,227

Poisoning 3,203 3,200 2,406 2,600

Suffocation 3,478 5,980 863 1,356

Grounded Theory Researchers who use grounded theory

collect and analyze data simultaneously. For example, after in-depth interviews

with 106 suicide attempters, researchers in one study concluded that half of the individuals who attempted suicide wanted both to live and to die at the time of their attempt.

Zellner Research Sociologist William Zellner wondered if

some automobile “accidents” were actually suicides.

By interviewing people who knew the victims, Zellner hoped to obtain information that would help determine if the deaths were accidental or intentional.

Zellner Research When he recruited respondents, he

suggested their participation might reduce the number of accidents in the future; but didn’t mention that he suspected autocide.

From the data he collected, Zellner concluded that at least 12% of the fatal single-occupant crashes were suicides.

Quick Quiz

1. The scientific method is based on the assumption that knowledge is best gained by:

A. direct observationB. systematic observationC. the support of good evidenceD. the possibility for public debateE. all of these choices

Answer: E The scientific method is based on the

assumption that knowledge is best gained by: direct observation, systematic observation, the support of good evidence and the possibility for public debate.

2. With _____ research, the goal is scientific objectivity, and the focus is on data that can be measured numerically.

A. inductive

B. deductive

C. quantitative

D. qualitative

Answer: C With quantitative research, the goal is

scientific objectivity, and the focus is on data that can be measured numerically.

3. _____ exists when two variable are associated more frequently than could be expected by chance.

A. Multiple causation

B. Regression relation

C. Correlation

D. Spurious relation

Answer: C Correlation exists when two variable

are associated more frequently than could be expected by chance.

4. Reliability is the extent to which a study or research instrument:

A. measures the phenomenon it is intended to measure.

B. yields consistent results.

C. approximates a true experiment.

D. relies on other variables to preserve validity.

Answer: B Reliability is the extent to which a study

or research instrument yields consistent results.