Civil Rights Movement—Civil Rights Movement—CausesCauses

NOTESNOTES

I.I. The failure of The failure of Reconstruction allowed Reconstruction allowed problems that would problems that would make the Civil Rights make the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950’s Movement of the 1950’s and 1960’s necessary.and 1960’s necessary.

Essential or Guiding Question:Essential or Guiding Question:

Why was the Civil Rights Why was the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950’s and Movement of the 1950’s and 1960’s necessary?1960’s necessary?

A.A. Following the American Civil War Following the American Civil War (1861-1865), President Abraham (1861-1865), President Abraham Lincoln set about putting the nation Lincoln set about putting the nation back together in his program called back together in his program called Reconstruction. After Lincoln’s death, Reconstruction. After Lincoln’s death, Reconstruction continued under his Reconstruction continued under his Vice President Andrew Johnson, Vice President Andrew Johnson, although the Radical Republicans in although the Radical Republicans in Congress redirected the program. Congress redirected the program. Ultimately, Reconstruction fell short Ultimately, Reconstruction fell short of its intended goals.of its intended goals.

1.1. Lincoln’s plan was forgiving of Lincoln’s plan was forgiving of the Southern states that the Southern states that seceded. He sought to readmit seceded. He sought to readmit them into Union as quickly as them into Union as quickly as possible and pardoned—to possible and pardoned—to formally forgive someone of a formally forgive someone of a crime—most Confederates, crime—most Confederates, except the top leaders.except the top leaders.

2.2. The Radical Republicans in Congress The Radical Republicans in Congress thought Lincoln’s plan was too thought Lincoln’s plan was too lenient. They wanted to destroy the lenient. They wanted to destroy the political power of the former political power of the former slaveholders and rebuild the South, slaveholders and rebuild the South, bringing the freedmen—the freed bringing the freedmen—the freed slaves—into politics and society. slaves—into politics and society. After Lincoln’s assassination, the After Lincoln’s assassination, the Radical Republicans intentions toward Radical Republicans intentions toward Reconstruction started to take over.Reconstruction started to take over.

a.a. Lincoln’s successor, Democrat Andrew Lincoln’s successor, Democrat Andrew Johnson, tried to continue Lincoln’s Johnson, tried to continue Lincoln’s vision of Reconstruction. Under vision of Reconstruction. Under Johnson, the Southern states were all Johnson, the Southern states were all readmitted to the Union. However, readmitted to the Union. However, thanks to his Presidential pardons, thanks to his Presidential pardons, many former Confederate officials many former Confederate officials regained political power both in the regained political power both in the state governments and in the federal state governments and in the federal government. government.

b.b. Upset by the lack of political Upset by the lack of political change made by Reconstruction change made by Reconstruction under Johnson, the Radical under Johnson, the Radical Republicans found themselves Republicans found themselves at odds with the President. He at odds with the President. He vetoed more acts of Congress vetoed more acts of Congress than any other President. than any other President.

c.c. Reconstruction did little to help Reconstruction did little to help the freedmen become a part of the freedmen become a part of American society. When American society. When Johnson claimed Reconstruction Johnson claimed Reconstruction was complete in late 1865, the was complete in late 1865, the Radical Republicans attempted Radical Republicans attempted to make more changes to to make more changes to Southern society, but Johnson Southern society, but Johnson stood in the way.stood in the way.

1)1) One way Congress tried to One way Congress tried to improve life in the South for the improve life in the South for the freedmen was by enacting the freedmen was by enacting the Freedman’s Bureau. It was Freedman’s Bureau. It was originally established by originally established by Congress towards the end of the Congress towards the end of the Civil War to distribute clothing Civil War to distribute clothing and food to freedmen and poor and food to freedmen and poor whites in the South. whites in the South.

It was responsible for setting up It was responsible for setting up hospitals, schools, vocational hospitals, schools, vocational education programs and teacher education programs and teacher training centers. In 1866, training centers. In 1866, Congress wanted to continue Congress wanted to continue and expand the role of the and expand the role of the Bureau, but Johnson vetoed it. Bureau, but Johnson vetoed it.

2)2) Another action Another action Congress took Congress took was passing the was passing the Civil Rights Act of Civil Rights Act of 1866. 1866.

(a)(a) Civil rights are the freedoms Civil rights are the freedoms that are universally expected to that are universally expected to be free from government be free from government interference, such as freedom interference, such as freedom of speech, freedom from of speech, freedom from unwarranted government unwarranted government action (such as search and action (such as search and seizure), freedom from seizure), freedom from discrimination, etc. discrimination, etc.

(b)(b) This act was passed as a direct This act was passed as a direct response to the emergence of response to the emergence of black codes—laws passed black codes—laws passed specifically to restrict the lives specifically to restrict the lives of and discriminate against of and discriminate against blacks in the South. Black blacks in the South. Black Codes were designed to keep Codes were designed to keep the freedmen socially and the freedmen socially and politically inferior to whites. politically inferior to whites.

These laws denied African-These laws denied African-Americans rights, prohibiting Americans rights, prohibiting blacks from carrying weapons, blacks from carrying weapons, serving on juries, testifying serving on juries, testifying against whites in court, against whites in court, marrying whites and traveling marrying whites and traveling without a permit.without a permit.

c.c. Again, Johnson vetoed the Again, Johnson vetoed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, Civil Rights Act of 1866, staging a battle between staging a battle between the President and Congress. the President and Congress. Congress overrode Congress overrode Johnson’s veto by getting a Johnson’s veto by getting a 2/3 majority and the bill 2/3 majority and the bill became a law.became a law.

3)3) In 1866, in an effort to cut President In 1866, in an effort to cut President Johnson out of Reconstruction, Johnson out of Reconstruction, Congress drafted the 14th Congress drafted the 14th Amendment to the Constitution. It Amendment to the Constitution. It granted the freedmen citizenship and granted the freedmen citizenship and equal protection under law. Again, equal protection under law. Again, this action was caused by the this action was caused by the Southern states refusal to grant Southern states refusal to grant African-Americans their civil rights. African-Americans their civil rights. This amendment was so controversial This amendment was so controversial that it did not get ratified until 1868.that it did not get ratified until 1868.

4)4) With the Reconstruction Act of 1867, With the Reconstruction Act of 1867, Reconstruction took an even more radical Reconstruction took an even more radical turn. Congress changed Lincoln’s original turn. Congress changed Lincoln’s original plan to readmit Southern states into the plan to readmit Southern states into the union by making new requirements for union by making new requirements for new states governments. African-new states governments. African-American males were to be a part in American males were to be a part in electing the politicians set to make the electing the politicians set to make the new state Constitutions. Johnson vetoed new state Constitutions. Johnson vetoed this act too, but Congress was able to this act too, but Congress was able to override it.override it.

3.3. The Radical Republicans The Radical Republicans controlling Congress felt controlling Congress felt President Johnson stood in President Johnson stood in the way of the changes the the way of the changes the believe the South needed so believe the South needed so Congress set a trap to Congress set a trap to impeach him and almost impeach him and almost removed him from office. removed him from office.

a.a. In 1867, Congress passed In 1867, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act. the Tenure of Office Act. This law made it illegal for This law made it illegal for the President to remove the President to remove someone from office someone from office without the Senate’s without the Senate’s approval. approval.

b.b. Johnson violated the law by Johnson violated the law by firing Secretary of War William firing Secretary of War William Seward. This was the cause of Seward. This was the cause of the House’s impeachment—the the House’s impeachment—the accusation of a public official for accusation of a public official for committing “high crimes and committing “high crimes and misdemeanors”—of Johnson. misdemeanors”—of Johnson.

c.c. Ultimately, the Senate—Ultimately, the Senate—who tries impeachment who tries impeachment hearings to find out if the hearings to find out if the official is guilty—was only official is guilty—was only one vote short from being one vote short from being removed. Johnson was removed. Johnson was disgraced for the remainder disgraced for the remainder of his Presidency. of his Presidency.

d.d. The next president was The next president was Republican war hero Republican war hero Ulysses S. Grant, who won Ulysses S. Grant, who won thanks to 500,000 African-thanks to 500,000 African-American votes. He did not American votes. He did not stand in the way of the stand in the way of the Radical Republicans Radical Republicans Reconstruction plan.Reconstruction plan.

e.e. The 15th Amendment was ratified in The 15th Amendment was ratified in 1870. It was passed after concern 1870. It was passed after concern was raised that Grant’s narrow was raised that Grant’s narrow victory would encourage white victory would encourage white Southerners to disenfranchise—which Southerners to disenfranchise—which is to take away political power from—is to take away political power from—African-Americans. The Amendment African-Americans. The Amendment makes it illegal to deny anyone the makes it illegal to deny anyone the right to vote due to “race, color, or right to vote due to “race, color, or previous condition of servitude.”previous condition of servitude.”

f.f. Congress then passed the Congress then passed the Enforcement Act in 1870. It Enforcement Act in 1870. It gave the federal government gave the federal government the power to enforce the the power to enforce the 15th Amendment and 15th Amendment and punish anyone who violated punish anyone who violated African-Americans right to African-Americans right to vote.vote.

B.B. Reconstruction did not only Reconstruction did not only deal with readmitting former-deal with readmitting former-Confederate states into the Confederate states into the Union. It also had to do with Union. It also had to do with rebuilding the war-torn South. rebuilding the war-torn South. Additionally, the Radical Additionally, the Radical Republicans also wanted to Republicans also wanted to restructure Southern society.restructure Southern society.

1.1. Southerners were resistant to Southerners were resistant to bringing the freedmen into bringing the freedmen into mainstream society and, mainstream society and, perhaps even more importantly, perhaps even more importantly, politics. Because of the politics. Because of the obstacles being imposed, such obstacles being imposed, such black codes and poll taxes, black codes and poll taxes, some Northern reformers went some Northern reformers went South to try and change things.South to try and change things.

a.a. Northerners who went South Northerners who went South were called carpetbaggers—were called carpetbaggers—named after suitcases that were named after suitcases that were popular at that time. This term popular at that time. This term was meant as an insult, as they was meant as an insult, as they were resented by whites in the were resented by whites in the South.South.

b.b. Some Southerners believed in and Some Southerners believed in and cooperated with Reconstruction. They cooperated with Reconstruction. They were called scalawags. Some were called scalawags. Some “scalawags” only participated in the “scalawags” only participated in the reform movement in hopes of gaining reform movement in hopes of gaining political power in the new South. political power in the new South. Others were committed to change. Others were committed to change. Whichever the case, they were also Whichever the case, they were also looked on as traitors by most looked on as traitors by most Southerners.Southerners.

2.2. One plan to try and One plan to try and bring the freedmen bring the freedmen into white society into white society was the ‘40 acre and was the ‘40 acre and a mule’ plan. a mule’ plan.

a.a. African-Americans African-Americans were promised were promised land for helping land for helping the Union in the the Union in the Civil War.Civil War.

b.b. Some believed that if Some believed that if African-Americans were African-Americans were given land and some tools to given land and some tools to farm it, they would be able farm it, they would be able to become self-sufficient to become self-sufficient economically, which would economically, which would lead to political and social lead to political and social equality. equality.

c.c. Unfortunately, the politicians did Unfortunately, the politicians did not come through. Most land not come through. Most land reform measures were dismissed reform measures were dismissed or poorly implemented. An or poorly implemented. An example in the 1866 Homestead example in the 1866 Homestead Act that set aside 44 million acres Act that set aside 44 million acres to be given to freedmen. Most of to be given to freedmen. Most of the land, however, was the land, however, was undesirable and unsuitable for undesirable and unsuitable for farming.farming.

C.C. The “New South” The “New South” wasn’t really that wasn’t really that new. In several ways, new. In several ways, the Reconstructed the Reconstructed South wasn’t really South wasn’t really different.different.

1.1. PoliticalPolitical

a.a. Although the freedmen had Although the freedmen had been guaranteed the right to been guaranteed the right to vote by the Constitution with vote by the Constitution with the passage of the 14th and the passage of the 14th and 15th Amendments, in 15th Amendments, in practice, they were kept from practice, they were kept from exercising their voting rights. exercising their voting rights.

1)1) Once the power of the black Once the power of the black vote became apparent in vote became apparent in the 1870 presidential the 1870 presidential election, white Southerners election, white Southerners saw the threat African-saw the threat African-Americans posed at the Americans posed at the polls.polls.

2)2) To minimize the impact of To minimize the impact of African-American African-American participation in politics, participation in politics, practices, such as black practices, such as black codes, literacy tests and poll codes, literacy tests and poll taxes, prevented African-taxes, prevented African-Americans from voting. Americans from voting.

Poor and uneducated whites were Poor and uneducated whites were exempted by these measures by the exempted by these measures by the grandfather clause, which said that if grandfather clause, which said that if someone couldn’t pass the literacy someone couldn’t pass the literacy test or pay the poll tax, they’d still be test or pay the poll tax, they’d still be eligible to vote if his father or eligible to vote if his father or grandfather was eligible to vote grandfather was eligible to vote before 1867. No blacks had the right before 1867. No blacks had the right to vote before this time, so the to vote before this time, so the grandfather clause only protected grandfather clause only protected whites.whites.

3)3) Terrorist groups like Terrorist groups like the Ku Klux Klan the Ku Klux Klan committed acts of committed acts of terrorism to also terrorism to also keep blacks from keep blacks from voting.voting.

4)4) Local and state governments Local and state governments in the South did not protect in the South did not protect the rights of African-the rights of African-Americans. The federal Americans. The federal government found it government found it difficult to force the South difficult to force the South to respect these rights.to respect these rights.

b.b. With the Johnson With the Johnson administration’s pardon of administration’s pardon of the politicians of the old the politicians of the old South, the new South was South, the new South was run by the same people who run by the same people who ran it before the Civil War. ran it before the Civil War. These politicians did not These politicians did not want things to change.want things to change.

b.b. With the Johnson administration’s With the Johnson administration’s pardon of the politicians of the old pardon of the politicians of the old South, the new South was run by South, the new South was run by the same people who ran it before the same people who ran it before the Civil War. These politicians did the Civil War. These politicians did not want things to change. and, in not want things to change. and, in fact, tried to put things back to the fact, tried to put things back to the way they used to be as much as way they used to be as much as possible.possible.

2.2. EconomicEconomic

a.a. Although the slaves had been Although the slaves had been set free, the only thing the set free, the only thing the freedmen were qualified to freedmen were qualified to do for a living was farm. But do for a living was farm. But without land, they were at without land, they were at the mercy of the rich the mercy of the rich plantation owners they plantation owners they worked for beforeworked for before

1)1) Some black leaders, like Some black leaders, like Booker T. Washington, Booker T. Washington, pushed the need for pushed the need for vocational education vocational education programs to provide programs to provide blacks with blacks with opportunities in the opportunities in the trades. trades.

a)a) Washington founded Washington founded the Tuskegee the Tuskegee Institute, a school Institute, a school that trained African-that trained African-Americans for Americans for professions.professions.

b)b) Washington believed Washington believed that African-Americans that African-Americans could only achieve social could only achieve social equality once they equality once they improved their standard improved their standard of living by coming out of living by coming out of poverty.of poverty.

2)2) Other leaders, such as Other leaders, such as W.E.B. Dubois, W.E.B. Dubois, thought that equality thought that equality would come as would come as African-Americans African-Americans became educated.became educated.

b.b. The system of The system of sharecropping developed. sharecropping developed. 1)1) In this system, the In this system, the

landowner “rented” a landowner “rented” a plot of land to a farmer plot of land to a farmer and provided him with and provided him with tools and supplies to tools and supplies to farm the land. farm the land.

2)2) The farmer was allowed The farmer was allowed to keep only enough to keep only enough food to feed his family. food to feed his family. All surplus had to be All surplus had to be given back to the given back to the landowner as rent.landowner as rent.

3)3) Sharecropping created a cycle of Sharecropping created a cycle of poverty. In theory, a freedman could poverty. In theory, a freedman could save up enough money to become a save up enough money to become a tenant farmer, moving up the tenant farmer, moving up the economic ladder. But in reality, economic ladder. But in reality, sharecroppers were in a system of sharecroppers were in a system of virtual slavery, being kept perpetually virtual slavery, being kept perpetually poor and dependant on the land poor and dependant on the land owner. Sharecroppers were also owner. Sharecroppers were also forced by the landowner to grow cash forced by the landowner to grow cash crops, such as cotton or tobacco.crops, such as cotton or tobacco.

4)4) Other problems plagued the Other problems plagued the freedmen in the sharecropping freedmen in the sharecropping system. During the Civil War, system. During the Civil War, many countries found other many countries found other sources for cotton. With the sources for cotton. With the added competition, cotton was added competition, cotton was no longer as profitable. no longer as profitable.

3.3. SocialSocial

a.a. Economic hard times are tied Economic hard times are tied to racial tensions.to racial tensions.

1)1) African-Americans were African-Americans were blamed by many whites for blamed by many whites for economic problems in the economic problems in the period after the Civil War. period after the Civil War. This added to the pre-This added to the pre-existing racism.existing racism.

2)2) This race hatred led to a rise of This race hatred led to a rise of terrorist organizations, like the terrorist organizations, like the KKK and other, in the decades KKK and other, in the decades after the Civil War. after the Civil War.

3)3) Whites were determined not to Whites were determined not to accept the freedmen into white accept the freedmen into white society.society.

b.b. Segregation became the law of Segregation became the law of the land.the land.

1)1) Southern society became Southern society became strictly segregated by race. strictly segregated by race. Segregation is the separation Segregation is the separation of groups. Blacks and whites of groups. Blacks and whites were kept apart in both public were kept apart in both public and private facilities.and private facilities.

2)2) The segregation measures called The segregation measures called black codes during Reconstruction black codes during Reconstruction continued after, being called Jim continued after, being called Jim Crow laws. Racial segregation was Crow laws. Racial segregation was put into effect in schools, hospitals, put into effect in schools, hospitals, parks, and transportations systems. parks, and transportations systems. Even public bathrooms and drinking Even public bathrooms and drinking fountains were segregated. Blacks fountains were segregated. Blacks were also barred from hotels, were also barred from hotels, restaurants and theaters.restaurants and theaters.

3)3) When challenged in the When challenged in the Supreme Court in the Plessy v. Supreme Court in the Plessy v. Ferguson case in 1896, the Ferguson case in 1896, the Supreme Court ruled that Supreme Court ruled that segregation was legal, as long segregation was legal, as long as the facilities were “separate as the facilities were “separate but equal.” In reality, everyone but equal.” In reality, everyone knew that things were not knew that things were not equal.equal.

D.D. Due to corruption (Grant’s Due to corruption (Grant’s presidency was severely presidency was severely marred by corruption), marred by corruption), economic problems and economic problems and lack of political and popular lack of political and popular support, Reconstruction ran support, Reconstruction ran out of steam by the 1880’s.out of steam by the 1880’s.

1.1. Grant used the spoils system and Grant used the spoils system and gave mean political jobs to friends gave mean political jobs to friends and political allies. As a result, and political allies. As a result, many scandals erupted during his many scandals erupted during his presidency. Most historians presidency. Most historians believe that Grant’s lack of believe that Grant’s lack of political experience led to him political experience led to him surrounding himself with people surrounding himself with people who took advantage of him.who took advantage of him.

a.a. One of these events was the One of these events was the Credit Mobilier scandal. The Credit Mobilier scandal. The Credit Mobilier construction Credit Mobilier construction company was helping build the company was helping build the Union Pacific Railroad. It Union Pacific Railroad. It skimmed off large profits off it. skimmed off large profits off it. Several political officials in Grant’s Several political officials in Grant’s administration we involved in administration we involved in receiving bribes, including his receiving bribes, including his Vice-President. Vice-President.

b.b. Other scandal from the time Other scandal from the time was the Whiskey Ring. was the Whiskey Ring. Whiskey distillers bribed Whiskey distillers bribed government officials to avoid government officials to avoid paying millions of dollars in paying millions of dollars in taxes. These are two examples taxes. These are two examples of many scandals from Grant’s of many scandals from Grant’s era. era.

c.c. All in all, these events All in all, these events led to a distrust of the led to a distrust of the presidency and helped presidency and helped cause the era of weak cause the era of weak presidents that presidents that followed.followed.

2.2. The economic problems The economic problems caused by the war, most caused by the war, most notably Confederate notably Confederate debt, caused racial debt, caused racial tensions and also made tensions and also made everyone tired of everyone tired of Reconstruction.Reconstruction.

3.3. The Compromise of 1877 The Compromise of 1877 essentially ended essentially ended Reconstruction. The Reconstruction. The Presidential election of Presidential election of 1876 to replace Grant pitted 1876 to replace Grant pitted Republican Rutherford B. Republican Rutherford B. Hayes against Democrat Hayes against Democrat Samuel Tilden. Samuel Tilden.

a.a. Tilden won the Tilden won the popular vote by a popular vote by a small margin, but the small margin, but the Electoral College vote Electoral College vote was going to be close. was going to be close.

b.b. A secret deal was struck A secret deal was struck where the Republicans where the Republicans were given the Presidency if were given the Presidency if they agreed to end they agreed to end Reconstruction and Reconstruction and withdraw Federal troops withdraw Federal troops from the South.from the South.

4.4. With Northern support With Northern support evaporated, evaporated, Reconstruction ended Reconstruction ended without realizing its without realizing its goals, leaving the goals, leaving the problems to be solved problems to be solved later.later.