city and sanctuary in hellenistic asia minor constructing civic identity in the sacred landscapes...

PhD dissertation – summary

City and Sanctuary in Hellenistic Asia Minor constructing civic identity in the sacred landscapes of Mylasa and Stratonikeia in Karia

Christina G. Williamson

University of Groningen P.O. Box 716 9700 AS Groningen The Netherlands

Tel. +31(0)6 349 251 78 email: [email protected]

Abstract In this research, Christina Williamson studies the phenomenon of major outlying sanctuaries which

accompanied the second rise of the Greek polis in Asia Minor in the Hellenistic period. While such

‘extra-urban’ sanctuaries in the Archaic world are typically interpreted as frontier shrines marking

critical borders of civic territory, Williamson argues that the situation in Hellenistic Asia Minor is much

more complex, as the Greek polis model took hold in landscapes that were already highly socially

articulated. Drawing on a wide range of archaeological and historical sources, she examines in detail

the processes of transformation that took place at the shrines of Zeus Labraundos and Sinuri in the

landscape of Mylasa, and Hekate at Lagina and Zeus at Panamara in the outer limits of Stratonikeia in

Karia, as they were turned into major civic centers. Using theories taken from the cognitive, social and

spatial sciences, Williamson contextualizes these transformations in light of their effect on society and

interprets them with regard to polis formation. In doing so she shows that instead of their proximity to

borders, it was their capacity to foster social cohesion, territorial integrity, and civic identity among

hybrid and dispersed communities that made them so vital to rising poleis.

Map showing cities in Asia Minor with major outlying sanctuaries

mailto:[email protected]

Christina Williamson –City and Sanctuary in Hellenistic Asia Minor– PhD dissertation summary

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Summary – City and Sanctuary in Hellenistic Asia Minor.

Constructing civic identity in sacred landscapes

Sanctuary, landscape, and community are three intertwined strands that were affected by the wave of

urbanism that spread across Asia Minor in the wake of Alexander the Great. The primary aim of this

research is to discover why so many developing cities in the Hellenistic period centered their attention

on cults with sanctuaries that were located far from the urban center, and how these were

instrumental in creating a common civic identity. In the Archaic and Classical Greek world, such

shrines are designated as ‘extra-urban’ and are typically interpreted as frontier sanctuaries, marking

critical borders of civic territory. For communities in older social landscapes that were adapting to the

Greek polis model, however, the situation is more complex as numerous sacred centers that initially

had a local or regional appeal were drawn into the orbit of a polis and turned into major civic spaces.

This research investigates this phenomenon is by intensively analyzing the development of the major

outlying sanctuaries of two neighboring cities in Karia –Mylasa and Stratonikeia– which were both

known to have expanded in the Hellenistic period. The sanctuary of Zeus Labraundos, 14 km north of

Mylasa and that of the Karian god Sinuri, 15 km to the southeast, had both already been radically

monumentalized by the Hekatomnids in the fourth century BC, but each took on a new role under the

democratic city in the third century BC. Further east of Mylasa is Stratonikeia, a Seleukid foundation

which began to develop in the second century BC, a time in which it embraced and monumentalized

the cults of Hekate at Lagina, 8 km to the north, and Zeus at Panamara, 10 km to the south. The

processes of transformation at each of these four sanctuaries are methodologically examined through

the application of an analytical framework in which changes in monumental space, ritual performance,

legal organization, and civic expression are observed against the wider social-geographical

environment and historical background of the area. This interdisciplinary approach relies on a wide

variety of sources, from inscriptions, coins, ceramics, and architecture to geographical data and

satellite images, to understand the many ways in which cult and shrine were reshaped to meet the

needs of the rising city, the role of the landscape in this process, and the overall impact on community.

Each of these sanctuaries was located at the edges of civic territory, and while borders were certainly

an issue for these expanding poleis, none of these places of cult appear to have acquired a role as a

frontier sanctuary. Instead, their tightening relationship with the polis seems to have been determined

by a number of other, mostly internal concerns. Drawing on theory from the cognitive and spatial

sciences and network analyses, the principle triggers of change are identified as being the civic need

for social cohesion, fostered among others through major festivals and the design of ritual space,

territorial integrity, woven together by processional routes, visual sightlines, and collective spatial

memory, and political identity, leveraged through the symbolic capital of cult combined with polis

institutions, and by engaging in wider festival networks. These outlying sacred centers are seen as

having a vital role in constructing civic identity by giving the polis a common focus, thereby creating a

sense of internal unity among hybrid and disparate communities, and an external face that would be

recognized by the Greek world at large.

By analyzing in detail the processes of transformation which these shrines underwent as they were

turned into major civic centers, this research challenges existing theories on ‘extra-urban’ sanctuaries

while building a solid case for examining the social and political role of such sanctuaries in a new light,

in order to better interpret the relationship between landscape, city and sanctuary.


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Table of Contents

Preface

List of Figures

List of Tables

Introduction

Part 1 Theoretical Background and Research Framework

Introduction

Chapter 1.1 Three groundbreaking monographs on sanctuaries in Hellenistic Asia Minor

1.1.1 Pierre Debord (1982) Aspects sociaux et économiques de la vie religieuse dans

l'Anatolie gréco-romaine

1.1.2 Laura Boffo (1985) I re ellenistici e i centri religiosi dell'Asia minore

1.1.3 Beate Dignas (2002) Economy of the sacred in Hellenistic and Roman Asia Minor

Summary

Chapter 1.2 Modelling non-urban sanctuaries in the Archaic and Classical Greek world

1.2.1 City and countryside as separate categories of space

1.2.2 Frontier sanctuaries and the ‘bi-polar city’ (de Polignac)

1.2.3 Opposition: the Continuum perspective

Summary

Chapter 1.3 Alternative approaches from outside the box

1.3.1 Spatial memory and visual regions

1.3.2 Rational rituals

1.3.3 Network models

1.3.4 Regional identity

Summary

Chapter 1.4 Research strategy – goals and methods

1.4.1 Formulating the research question

1.4.2 The research framework - indicators of civic integration

1.4.3 Case Studies – criteria and selection

1.4.4 Data sources and collection

Part 2 Mylasa and the sanctuaries of Zeus Labraundos and Sinuri

Introduction

Mylasa – historical background

Chapter 2.1 Case Study 1 – Mylasa and the sanctuary of Zeus Labraundos

2.1.1 Introduction to Labraunda

2.1.2 Environment of Labraunda

2.1.3 Signs of civic integration at Labraunda

2.1.4 Interpreting the relationship between Mylasa and Labraunda

Appendix 2.1 – I.Labraunda 5

Chapter 2.2 Case Study 2 – Mylasa and the sanctuary of Sinuri

2.2.1 Introduction to the sanctuary of Sinuri

2.2.2 Environment of the sanctuary of Sinuri

2.2.3 Signs of civic integration at the sanctuary of Sinuri

2.2.4 Interpreting the relationship between Mylasa via the syngeneia and the sanctuary of Sinuri

Conclusion. City and sanctuary: Mylasa and the sanctuaries of Zeus Labraundos and Sinuri


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Part 3 Stratonikeia and the sanctuaries of Hekate at Lagina and Zeus at Panamara

Introduction

Stratonikeia – historical background

Chapter 3.1 Case Study 3 – Stratonikeia and the sanctuary of Hekate at Lagina

3.1.1 Introduction to Lagina

3.1.2 Environment of Lagina

3.1.3 Signs of civic integration at Lagina

3.1.4 Interpreting the relationship between Stratonikeia and the sanctuary of Hekate at Lagina

Chapter 3.2 Case Study 4 – Stratonikeia and the sanctuary of Zeus at Panamara

3.2.1 Introduction to Panamara

3.2.2 Environment of Panamara

3.2.3 Signs of civic integration at Panamara

3.2.4 Interpreting the relationship between Stratonikeia and the sanctuary of Zeus at Panamara

Conclusion. City and sanctuary: Stratonikeia and the sanctuaries of Hekate at Lagina and Zeus at Panamara

Part 4 Conclusions

Chapter 4.1 Conclusions based on the case study results

4.1.1 Summary of the results from the case studies

4.1.2 Comparative analyses and interpretation of the case study results

4.1.3 Conclusion

Chapter 4.2 Assessment of models and theories

4.2.2 Spatial memory and visual regions

4.2.3 Rational rituals

4.2.4 Network model

4.2.5 Regional identity

Chapter 4.3 Final remarks and suggestions for further research

Bibliography


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Chapter overview

The introduction to this volume briefly sketches the phenomenon of outlying civic sanctuaries in Asia

Minor, listing the over 30 cities in this period known to have had monumental sanctuaries in the wider

regions of their chora, and how the majority of these were either new, such as colonies, or underwent

some kind of considerable reorganization as they adapted to the model of the Greek polis.

This volume is then essentially divided into four parts. The first part introduces the question of

outlying sanctuaries in Hellenistic Asia Minor, discusses a number of alternative theories that will be

used to interpret the phenomenon, and presents the methodological framework used to analyze such

sanctuaries. This methodological framework is then applied in the second and third parts to a number

of case studies, sanctuaries that were of particular relevance to Mylasa and Stratonikeia respectively.

The fourth part of this volume presents a comparative analysis, while providing an assessment of the

alternative theories used to interpret the relationship between city and sanctuary, ending with an

overall conclusion.

Part 1 Theoretical Background and Research Framework

Part 1 discusses the context of major outlying sanctuaries against this background. Chapters 1.1 and 1.2

argues the need for new approaches; Chapter 1.1 shows how current views on sanctuaries in Hellenistic

Asia Minor tend to neglect the spatial dimension as they focus on social, economic or political aspects,1

while archaeological based theories on ‘extra-urban’ sanctuaries, discussed in Chapter 1.2, primarily

explore the Archaic-Classical periods in mainland or western Greece.2

Chapter 1.3 introduces four alternative approaches that provide important insights into this

phenomenon. The first discusses cognitive approaches to landscape and its spatial impact on memory.3

The idea of ‘visual regions’, i.e. the lumping together all of the points and features that are seen within

a single view (i.e. a viewshed) creates a strong association and sense of belonging that are much closer

to our perceptions of space than are ‘cognitive maps’. The second approach focuses on ritual action and

the shape of ritual space as major factors in generating social cohesion, using the concept of ‘rational

rituals’ as developed by game theorist Michael Chwe.4 The third approach includes network models,

both Latour’s Actor-Network Theory as it pertains to collective memory,5 but also Social Network

Analyses and its tangents.6 The fourth approach employs the social-geographical model of regional

identity and its developmental stages of territorial and symbolic shaping, institutionalism, and

external recognition, applying this as an overarching model for developing poleis.7

Chapter 1.4 discusses the need for a close examination of the transformations at such outlying shrines

in order to understand their significance to their associated poleis. The selection of case studies is

motivated, and the way in which they will be analyzed is laid out. Compiled from the data and issues

discussed in the previous sections, a general framework is presented which illumines the critical

factors at each of these sanctuaries. The table below gives an overview of this analytical framework.

1 Debord 1982; Boffo 1985; Dignas 2002. 2 E.g. de Polignac 1995, the contributions in Alcock and Osborne 1994. 3 On ‘visual regions’ and ‘cognitive collages’ with regard to spatial perception and memory, see esp. Tversky 1993 and Ellard 2009, 126-128. 4 Chwe 2001 –Chwe uses this concept to explain how public ceremony and ceremonial space serve to generate common knowledge through joint attention, the basis for joint action and ultimately group identity; see also McCauley and Lawson 2002. 5 Latour 1987; 2005. 6 Especially Ma 2003, and more broadly e.g. Brughmans 2010; Malkin 2011; Knappett 2011. 7 Developed by the Finnish social geographer Anssi Paasi; Paasi 2009.


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Table 1. The Research Framework, highlighting the factors of civic involvement at outlying sanctuaries

CIVIC INTEGRATION LOOKING FOR... DATA SOURCE TYPE

Historical

Historical relationship overview of area prior to polis involvement, rise of the polis, development of relationship with the sanctuary, critical events (turning moments), individual actors

literary sources, inscriptions, numismatics

Environment

Physical natural phenomenon, natural geographical borders, landscape type, availability of water

geographical data, cartography, satellite images

Social-geographical location

proximity to polis, but also to roads, other shrines and villages, boundaries, economic resources

historical topography geographical data, cartography, satellite images, literary sources,

Visibility viewshed of the sanctuary, visual dominance over the environment/ city territory

geographical data, cartography, satellite images architecture

CIVIC INTEGRATION LOOKING FOR... DATA SOURCE TYPE

A. Monumental and ritual space

Monumentality visual prominence and representational status, stylistic associations

architecture, monumental art inscriptions, spatial design

Public space concentric space: open spaces in/near the sanctuary for gatherings (festivals, banqueting) and monuments, visual and kinetic linear space: paths, gateways, doors, sightlines, framed views

architecture, inscriptions, ceramics (all kinds)

Processional routes

kinetic linear space: connectivity (paved?) between polis and sanctuary, topographical features showing a spatial ‘continuum’, i.e. monuments, shrines, settlements, tombs, but also farms and fields, landscape types

historical topography, geographical data,

ancient roads

B. Ritual performance

Festival rituals bond with polis, ritual focus and joint attention, degree of ‘spectacle’, frequency, involvement of the wider community

architecture, inscriptions ceramics (votives)

Banqueting participants, ritual actions, formal and informal banqueting facilities (stoas), water supply, tableware

architecture, inscriptions

ceramics (tableware)

Games events, location, facilities, participants, (pan-Hellenic?) competitions & involvement of the wider community

architecture, inscriptions

C. Legal administration and organization

Administration and priesthoods

degrees of local autonomy and civic institutionalism, controlling parties over the sanctuary and its resources

inscriptions, numismatics

Local community local settlement at/near the sanctuary, evidence for community-based administration, status as separate community or citizens of the polis

domestic architecture/tombs ceramics, inscriptions

Economic resources financial base for sanctuary, festival, and priests, integration in landscape via sacred lands, or emporion-function (in a network of trade?)

Inscriptions

D. Civic expression

Scope and network

multiple communities at the sanctuary, relationships based on syngeneia (kinship), recognitions of asylia (inviolability), presence of theoroi (delegations), athletic participation, diverse coinage

inscriptions,

numismatics

Civic communication public documents, dedications, decrees, grants of asylia, commemoration of specific events

inscriptions,

monumental art

Cult iconography in civic contexts

deity as emblem of state, evidence of worship beyond the sanctuary numismatics, inscriptions monumental art


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Parts 2 and 3 present the application of this framework to the major sanctuaries in the landscapes of

Mylasa and Stratonikeia in Karia, respectively. Inland Karia was a complex system of nested

communities, often clustered around hilltop sanctuaries.8 These sanctuaries played an important role

as each polis developed its own solution for adapting these communities and their surrounding

landscapes towards the polis model.

Map showing southwest Asia Minor and the areas of the case studies.

Part 2 Mylasa and the sanctuaries of Zeus Labraundos and Sinuri

Part 2 first discusses the historical development of the ancient Karian town of Mylasa as it became a

major Hellenistic polis. Central to this development is the transition from the Hekatomnids, the satraps

of Karia under the Achaemenids, to the Hellenistic rulers and the shift of the civic government towards

the Greek democratic system – this would impact the sanctuaries of Zeus at Labraunda and the Karian

god Sinuri.

Chapter 2.1 analyzes the relationship between Labraunda, the sacred and political center of the

Hekatomnids, and Mylasa which began to assert itself more and more at the sanctuary after the mid-

third century BC, even contesting the authority of the resident priests. Several signs point to the way

in which the polis exploited the symbolic capital of Zeus Labraundos and the associations with the

Hekatomnids at the monumental sanctuary, with its majestic panorama across southern Karia, to

legitimize its own position in the region and among its populace.

Chapter 2.2 discusses a completely different kind of sanctuary, that of the Karian god Sinuri. This

sanctuary had also been monumentalized by the Hekatomnids, when it was apparently autonomous,

8 Debord 2003.


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but by the Hellenistic period it had changed hands to a new community which was clearly under the

authority of Mylasa. While this monumental sanctuary, tucked away in a valley southeast of Mylasa,

was not one of the central shrines of the polis, it does reveal how the popular identity of the Mylasan

population continued to reside at the local level, and how at the same time such sanctuaries functioned

as civic mirrors, as polis institutions and decision-making bodies were reflected at this local level.

Part 2 concludes with a discussion of the nested identities in the citizen body of Mylasa, and how these

sanctuaries met the needs of the polis at different scales. Polis religion at Mylasa appears to be an

inversion of that in Classical Athens9 – at Mylasa the root level of popular identity was the local tribe

and its gods, such as Sinuri, while Zeus Labraundos was engaged to represent the greater abstract ideal

of the polis and to legitimize its position in the region.

Part 3 Stratonikeia and the sanctuaries of Hekate at Lagina and Zeus at Panamara

Part 3 assesses the ways in which outlying sanctuaries were even more clearly used to establish and

consolidate civic territory and to create social cohesion among widely dispersed and previously

autonomous communities. Founded by the Seleukids, Stratonikeia was soon immersed in a politically

grey zone under shifting rule until it was declared free by Rome in the second century BC. This is when

it begins to emerge in the archaeological and epigraphic record, drawing several surrounding

communities into its orbit.

Chapter 3.1 analyzes the role of the sanctuary of Hekate at Lagina in creating and consolidating

community. This local Karian goddess appeared on the first issues of the coinage of Stratonikeia in the

mid-second century BC, and by the end of that century her sanctuary had been radically transformed

into an enclosed urban setting where civic festivals were held. After the Mithridatic wars, Stratonikeia

obtained the privilege of asylia from Rome for Lagina and forged wider panhellenic ties and

recognition through festival networks.

Chapter 3.2 shows how the sanctuary of Zeus at Panamara may initially have been exploited by

Stratonikeia to expand its territory, as the polis gained control over the strategic hilltop sanctuary in

the second century BC. By the first century, however, the focus certainly shifted towards the

population – festivals were held here which celebrated the entire community, regardless of social

standing. The attack on Panamara by Labienus in 40 BC testifies to this, and the famous epiphany of

Zeus as a result became a kind of charter myth for the polis.

Part 3 concludes with an analysis of the significance of both sanctuaries for Stratonikeia. The authority

of both cults was used to create network ties for the polis. Furthermore, both sanctuaries were blocked

off from Stratonikeia by mountains – turning these sanctuaries into civic space clearly expanded the

visual region of the polis. The processions enhanced this even further as they connected sacred and

urban areas; the civic festivals of both deities in fact culminated in a procession which moved from the

sanctuary into town, making the polis the focal point of the social landscape.

Part 4 Conclusions – landscape, sanctuary and civic identity

Part 4 opens with a comparative analysis in which the results are laid out by side by side and compared

with one another. Chapter 4.2 provides an overall assessment of the models and theories used

interpreting these sanctuaries, while Chapter 4.3 presents directions for further research.

In short, this study shows that there were a number of different reasons for a polis to promote a local

or regional sanctuary in its wider chora, and that even though most of the sanctuaries were probably

9 As expressed by Sourvinou-Inwood 1988 & 1990.


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located along the perimeters of a city’s territory, marking territorial frontiers was not the main

concern. The locations of sanctuaries do appear to have been critical for other reasons, especially at

Labraunda, Lagina and Panamara. The wide vistas, or visual regions, which they possessed, would have

been an important factor in developing a sense of its territorial integrity as they expanding the visual

reach of the polis.

Rituals greatly enhanced this feeling through their community building processes en route to these

sanctuaries. Many of the issues that arise from the case studies relate to internal social cohesion,

showing how the sanctuary, its festivals and its ritual space functioned as ‘rational rituals’, fostering a

sense of unity among a diverse constituency which already held the sanctuary in great esteem.10

A third factor in the transformation of local or regional sanctuaries was their native capacity to engage

external networks of communities through ties of cult. A polis could clearly turn this to its advantage,

sometimes by exploiting events (such as epiphanies) or ancestral relations (through syngeneia, or

kinship), to oblige the wider Greek world to take part in its civic and pan-Hellenic festivals.11 This

aspect may especially have been critical to rising poleis seeking to establish or validate their political

position.

In these case studies, civic identity is shown to be a prime driver in the developing relationship

between city and sanctuary. Older and regional sanctuaries were critical to territorial shaping with

their cult authority and perceived power of place, combined with rational rituals which engendered

social cohesion and political networks through inter-poleis festivals. This research thus shows

alternative ways to consider such outlying sanctuaries, while laying the groundwork for a dynamic

framework which may be used as a tool to further analyze other kinds of relationships between cities

and sanctuaries in general.

Select bibliography

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Boffo, L. (1985) I re ellenistici e i centri religiosi dell'Asia minore, Pubblicazionni della Facoltà di Lettere e Filosofia dell'Università di Pavia 37, Dipartimento di Scienze dell'Antichita. Florence.

Brughmans, T. (2010) 'Connecting the dots. Towards archaeological network analysis', Oxford Journal of Archaeology 29.3: 277-304.

Chaniotis, A. (2006) 'Rituals between norms and emotions. Rituals as shared experience and memory', in Ritual and Communication in the Graeco-Roman World, Kernos Supplément 16, ed. E. Stavrianopoulou. Liège: 211-238.

---------- (2009) 'Extra-urban sanctuaries in Classical and Hellenistic Crete', in The Aegean and its Cultures. Proceedings of the First Oxford-Athens Graduate Student Workshop organized by the Greek Society and the University of Oxford Taylor Institution, 22-23 April 2005, eds D. Galanakis & Y. Galanakis. Oxford: 59-67.

---------- (2012 (in press)) 'Processions in Hellenistic cities. Contemporary discourses and ritual dynamics', in Cults, Creeds and Identities in the Greek City after the Classical Age, Groningen-Royal Holloway studies on the Greek city after the Classical age, Vol. 3, eds R. Alston, O.M. van Nijf & C.G. Williamson. Leuven.

Chwe, M. Suk-Young (2001) Rational Ritual. Culture, Coordination, and Common Knowledge. Princeton.

Cohen, G.M. (1995) The Hellenistic Settlements in Europe, the Islands, and Asia Minor. Berkeley.

Connerton, P. (1989) How Societies Remember, Themes in the social sciences. Cambridge.

de Polignac, F. (1984) La naissance de la cité grecque. Cultes, espace et société VIIIe-VIIe siècles avant J.-C. Paris.

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Debord, P. (1982) Aspects sociaux et économiques de la vie religieuse dans l'Anatolie gréco-romaine, Etudes préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain t. 88. Leiden.

---------- (2003) ‘Cité grecque-village carien. Des usages du mot koinon', Studi ellenistici 15: 115-180.

10 Chwe 2001. 11 Ma 2003 discusses the various keywords, such as asylia (inviolability) and syngeneia (kinship ties), found in decrees that act as signs of inter-poleis networking in the Hellenistic period.


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Dignas, B. (2002) Economy of the Sacred in Hellenistic and Roman Asia Minor, Oxford Classical Monographs. Oxford.

Ellard, C. (2009) You are Here. Why We Can Find Our Way to the Moon, But Get Lost in the Mall. New York.

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Knappett, C. (2011) An Archaeology of Interaction. Network Perspectives on Material Culture and Society. Oxford.

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Savalli-Lestrade, I. (2005) 'Devenir une cité. Poleis nouvelles et aspirations civiques en Asie Mineure à la basse époque hellénistique', in Citoyenneté et participation à la basse époque hellénistique. Actes de la table ronde des 22 et 23 mai 2004, Paris, BNF, organisée par le groupe de recherche dirigé par Philippe Gauthier, de l'UMR 8585 (Centre Gustave Glotz), École Pratique des Hautes Études, IVe section. 3 Hautes études du monde gréco-romain 35, eds P. Fröhlich & C. Müller. Geneve: 9-37.

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---------- (1990) 'What is polis religion?', in The Greek City from Homer to Alexander, eds O. Murray & S. Price. Oxford: 295-322.

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city and sanctuary in hellenistic asia minor constructing civic identity in the sacred landscapes...

Documents

major civic centers

civic expression

major civic spaces

civic need

common civic identity

frontier sanctuaries

hellenistic period

edges of civic territory