citizenship policies in an era of globalizationia. citizenship • a legal status and relation...
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Citizenship Policies in an Era of Globalization Still the Prerogative of the Nation-State?
Maarten Vink Maastricht University European University Institute
Questions & Answers • Is citizenship still the prerogative of the
nation-state? – Yes, but… – Therefore, we still see major differences
• What are the main trends in citizenship policies in Europe?
– Equal treatment women / men (ius sanguinis) – Inclusion 2nd and/or 3rd generation (ius soli) – Acceptance of dual citizenship – Introduction of ´integration´ conditions – Withdrawal of citizenship
Ia. Citizenship • A legal status and relation between an individual
and a state that entails specific legal rights and duties – Universal Declaration: right to citizenship (Art. 15)
• Citizenship policies regulate the acquisition and loss of citizenship – In ‘citizenship law’ or ‘nationality law’, but in some
countries also in Constitution
• Traditionally seen as ‘last bastion of sovereignty’ – The rules to determine who is a citizen (and who not)
fall within ‘domaine réservé’ of states
Ib. Citizenship: the European Union • Every person with the nationality of a member state
is a ‘citizen of the Union’. – Citizenship of the Union shall complement and not replace
national citizenship.
• Increasing constraints through the case law of the Court of Justice of the EU. – National competence needs to be exercised with ‘due regard
to Community law’ (Micheletti). – For example, withdrawal of citizenship should ‘observe the
principle of proportionality so far as concerns the consequences it entails for the situation of the person concerned in the light of European Union law’ (Rottmann).
European Convention on Nationality (1997)
IIa. Patterns in citizenship policies • Traditional typologies, e.g.
– ‘Civic’ vs. ‘ethnic’ regimes; – ‘Inclusive’ vs. ‘exclusive’ regimes
• Citizenship regimes defy easy generalization as citizenship is closely linked to political and demographic context of a state – state-building processes – migration experiences – changing political contexts
• Citizenship laws can be inclusive to some, while exclusive to others
Purpose Functional component
Intergenerational continuity
Ius sanguinis: acquisition by descent Ius soli: acquisition by birth in territory Loss of citizenship due to voluntary renunciation
Territorial inclusion
Ordinary naturalisation: residence conditions Ordinary naturalisation: language conditions Ordinary naturalisation: economic conditions Ordinary naturalisation: assimiliation conditions
Singularity Ordinary naturalisation: renounce former citizenship Loss of citizenship due to acquisition other citizenship
Special ties Special naturalisation: cultural affinity Special naturalisation: reacquisition by former citizens
Genuine link Loss of citizenship due to residence abroad
Vink and Baubock (2013)
Vink and Baubock (2013)
Citizenship configurations: a typology
Ethnocultural inclusion
Strong Ethnoculturally selective
Expansive
Weak Insular Territorially selective
Weak Strong
Territorial inclusion
• Online observatory • 47 Countries • Information on
citizenship laws – Country profiles – Laws / Case law – Country reports – Comparative tables and
citizenship law indicators (36 countries)
– Statistics – News & Discussion
www.eudo-citizenship.eu
IIIa. Trends in citizenship policies • Instrumentalization
– Since 1980s – Citizenship policies as ‘integration’ policies – Elite-driven
• Politicization – Since 1990s – Citizenship policies as ‘identity’ policies – Society-driven
Vink and De Groot (2010); Vink and De Groot (2013)
IIIb. Trends in citizenship policies
1. Equal treatment men / women - Extension of ius sanguinis
2. Inclusion 2nd and/or 3rd generation - Extension of ius soli
3. Acceptance of multiple citizenship 4. Introduction of ´integration´ conditions 5. Securitization and withdrawal of
citizenship
Vink and De Groot (2010); Vink and De Groot (2013)
1. Extension and limitation of ius sanguinis Introduction of citizenship attribution iure sanguinis a patre et a matre FRA IRE GER POR FIN SWI* (’45) (’56) (’75) (’81) GRE (‘06) (’84)
SPA DEN ICE BEL (’78) (’82) NET SWI*
NOR AUT (’85) SWE ITA (’79) UK
(’83)
| | | | | | | 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 Vink and De Groot (2010); Vink and De Groot (2013)
1. Extension and limitation of ius sanguinis
• Extension to children born out of wedlock – LUX (87), DE (93), ICE (98) DEN (99), UK (02), FIN
(03), NOR (06) for biological fathers • SWE (05) also to non-biological mother (art. ins.) • Open question: surrogate mothers?
– Cf. Genovese v. Malta (ECtHR, 11 October 2011) • Citizenship has an impact on ‘social identity’ • Gender discrimination violates Art. 8 ECHR
• Conditional when born abroad, 1 parent citizen – SLO (registration), LAT, LIT (parental consent)
• Limitation to first generation born abroad – BE (85), DE (00); see also IRE, POR and UK
Vink and De Groot (2010); Vink and De Groot (2013)
2. Extension and limitation of ius soli
• Ius soli countries amend their ius soli principle – UK (83: perm. residence), IRE (04: 3 years)
• Ius sanguinis countries introduce ius soli – GER (00: 8 years)*, GRE (10: 5 years, both parents) * with obligatory citizenship choice between 18-23!
• Ius sanguinis countries provide for ex lege acquisition via double ius soli – FRA, NET (53), SPA (82), BEL (92), POR (06), LUX
(09), GRE (10)
Vink and De Groot (2010); Vink and De Groot (2013)
Ius soli (birthright)
Trends: access to citizenship by birth at territory (‘ius soli’)
3. Increasing acceptance of multiple citizenship
Extension ius sanguinis /ius soli à increasing occurrence of multiple citizenship
à why avoid dual citizenship in case of naturalization (immigrants + emigrants), but accept multiple citizenship for children with parents with different citizenships, or for second and third generation immigrants?
Renunciation
demand
Loss due to
voluntary
acquisition
Strasbourg
Convention
(Ch. 1)
Second
Protocol
ECN
AUT Yes Yes Yes – Yes
BEL – – (2008) – (2008) – –
BUL Yes – (1948) – – Yes
CYP – – – – –
CZE Yes (1993) Yes (1993) – – Yes
DEN Yes Yes Yes – Yes
EST Yes (1992) Yes (1992) – – –
FIN – (2003) – (2003) – – Yes
FRA – – (1973) – (2009) – (2009) –
GER Yes* (2000) Yes* – (2002) – Yes
GRE – – – – –
HUN – – – – Yes
ICE – – (2003) – – Yes
IRE – – – – –
Renunciation Loss Strasbourg 2nd Prot. ECN
ITA – (1992) –(1992) – (2010) – (2010) –
LAT Yes Yes – – –
LIT Yes Yes – – –
LUX – (2009) – (2009) – (2009) – –
MAL – – – – –
NET Yes* Yes* Yes Yes Yes
NOR Yes Yes Yes – Yes
POL Yes* – – – –
POR – – (1981) – – Yes
ROM – – – – Yes
SLK – Yes (2010) – – Yes
SLN Yes – – – –
SPA Yes (1990) * Yes (1990) * – – –
SWE – (2001) – (2001) – (2002) – Yes
SWI – (1992) – – – –
UK – – – – –
Dual citizenship
Fully tolerated
Only for immigrants
Tolerated in prac6ce
Not tolerated (excep6ons)
Not tolerated
Only for emigrants
4. Naturalization: opening + thickening
• Residence requirements • Introduction/restriction integration
conditions • Increasing costs of naturalisation
– Great variety: from 0 to 1300 euro (Greece)
Naturalization: years of residence
Trends: language tests
Trends: civic knowledge tests
5. Withdrawal of citizenship
• Status of citizenship less secure? • Discovery of fraudulent acquisition
– DK (06), FI (03), NL (03), BE (06), DE (06) – time?
• Deprivation due to criminal or ‘prejudicial’ behavior – UK 02, DK 04
• International instruments (ex.): – Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness (1961) – European Convention on Nationality (1997)
To conclude
• Citizenship still (largely) prerogative of national state – Different types of regimes – No single European approach
• Some (contrasting) European trends – More emphasis on role of citizenship in
integration process: ius soli, toleration dual citizenship, decreasing residence req.
– More emphasis on symbolic dimension: language & integration, ceremonies
Bibliography
• Vink, M. and R. Bauböck (2013). Citizenship Configurations: Analysing the Multiple Purposes of Citizenship Regimes in Europe. Comparative European Politics. Forthcoming.
• Vink, M. and G.R. de Groot (2013). Citizenship Policies in the European Union: International Framework and Domestic Trends. In M. Lopez and M. Siegel, eds. A World in Motion: Trends in Migration and Migration Policy. Oxford University Press. Forthcoming.
• Vink, M. and G.R. de Groot (2010). Citizenship Attribution in Western Europe: International Framework and Domestic Trends. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 36(5) 713-734.
• Vink, M. and G.R. de Groot (2010). Birthright Citizenship: Trends and Regulations in Europe. Comparative Report, RSCAS/EUDO-CIT-Comp. 2010/8. EUDO Citizenship Observatory, pp. 35.
• De Groot, G.R. and M. Vink (2010). Loss of Citizenship: Trends and Regulations in Europe. Comparative Report, RSCAS/EUDO-CIT-Comp. 2010/4. EUDO Citizenship Observatory, pp. 52.