citizen science guide

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Choosing andUsing Citizen

Sciencea guide to when and how to use citizen science

to monitor biodiversity and the environment
http://www.ceh.ac.uk/http://www.sepa.org.uk/


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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the Scottish EnvironmentProtection Agency (SEPA) for funding this guideand Claire Campbell at SEPA for her enthusiasmand guidance. We thank the Centre for Ecology &Hydrology for providing support during the guidesproduction and to Heather Lowther and Amanda

Hill for their superb contribution to its design.Finally thank you to the volunteers and citizenscience enthusiasts who have inspired this guide.

Citation

Pocock, M.J.O., Chapman, D.S.,Sheppard, L.J. & Roy, H.E. (2014).Choosing and Using Citizen Science: a guideto when and how to use citizen science tomonitor biodiversity and the environment.

Centre for Ecology & Hydrology.

ISBN: 978-1-906698-50-8

This guide is a shortened and adapted version of:Pocock, M.J.O., Chapman, D.S., Sheppard, L.J.& Roy, H.E (2014). A Strategic Framework toSupport the Implementation of Citizen Sciencefor Environmental Monitoring. Final reportto SEPA. Centre for Ecology & Hydrology,Wallingford, Oxfordshire.

This guide can be freely distributed in its originalform for non-commercial purposes. Please feelfree to forward it to anyone you think will beinterested. All content is copyright authors andSEPA and no images or sections of text canbe extracted and used elsewhere without firstobtaining permission.

Michael J O Pocock1, Daniel S Chapman2,Lucy J Sheppard2, and Helen E Roy1

1Biological Records Centre, Centre for Ecology & Hydrology,Maclean Building, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford,

Oxfordshire OX10 8BB2Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Bush Estate, Penicuik,

Midlothian, EH26 0QB

The Centre for Ecology & Hydrology (CEH)is a world-class research organisation focussingon land and freshwater ecosystems and theirinteraction with the atmosphere. We are aNatural Environment Research Council (NERC)Research Centre with 425 researchers andstudents based at sites in England, Scotlandand Wales. CEH tackles complex environmentalchallenges to deliver practicable solutions so thatfuture generations can benefit from a rich andhealthy environment. www.ceh.ac.uk

The Biological Records Centre(BRC) is withinthe Centre for Ecology & Hydrology and jointlyfunded by Natural Environment ResearchCouncil and the Joint Nature ConservationCommittee. The BRC, established in 1964, isa national focus in the UK for terrestrial and

freshwater species recording. The BRC worksclosely with the voluntary recording community,principally by supporting national recordingschemes and societies. www.brc.ac.uk

Front cover photographs: l to r - Susie Pocock; CEH; Shutterstock.

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http://www.ceh.ac.uk/http://www.brc.ac.uk/http://www.brc.ac.uk/http://www.ceh.ac.uk/index.htmlhttp://www.brc.ac.uk/http://www.ceh.ac.uk/


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iii

Citizen science can be a very usefultool for undertaking research andmonitoring, while also engagingwith many people. Citizen scienceis very diverse; there are manydifferent ways for volunteers to

get involved with real science. Thisdiversity can be overwhelming forsomeone seeking to organize acitizen science activity and citizenscience will not always be the mostappropriate or optimal approachfor undertaking scientific researchor monitoring.

Here we aim to provide guidance to supportpeople considering using a citizen science

approach, especially (but not necessarilyrestricted to) monitoring biodiversity andthe environment in the UK. It will help youdecide whether citizen science is likely to beuseful, and it will help you decide which broadapproach to citizen science is most suitable foryour question or activity.

This guide does not cover the practical detailof developing a citizen science project. Thatinformation is provided in the Guide to CitizenScience (Tweddle et al., 2012).

About this guide

Photo:MichaelPocock,

CEH
http://www.ceh.ac.uk/products/publications/documents/citizenscienceguide.pdfhttp://www.ceh.ac.uk/products/publications/documents/citizenscienceguide.pdfhttp://www.ceh.ac.uk/products/publications/documents/citizenscienceguide.pdfhttp://www.ceh.ac.uk/products/publications/documents/citizenscienceguide.pdf


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Contents

About this guide

Introduction to citizen science

What is citizen science? 2

The aim of this guide 2

Why is citizen science so popular? 3

Citizen science and its role in long-term monitoring 4Advantages and disadvantages of a citizen science approach

Advantages of a citizen science approach 5

Disadvantages of a citizen science approach 5

A decision framework for choosing and using citizen science

Precursor to the decision framework 7

Before you choose citizen science 8

The clarity of the aim or question 8

The importance of engagement 8

The resources available 9The scale of sampling 9

The complexity of the protocol 10

The motivations of participants 10

Examples of using citizen science 11

Types of data 13

The decision framework

How to use the decision framework 14

Using the decision framework with a clearly defined question 14

Using the decision framework interactively 14

The decision framework for citizen science 15

Notes on the decision framework 18

Final thoughts on choosing and using citizen science

Resources: the organisers' time 20

Resources: infrastructure and data protection 20

Validation, quality assurance and verification 21

Communication 21

Participant safety 22

Legislative implications 22

Conclusion 22

References and resources

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What is citizen science?

Citizen science is anincreasingly popular approachto undertaking monitoringand scientific research. Citizenscience is defined as theinvolvement of volunteers (i.e.people who are not involvedas part of their employment)in science, so it has thedual benefits of making acontribution to real science,while also engaging manypeople with science. Often,citizen science projects are setup by professional scientists.Volunteers then contributedata to the project. Such an

approach is referred to ascontributory citizen scienceand this is currently verywidely-adopted. However,there are many differenttypes of citizen science(Roy et al.2012) includingprojects strongly shaped bythe volunteer participants,so-called collaborative andco-created projects (Bonney et

al. 2009). For projects involvingenvironmental monitoring inwhich there is a clear end-usefor the data, the contributorymodel of citizen science isusually most relevant.

The aim of this guide

In this guide we providea decision framework tohelp guide people whoare considering whether acitizen science approach cancontribute to their work. Thisguide should help you todiscover:

1. whether citizen science issuitable for your proposedproject, and;

2. what type of citizen scienceis most appropriate for youto adopt.

We believe that the decision

framework will help people tomore clearly understand thepotential opportunities andlimitations of citizen science.This is necessary because thereis such a wide range of citizenscience approaches (Roy et al.2012) and not every approach

is suitable for all situations.Therefore, for someone witha question to answer, or amonitoring need to be met, itcan be daunting to considerwhether citizen science canbe used and, if so, which

citizen science approach isbest. In this report we do notrepeat the 'Guide to CitizenScience'(Tweddle et al. 2012)which was written specificallyto assist in developing andimplementing environmentaland biodiversity citizen science,or the Citizen Science Toolkit(Cornell Lab of Ornithology2013). We recommend that

interested people consider thedecision framework in thisguide, and if they concludethat citizen science is relevantand worthwhile, they shouldthen refer to the advice in the'Guide to Citizen Science'.

Introduction tocitizen science1

Photo:LesleyDeans,ClydeRiverFoundation

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There are many reasons whycitizen science has become sopopular in recent years:

1. Excellent engagement.Citizen science provides away for people to engage

with science and theirenvironment. Althoughpeoples motivation fortaking part in citizenscience varies considerably,participants often describeit as fun and providinga way to contribute tosomething importantand valuable.

2. Cost-effective datacollection.Citizen scienceprovides the potentialto collect data at muchlarger spatial and temporalextents and much finerresolutions than would

otherwise be possible.Even if the data could becollected through othermeans, citizen science canbe a cost-effective way ofcollecting the data whilealso providing an excellentopportunity for peopleto become engaged witha subject.

3. Technological advances

make promotionand data collectionstraightforward.Overthe past decade, advancesin technology, especiallyin communicationstechnology, have made iteasy to set-up and promotecitizen science projects.Data collection, viawebsites or smartphones, is

now a standard approachand relatively inexpensiveto implement. Feedbackto participants can beprovided quickly and easily.

4. The data can be trusted.Increasingly the importantstep of data validation istaken in citizen scienceprojects in order to providedata of known quality, for

example, verifying everyrecord, or quantifying theaccuracy of a sample of

the data so that error canbe taken into account inanalyses. Both approachesprovide trustworthy data;analyses of citizen sciencedata are published inthe scientific literature

and used in nationalbiodiversity indicators.

5. Volunteer involvementin science has a longhistory.With the increaseduse of the term citizenscience, volunteer-ledenvironmental monitoringthat has been going onfor decades is now oftendescribed as citizen

science. We can learnfrom the successes of pastactivities in developingcurrent projects.

6. Diversity of approaches.Different types of citizenscience appeal to differentpeople, e.g. expertvolunteers, interestedcommunity stakeholdersor members of the

general public. 'Massparticipation approachesare popular, but so areapproaches to engagewith expert naturalists.

Why is citizen science so popular?

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Monitoring the environmenthas a long history of benefitingfrom volunteer involvementthrough citizen science.The reason for this is thatthe volunteers involved canbe very committed and are

distributed around the country,so permitting the long-termcollection of data in widely-distributed locations. Expertvolunteer naturalists canhave considerable expertisein identifying species (inmany cases more than theprofessional scientists).If resources are availableto support the volunteers

then large-scale monitoringprojects can run for decades(e.g. the UKs Breeding BirdSurvey and the UK ButterflyMonitoring Scheme).

It can be tempting to think thatcitizen science is a cheap (oreven free) way of fulfilling alllarge-scale monitoring needsbecause citizen science data arefree at the point-of-collection.

This is not the case. Investmentneeds to be made to supportvolunteers. The annual supportfor citizen science projectsproviding data for UK headlineindicators is about 100K perproject per year (Roy et al.2012), although many citizenscience projects require muchless budget than this. However,despite its cost, citizen science

may be a very cost-effectiveway of undertaking monitoring.

It is misleading to think thatcitizen science has to replaceprofessional surveillance; thetwo are not mutually exclusive.Citizen science could beeffective when adding to andcomplementing professionally-

collected data. For example,core professional activity couldprovide the minimum level ofmonitoring required, whilecitizen science data increasesthe resolution and accuracy of

sampling. Citizen science datacould also inform professionalsso they direct their effort toaddress the highest priorities ormost important questions.

Some long-term monitoringis unsuitable for citizenscience because it is notpossible to collect the datasafely or accurately withoutspecialist equipment.

Citizen science and its role in long-term monitoring

Photo:SEPA

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Advantages and disadvantages ofa citizen science approach2

Advantages of a citizenscience approach

It can be a cost-effectiveway of gathering data,especially at large spatialand temporal extent and

fine and spatial temporalresolution. That is, thebalance between thelong-term cost of acquiringsuitable data professionallyis more than the cost ofsupporting volunteers toacquire these data.

For long-term monitoring,committed volunteers canprovide a reliable way of

gathering data, less subjectto the vagaries of theavailability of funding thanprofessional monitoring.

By getting people to behands-on with data, itdirectly engages peoplewith environmental issuesand their local environment.

Citizen science can providehigh-quality data. Datafrom citizen scienceprojects can vary inquality, but if it is collectedappropriately and subjectto quality assurance, thenthe data can be eminentlysuitable for regulatorypurposes. For example,7 of the 26 UK headlineindicators are relianton volunteer-collected

data (Defra 2012) andmonitoring of watercoursesin the USA is undertaken

by volunteers according toEnvironmental ProtectionAgency protocols to meetregulatory requirements(Nerbonne & Nelson 2004).

In some cases the expertvolunteers have superior

skills to the professionals,particularly with respectto natural history and theidentification of species.

Many volunteers are willingto follow protocols (evenquite complex ones) inorder to collect data in astandardised way, whenthey are confident thattheir input is valuable.

Citizen science can permitthe detection of rare eventsacross large spatial andtemporal extents, whichwould otherwise be difficultto survey for.

It need not be restrictedto what people can see;people can use sensors, orthey can collect samples

for analysis by volunteersor by professionals.

Crowd sourcing enablespeople to undertakesmall or simple tasks via acomputer (e.g. classifyingimages) which cancontribute to analysis oflarge datasets and wouldnot otherwise be achievableby a small team or using

automated processes.

Citizen science is enjoyableand it can enhance thewell-being of volunteers.

Disadvantages of acitizen science approach

Citizen science is oftenmost effective whenthe approach is simple.Participation is likely to bereduced when protocols aretoo complex or demandingor recording needs to berepeated over time or indifferent localities.

Volunteers need to berecruited. Some citizen

science projects usestraightforward protocolswhich can be rapidlycompleted by anyonein any location. Suchan approach aids massparticipation. However,complex and structuredprotocols can be suitablefor citizen scienceespecially if they appealto a particular group ofenthusiasts such as anglers,ramblers, naturalists, schoolchildren or others.

Citizen science oftenrequires substantialinvestment in resources.Citizen science data arefree (to you) at the point-of-collection, but theyare (often) not cheap. A

considerable investmentin money, resources andtime is usually needed tosupport citizen science.

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However, citizen sciencecan be run entirelythrough the commitmentof a volunteer organizer,e.g. the volunteer-ledbiological recordingschemes in the UK.

Resources are required to:{ Provide feedback

to volunteers, andthis should continuethroughout the lifeof the project in orderto provide motivationfor participants.

{ Provide supportfor the means ofcollecting data (e.g.online databases andweb interfaces, orsmartphone apps).

{ Validate data toensure that theyare trustworthy andappropriate for theirintended use.

{ Recruit, support andretain volunteers (e.g.

through training,

mentoring, providingfeedback, keepingsupporting materialsand websites up-to-date and working etc.).

Investment in the project (interms of time and money)

needs to continue throughthe life of the project inorder to support and retainindividual volunteers.

There can be tensionsbetween the motivations ofparticipants and organizers(Rotman et al.2012) - whatyou think is important maynot interest an ordinaryperson! People take partbecause they are motivatedthrough interest, curiosity,concern or to have fun.Participants may expect tosee rapid local action arisingfrom their involvement, butthis may not be an intendedoutcome of the project. Theaims of the project needto be clearly explained tomanage the expectations of

the participants.

Citizen science data(especially from massparticipation projects) areoften unstructured (i.e.the times and locations ofsamples are not subjectto statistical design).

It can require complexapproaches to analyse thedata and the data maynot even be suitable forpurpose for which it wasintended. Therefore moredata might be neededto provide adequateinformation than would benecessary with professional,systematic monitoring.

Data acquisition becomesoutside of your directcontrol. That is, citizenscience is most suitablewhere data cannot becollected any other way(i.e. you are not divertingresources from currentlyadequate monitoring),or where the data will beuseful but not essential.

6

Advantage and disadvantages - continued


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7

A decision framework for choosingand using citizen science3

In this part of the guide wepresent a decision framework,to assist in the selection of acitizen science approach. Wealso include some preliminaryquestions and subsequentthoughts to help advise on the

suitability of citizen science.

Precursor to thedecision framework:before you evenconsider citizen science

We recommend that beforeyou seriously consider citizenscience, you review six aspects:the clarity of your question

or aim, the importance ofengagement, the resourcesavailable, the spatio-temporalscale of sampling, thecomplexity of the protocol and

the motivations of participants.The suitability of a citizenscience approach is summarisedin Figure 1, and expanded inthe remainder of this section.It is also worth thinking aboutthe types of information which

you could collect.

Figure 1:Six broad areasto review, prior to usingthe decision framework,

to assess the suitabilityof citizen science to your

circumstance.

Clarity ofaim/question

Importance ofengagement

Resourcesavailable

Scale ofsampling

Complexity ofprotocol

Motivation ofparticipants

Clear aim/question

Engagement isimportant

Plenty ofresources

Large-scalesampling

Simple protocol Good reasons toparticipate

Vague aim/question

No engagementor only one-waycommunication No resources

Small-scalesampling Complex protocol

Reasons toparticipate arenot clear

Increasings

uitability

fora

citizens

cience

approach

Should you consider a citizen science approach?


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The clarity of the aim orquestion

Citizen science is just likeany scientific approach: it isat its best when it is specific,i.e. when the question being

addressed is precise. For citizenscience data to be fit-for-purpose, the purpose needs tobe clearly defined.

For many projects, e.g. wherecitizen science contributes toprimary scientific research,the aim is well-defined. Itcan be phrased as a testablehypothesis, leading to veryeffective citizen science

(Silvertown 2009). However,citizen science can alsocontribute to environmentalsurveillance and monitoring.Where citizen sciencecontributes to monitoring theeffect of an environmentalpressure (e.g. diffusepollution), it is important forthere to be a well-understoodcause-and-effect pathway

from the pressure to what isbeing recorded.

The importance ofengagement

Engagement is an importantcomponent of citizen sciencebut engagement on its ownis not citizen science. Perhapsyou have an importantmessage to convey but withno need to gather data. Thereare many excellent examplesof communication to raiseawareness of a particular issue.

However, perhaps you have anidea for engagement whichcould be extended to involvepeople in gathering usefuldata, in which case it becomescitizen science. Citizen sciencecan enhance engagement the citizen science acts as ahighly participatory way for

people to engage. So if youare considering undertaking

an engagement activity thinkwhether you can get more fromthe initiative by encouragingpeople to contribute throughcitizen science (i.e. asking agenuinely interesting scientificquestion, or gathering

data for a genuinely usefulscientific need).

But there may be no need forpeople to gather data andthe purpose of the project isto increase awareness arounda particular issue. This couldbe extremely important inits own right; in which casekeep it simple and invest inexcellent engagement rather

than trying to make it acitizen science project.

Before you choose citizen science

Photo:???????

Key question: Can youextend your engagementactivity into meaningful andrelevant citizen science orshould you simply undertakeexcellent engagement for its

own sake?

8

Key question: Do youhave a precise and clearly-defined aim for your citizenscience project?

Photo:MichaelPocock,C

EH


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The resources available

It is important to consider whatresources will be required torun your initiative effectively.Will you need a website? Willyou need an online database?And, if so, can you use existingtechnology (e.g. Indicia, adatabase toolkit for biologicalobservations; www.indicia.org.uk) to meet this need? Will youneed to provide supportingresources such as guidancenotes or specialist equipment?

If the resources (i.e. money andtime) needed to adequatelysupport the project are

seemingly prohibitive then youcould consider collaboratingwith other providers or usingopen-source software, whichmay make the costs moreacceptable. The Guide toCitizen Science (Tweddle etal. 2012) includes more detailabout the sort of resourcesrequired for setting up andrunning a citizen science project.

The scale of sampling

Citizen science is particularlyeffective at addressingquestions that require a large-scale approach, especiallyacross large spatial scales (byengaging many volunteerssimultaneously) because itis so costly to obtain thesedata any other way. It is alsouseful when considering a verylong-term approach, in whichvolunteers remain committedthrough peaks and troughsof funding cycles (althoughlong-term citizen science doesrequire long-term commitmentfrom the organiser).

Citizen science could potentiallywork extremely well for bothextensive large-scale andintensive small-scale studies.However, where there is a needfor data across a large spatialscale it is important to consider

whether you need informationfrom particular sites or whetheran ad hoc approach will suffice.Are some of the places whereyou would like observationsparticularly remote? If so, canyou get people to travel tothese sites of interest?

Before you choose citizen science - continued

9

Key question:Do you

need lots of people(or volunteer time orcommitment) to achieveyour aims?

Key questions: Do youhave sufficient resourcesavailable to ensure you cansupport your volunteers forthe entirety of the project?If not, can you collaborateand share resourceswhich might also reduceduplication of effort?

Photo:HeatherLowther,CEH
http://www.indicia.org.uk/http://www.indicia.org.uk/http://www.ceh.ac.uk/products/publications/documents/citizenscienceguide.pdfhttp://www.ceh.ac.uk/products/publications/documents/citizenscienceguide.pdfhttp://www.ceh.ac.uk/products/publications/documents/citizenscienceguide.pdfhttp://www.ceh.ac.uk/products/publications/documents/citizenscienceguide.pdfhttp://www.indicia.org.uk/http://www.indicia.org.uk/


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The complexity of theprotocol

Perception of citizen scienceis skewed by so-called massparticipation citizen scienceprojects which are promoted

through the mass media andtypically involve many peoplein gathering simple data (e.g. awildlife observation or a singlemeasurement). Simplicity isone key to the success of massparticipation citizen scienceprojects. As the complexity ofthe protocol increases then thenumber of participants is likelyto decrease, even though thevalue of the data may increase

(e.g. because the dataset ismore detailed). If you require theuse of a complex protocol thenensure you provide sufficientsupport for participants and youthoroughly test the protocol(Tweddle et al. 2012).

Never presume too much of avolunteer; their time is givenfreely and they are not obliged

to provide data. Ensure thatyou consider the motivation ofyour participants and maximisetheir enjoyment and satisfactionin taking part. This includessupporting their understandingof the importance of theirrecord, and so requires you toprovide feedback to participants.Feedback should ideally be bothimmediate (e.g. a thank youfor the record which could beautomated or personal) andmore considered (e.g. an end-of-year report for volunteers).

The motivations ofparticipants

People will get involved andcontinue to stay involved formany different reasons; thesereasons will vary betweenpeople and can change overtime. It is important to considerpeoples motivations. Progressionin a project can be important for

them to remain motivated.

In terms of initial involvement,different projects will resonatewith people in many differentways. Successful projects mayresonate because of:

a sense of place (it is myriver),

a sense of community(I can take part with my

children),

a pre-existing interest (Ivealways liked butterflies),

a sense of discovery (I hadno idea that),

being part of a narrative(Im taking part withothers ),

or a sense of jeopardy (mytrees are under threat).

This does not mean that thefocus of your proposed study

has to already have popularappeal, because even unlikelysubjects can be communicatedin such a way that theyresonate with people.

People also need a triggeror prompt to make a record.Ideally triggers that will promptinvolvement should not be toocommon (otherwise people feeloverwhelmed and disengaged)or too rare (otherwise peoplewill forget to participate),unless the event is rare andspectacular (e.g. a dead swanor a landslide). Often subtlechanges to a question canmake the trigger clearer and

the data more useful. Forexample, asking people toreport the health of gardenbirds may be too general,while asking people to reportsick birds in their garden or toreport the health of gardenbirds on a particular day maybe more successful.

Remember that the

importance you place on anissue is not relevant it ishow strongly it resonates withpotential volunteers that willdetermine how motivated theyare to take part.

Contents

Before you choose citizen science - continued

10

Key question:Doesyour project resonatewith potential volunteers,

and are there clear andappropriate triggers forpeople to make records?

Key question:Is yourprotocol practical forvolunteer involvement? Areyou expecting too muchfrom the volunteers?


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11

Contents

Examples of using citizen science

Example B

The Conker Tree Scienceproject(Pocock & Evans 2014)engaged over 8,000 people.It was hypothesis-led, so theaims of the project were veryclear. The questions addressedthe national-scale impact of aleaf-mining moth, so it wouldnot have been possible toundertake this research withoutengaging people across Britain.

Through participating inthe project people became

engaged in making discoveriesabout insects, e.g. rearing tiny

moths and parasitic insects.

The project received initialfunding to set it up, but itcontinued for four years with asubstantial investment of timefrom the project organisers.There were three main waysin which people could getinvolved which varied in theircomplexity (from making a

record with a smartphone appto rearing insects from horse-chestnut leaves).

The project appeared to havestrong resonance with people;

horse-chestnut trees are verypopular, and the damagecaused by the moth was veryvisible. However, many peoplewill frequently see horse-chestnut trees, so this may havecreated too many triggers, thuslimiting participation.

www.conkertreescience.org.uk

Example A

Anglers Riverfly MonitoringInitiative. The RiverflyPartnership is a network ofnearly 100 organisationsrepresenting anglers, rivermanagers, conservationists andrelevant authorities.

The Partnership focuses onmonitoring three groups ofinsects: caddisflies, mayfliesand stoneflies which live mostof their lives as larvae in freshwaters. Riverflies are a majorlink in the aquatic food chainand are considered to beimportant biological indicators

of water quality. Indeed theyhave been described as thecanaries of our rivers.

In 2007 the Anglers RiverflyMonitoring Initiative waslaunched by the RiverflyPartnership, recognising the

important role that anglersplay in detecting change in theriver environment. The AnglersRiverfly Monitoring Initiativeprovides a variety of resources(including survey protocols,identification guides and

practical guidance on aspectssuch as health and safety).

Local projects, such as theClyde Riverfly MonitoringPartnership (CRIMP) inScotland, provide opportunitiesfor interested volunteers(especially anglers) to betrained in a simple monitoringtechnique for riverflies.Trained volunteers then

undertake regular monitoringat their sites. When severeperturbations in water qualityare recorded they can passinformation on to statutorybodies who can then take thenecessary action.

There are several documentedoccurrences of successfulaction (e.g. prosecutionof polluters). The AnglersRiverfly Monitoring Initiativealso links to other relevantactivities, such as recording

non-native crayfish, anddisseminates relevantinformation, such as guidanceon biosecurity and awarenessof non-native species.

Monitoring through theInitiative provides valuablenational information aboutwater quality, but importantlyit also directly benefits the localvolunteers seeking to help

protect their river or lake.

http://www.riverflies.org/

http://www.clyderiverfoundation.org/crimp/
http://www.conkertreescience.org.uk/http://www.conkertreescience.org.uk/http://www.riverflies.org/http://www.clyderiverfoundation.org/crimp/http://www.clyderiverfoundation.org/crimp/http://www.clyderiverfoundation.org/crimp/http://www.clyderiverfoundation.org/crimp/http://www.clyderiverfoundation.org/crimp/http://www.clyderiverfoundation.org/crimp/http://www.riverflies.org/http://www.conkertreescience.org.uk/http://www.conkertreescience.org.uk/


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Example C

The Biological RecordsCentreat the Centre forEcology & Hydrology has beensupporting recording schemesand societies, thus contributingto long-term monitoring of

biodiversity for 50 years.

The involvement of volunteershas provided a degree ofstability through fluctuationsin funding available to supportthem. The data have been usedto describe changes in speciesdistributions and abundances,particularly in response toenvironmental change, and

contribute to scientific researchand policy.

The recording schemes andsocieties are led by expertvolunteers who have a passionfor a particular group ofanimals or plants, and whocommit vast amounts of timeto supporting recorders and

verifying records. Some groupsare tricky to identify and sorecorders require substantialexpertise. For these groupsthe support and mentoring ofnew participants is invaluable.Other groups are easier toidentify, e.g. ladybirds. TheUK Ladybird Survey hassuccessfully popularized therecording of this charismaticgroup of insects. Many of

these data are submitted as

and when recorders chooseto make records, but the UKButterfly Monitoring Schemeis a structured schemein which volunteers whohave expertise in recordingbutterflies make records

weekly along a set transect.Their records contribute to theoverall conservation effort forbutterflies in the UK.

www.brc.ac.uk

Contents

Examples of using citizen science - continued

12
http://www.brc.ac.uk/http://www.brc.ac.uk/


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Contents

Types of data

Many citizen science projectsare based around peoplesubmitting records orobservations with informationabout the place and time.However there are many othertypes of data that can be

collected:

Images, video or soundrecordings which allowrecords to be verified orfurther analysed aftersubmission.

Measurements ofsomething of interest whichprovides more quantitativedata rather than presence/

absence of something. Physical samples, e.g.

water or biologicalsamples, for the participantto analyse or to send off tobe analysed professionally.

Measurements fromsensors can record thingsthat people cannot directlyobserve (e.g. radiation)or cannot otherwise

quantify (e.g. temperatureor noise). Increasinglythese measurements canbe provided directly fromsmartphones or via plug-insensors.

Obtaining recordsfrom social media, e.g.harvesting informationfrom Twitter, Facebookor Flickr. This uses theinformation in the publicdomain, but does notengage people to collect

it. (Many people wouldnot class this as citizenscience, but it may beuseful nonetheless).

Classifying data alreadycollected. There are manytasks that are difficult

to automate, but easyfor humans for do, e.g.pattern recognition. Ifthese can be dividedinto small tasks then theproblem can be crowdsourced and more peoplecan be involved without

needing to go outdoors.Crowd-sourcing like thisis an increasingly popularcitizen science approach.


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Key question:Have youconsidered the differentways of gathering datausing citizen science,including crowd-sourcing,collecting physical samples,citizen sensor networks,harvesting social media?


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We have created thefollowing decision frameworkto provide guidance as towhether citizen scienceis suitable for you and, ifsuitable, which type of citizenscience you should consider.

Using the decisionframework with aclearly defined question

The decision framework ispresented as a key. You canwork through the decisionframework question-by-question with a specific projectgoal/question which you have

clearly defined in advance, inorder to discover the suitabilityof citizen science for yourproposed project.

Using the decisionframework interactively

A second, more practicaland more productive, useof the decision framework

is when you are developingyour question or goal and youuse the decision frameworkquestion-by-question in orderto refine and clarify your aim.We anticipate that by usingthe decision framework in thisway, it will:

Raise questions thatyou have not previouslyconsidered, thusbroadening what youconsidered possible and sorevealing the potential ofa citizen science approach.

Ask questions that youhave not previouslyclarified, thus refiningyour overall question, somaking it more precise.

Allow you to see the likelyimpact of each decisionon the suitability of citizenscience for your proposedproject.

We believe that the decision

framework will be mostproductive when used in aninteractive way, rather than aformulaic way.


Before you startIs citizen science the best approach?4 The decision frameworkHow to use the decision framework

14


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Part 1 of the decision framework

15

Contents

The decision framework for citizen science

START

NO

YES

NO

Do you need a sensorto make a record?

YES

NO

YES NO

Consider crowd-sourcing approach

to citizen science

(1)

Not suitable for a citizen science approach.Observations requires activities that cannot

be made safe by changing protocols

Not suitable for acitizen science

approach

Can some/all aspects of the project be

virtual tasks completed entirely online?

Is it possible to makeobservations safely?(2)

YES YES NO

YES

Is a sensor availablefor public use?(3)

Are repeat visits by the sameindividuals necessary?(4)

Do you need repeat observationsover a long time period?

Spatial scale: is samplingrestricted to a single site?

Long-term,large scale

Long-term,single site

Short-term,single site

GO TO

BGO TO

C

Worth consideringcitizen science.

A key issue is retentionof volunteers

Potentially worthconsidering citizen

science.A key issue is retention

of volunteers

May not be suitablefor citizen science(5)

YES

A singlelocal site

NO

Short-term,large scale

GO TO

A

Very worthwhileconsidering citizenscience. A key issue

is recruitment ofparticipants

NO

Multiple sites(often extensive

spatial scale)

See page 18 for notes


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Part 2 of the decision framework (continued)

NO

People cantake partanywhere(6)

16

Before you startIs citizen science the best approach?The decision framework for citizen science

AFromPart 1

YES

Are there pre-selected sites (or specialtypes of sites) that need to be visited?

Very good potential for amass participation citizen

science approach(9)

Potentially suitable for acitizen science approach(7)

Very worthwhile consideringcitizen science

Short-term,

large scale

YES

So you need toincentivise reporting

Site accessibility: Are siteslocated where people are

present/passing?

NO, needs time orspecial equipment

NO

NO, so you need toincentivise visiting sites

Is it easy to make areport/observation?

YES

NO

It will take longer

YES

YES

Is the 'protocol' easily learned and thesubject easily accessed or ubiquitous?

Will the observation take just a moment or twoand without the need for special equipment?

(i.e. is the protocol simple?)

Usually not suitable for acitizen science approach(10)

Not suitable for a citizenscience approach(8)

Very good potential for acitizen science approach(11)


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Part 2 of the decision framework (continued)

17

Contents

The decision framework for citizen science

BFromPart 1

CFromPart 1

Not suitable fora citizen science

approach(16)

Worth consideringcitizen science

Very goodpotential

for a citizenscience

approach(15)

YES

YES

NO(14)

Not suitable fora citizen science

approach(16)

Potentially suitablefor a citizen science

approach(18)

Potentially suitablefor a citizen science

approach(19)

YES

YES

NO

Potentially worthconsidering citizen

science

NO

NO

YES

Not suitable for

a citizen scienceapproach(16)

Long-term,

large scale

Long-term,

single site

Are you willing towork with interestedpeople and invest in

training etc?

Is the protocol complex,

or very prescriptive?

NO

Can you work withvolunteers who already

have expertise?(12)

Are you willing todevelop the project

with input fromexpert volunteers?(13)

Are there groups ofpotentially interested

people who couldbe recruited for the

long-term(17)


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1. Here we use the termcrowd-sourcing todescribe the sort oftasks that can easily bedistributed for peopleto do on their ownterms, especially at the

computer. This is idealfor tasks that requirehuman intelligence forproblem solving or patternrecognition. Sometimesprojects can be brokendown to separate out-of-doors observations from acrowd-sourced (computer-based) component, thuspermitting people to be

engaged with the crowd-sourced components evenwhen they are unable tomake observations outside.

2. Safely does not mean riskfree. Risk can be reducedwith appropriate trainingbut risk assessment isalways needed for citizenscience projects.

3. Limitations to a sensorbeing available for publicuse include it being toocomplex or too expensive.However technologicaladvances may quicklymake sensor approachesaffordable and tractable.Sensors could be madeavailable by providingthem free, or making themavailable to purchase (aform of crowd funding ofthe project), hire or borrow.

4. We use the questionabout repeat visits ratherthan long-term, becausemonitoring can be longterm but collected bymultiple people (from thesame site or from multiple

sites). Our distinction heremakes clear an emphasison volunteer retention, notjust recruitment.

5. Short-term, single-siteprojects can be idealto engage with peopleand provide education,but are less suitable forcitizen science. Bioblitzes(recording as many species

as possible on a site in oneday) are short-term, single-site projects; their scientificvalue is due to the presenceof experts, but they havean important role in publicengagement with nature.

6. Anywhere means peopledo not have to travel tosomewhere specific to take

part, though they mayneed to be in a suitablehabitat. Clearly, there isa judgement to be madefor each circumstance andeach intended audiencewhether locations couldbe viewed as anywhere.For example, dependingon the audience largerivers or arable fieldscould be argued either way(most people are not nearlarge rivers or spend timein arable farmland, but

equally, a lot of people willvisit large riversides, andmany people could chooseto visit arable farmland).Equally, a project requiringa visit to woodland mightrequire a special trip, but

many people could chooseto make that trip easily.

7. There are relatively fewcitizen science examplesof trying to incentivise thevisiting of sites (as is donewith geo-caching), butthere is potential for this.

8. Usually not suitable forcitizen science due to a

mismatch between theintended audience and theease of reporting.

9. Mass participation projectscan be ideal in gaining asnap-shot overview ofthe state of something. Itssuccess can rely on beingfeatured in the mass media;alternatively it can take

advantage of breakingstories in the news, inwhich case rapid responseis necessary. You need tothink clearly about theprompt for involvement(why would someone takepart?), and whether samplesizes will be sufficient.Asking people to recordsomething too infrequentlyis not ideal because theymay forget the prompt toreport it (unless it is verymemorable). Asking people

18

Before you startIs citizen science the best approach?Notes on the decision framework


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to record something toofrequently (e.g. all sightingsof a common animal, orreports of river quality) isnot ideal because thereare too many prompts torecord, hence it becomes

too overwhelming andreduces motivation tosubmit reports. Makingthese observations morestructured is an alternative(e.g. report your localriver quality each month),but this comes under thesections regarding long-term surveillance.

10. Usually not suitable for

citizen science due to amismatch between theintended audience e.g.the general public and theaccessibility of the project.

11. Engaging with wideaudiences to undertakesomething reasonablydetailed is one of theclassic examples of citizen

science. Key questions forprojects organisers is whypeople would get involved what is the prompt toget involved now ratherthan later (and potentiallyforget to take part), andwhy people would take parta second time what arethe incentives for continuedengagement? Such a projectdefinitely needs sufficient(i.e. substantial) investmentin supporting resources andin recruitment.

12. It can be more successfulto work with people whoalready have expertise (andinterest) in the subject, e.g.working with birdwatchersto undertake surveys,rather than trying to recruit

people who do not alreadyhave an interest in birds.

13. This question is importantbecause although theremay be a regulatory desireto collect data in a certainway, if the intendedvolunteer participantsare not amenable to thatapproach then pushingahead with the projecthas a high chance offailure. However, byworking with the intendedparticipants you couldwork collaboratively todevelop a project thatis acceptable for theintended participants.

14. If you require long-termlarge-scale monitoring

by volunteers but donot have a ready pool ofwilling expert volunteersthen you need to thinkcarefully about theirincentive to be involved.

15. For this long-termsurveillance, you needto demonstrate a long-term commitment to theproject to fully engage with

volunteers.

16. For this long-termsurveillance, the issue ofworking in collaborationwith your intendedaudience is really important(see [13]).

17. This question is aboutthe audience that youhave identified. Groupsof potentially interestedpeople are often peoplewho have a vested interestin the outcome of thesurveillance, e.g. localaction groups, or anglersconcerned about riverquality, mountain walkersconcerned about invasive

plants etc.

18. A key question that youneed to consider is whysomeone would start toget involved and why theywould continue to beinvolved.

19. A key question here iswhether you have thecommitment to provide

sufficient resources forlong enough. Trainingparticipants requires timeand investment. You couldhave quite high drop-outrates, but this approach hasthe potential to producesome really committedvolunteers.

19

Contents

Notes on the decision framework


23/28

If you have decided thatcitizen science may be useful,we strongly recommend thatyou refer to the Guide toCitizen Science (Tweddle etal. 2012) to help you explorethe steps in actually setting

up a citizen science project.Here we summarise a fewimportant aspects that youshould consider, which arelargely based on the Guide toCitizen Science.

Resources: theorganisers time

Time is needed at all stagesof projects: in the set upand design, in the runningof the project, and in the

reporting phase of the project.When setting up projectsyou will need sufficient leadtime to test protocols, setup databases and websitesetc. During the running ofthe project it is important

to ensure that the websitescontinue to operate well(website links work, databaseswork, blogs are updated etc.).Project organisers need tobe able to commit time forthe duration of the project.

If you are organizing thecitizen science project, thenyour enthusiasm is vital to thesuccess of the project. Withina large organisation thisenthusiasm and commitmentshould be highly valued; thereare many examples of citizenscience projects that havebeen launched with greatexcitement but have rapidly

ceased to be activeor updated.

You will also need toprovide resources for theanalysis, interpretation andcommunication of results.Often the analysis of citizenscience data is complexand while the analyticalapproach should be plannedbefore the project is started,

undertaking the analysis andcommunicating the results toparticipants and the generalpublic (if appropriate) stillrequires resources.

Resources:infrastructure and dataprotection

Infrastructure is an importantaspect of citizen science,particularly the use of onlinedatabases, visualisation

Before you startIs citizen science the best approach?5 Final thoughts on choosing andusing citizen science

20
http://www.ceh.ac.uk/products/publications/documents/citizenscienceguide.pdfhttp://www.ceh.ac.uk/products/publications/documents/citizenscienceguide.pdfhttp://www.ceh.ac.uk/products/publications/documents/citizenscienceguide.pdfhttp://www.ceh.ac.uk/products/publications/documents/citizenscienceguide.pdf


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21

Final thoughts on choosing and usingcitizen science - continued

and feedback. Althoughweb-developers can set upbespoke databases, there aremany examples of maturetechnologies for databasesand for visualisation (Roy etal. 2012). Broadly these can

be divided into: 1) bespoketechnologies that are designedfor a specific purpose andaudience; 2) adaptabletemplate-type platforms wherethe project leader can modifythe content within the boundsof the fixed parameters of theplatform; and 3) technologiesthat have aspects of both. Seethe References and resources

section for more informationon these.

We strongly recommendthat data are stored in a waythat makes it easy to accessand easy to share. Oftenopen-source tools can beused to reduce costs, thoughwe recommend the use ofmature and well-supportedtechnologies.

Data protection needs tobe considered when storingpersonal data online. It maybe possible to overcome thisby not collecting any personalinformation, but this limits thepotential for communicationwith people and personalisedfeedback. Advice must besought to make sure that anyonline data storage in theUK complies with the DataProtection Act.

Validation, qualityassurance andverification

One of the key aspects ofdata collected by citizenscience projects is that it needs

to be of known quality.Known quality can be eitherguaranteed to be accurate(e.g. through verifyingphotographs) or achieved byquantifying the degree of erroror bias.

One of the most cost-effectiveways of ensuring high dataquality is to thoroughly testyour protocols (Tweddleet al. 2012). Through thisprocess you can quantifyerrors in measurement/identification and improveprotocols where necessary.For some projects, recordsare only accepted if there isaccompanying information(e.g. a photograph), especiallyfor unusual records. Thisconservative approach may

result in the discardingof genuinely interestingdata points, so should beundertaken with care.

For other data, quality will beaffected by random error andbias. Random error will increasethe noise in the data (forexample, inaccuracy in makingcounts), thus making it moredifficult to accurately discernsignals from the data. However,most error is likely to be someform of bias (a systematic error)

and this can vary due to manydifferent factors, includingpeoples experience. This biasneeds to be quantified andexplicitly accounted for in theanalysis. One often overlookedsource of error is the lack of

a record. People are mostlikely to record the presenceof something rather than itsabsence or record somethingout-of-the-ordinary, thus causingsystematic bias in the data.

Communication

Communicating with thetarget audience is clearly a

vital aspect of citizen science.Communication via themass media is appealing formany organisers of citizenscience, but it is risky to relyon journalists to promote aproject. It is wise to explorealternative, more stable,routes of communication (e.g.newsletters of interest groups)in addition to the mass media.

Social media (e.g. Twitter andFacebook) has opened up newopportunities for promotingprojects and communicatingwith participants, and newscan spread quickly by word-of-mouth. Workshops andtraining sessions can provideinvaluable face-to-face contactwith project participants. Variedapproaches to communicationwill ensure projects arepromoted in a way that meetsthe requirements of the diverserange of potential participants.


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Final thoughts on choosing and usingcitizen science - continued

It is also important toconsider what and how youcommunicate (Blackmore etal. 2013). Not only do youneed to communicate thewhy? and how? of yourproject, but you should also

communicate the so what?.For some projects, participantsmight expect action in responseto their observation but thismay be beyond the scopeof the initiative e.g. gettinglittered water courses cleanedon their behalf. For someother projects, participantsmight be asked to collectdata that leads to a response

they find unacceptable, e.g.eradication of an attractive butinvasive non-native species. Itis important to consider andaddress peoples expectationsearly in the project.

Participant safety

Although citizen science shouldonly be considered if it canbe undertaken by volunteerssafely, no activity is risk-free.Therefore risk assessmentsshould be undertakenand sources of risk in the

instructions to participantsshould be removed, as faras possible. The risk, and itsreduction, should be clearlyand succinctly communicatedto participants. The level ofsupport and training will

influence the types of risk thatare acceptable. For example,when assessing water quality,members of the general publicmight be asked to makeobservations from the banksideonly, while actually wading inthe water might be deemedto be acceptable if personaltraining was provided.

Legislative implicationsFor some subjects thatare amenable to a citizenscience approach there maybe important legislativeimplications that need to beconsidered (see the excellentreport by Bowser et al. 2013).For example, what are theimplications of volunteersbeing asked to report notifiablediseases on someone elsesland, both on the landownerand the agency given the taskof responding? If the citizen

science data leads to action byregulatory authorities, then arethe data sufficiently accurateand robust? If the citizenscience data is used to derive anindicator on which governmentor agencies commit to act, then

are the data sufficiently accurateand robust?

Conclusion

Citizen science can be abrilliant way to undertakeexcellent science and engagepeople with important andrelevant issues. We hope thatthis 'Guide to Choosing and

Using Citizen Science' hasprovided you with confidenceto develop meaningful, usefuland successful citizen scienceprojects. Developing andsupporting citizen scienceis hard work, but it shouldalso be enjoyable and veryrewarding both for organisersand participants. So, please seethis guide as a starting pointthat you can add to and adaptto meet your needs and aboveall remember to have fun...enthusiasm is infectious!

22


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23

Contents

Blackmore, E., Underhill, R.,McQuilkin, J. & Leach, R.(2013). Common Causefor Nature: FindingValues and Frames in theConservation Sector. PublicInterest Research Centre,

Machynlleth, Wales.

Bonney, R., Ballard, H.,Jordan, R., Mccallie, E.,Phillips, T., Shirk, J. &Wilderman, C. (2009). PublicParticipation in ScientificResearch: Defining the Fieldand Assessing Its Potentialfor Informal ScienceEducation. A CAISE InquiryGroup Report. Center for

Advancement of InformalScience Education (CAISE),Washington, D.C.

Bowser, A., Wiggins, A.& Stevenson, R. (2013).Data Policies for PublicParticipation in ScientificResearch: A Primer.DataONE: Albuquerque, NM.

Cornell Lab of Ornithology.

(2013). Citizen ScienceToolkit, http://www.birds.cornell.edu/citscitoolkit/toolkit

Defra. (2012). UKBiodiversity Indicatorsin Your Pocket 2012.Department forEnvironment, Food andRural Affairs, London.

Nerbonne, J.F. & Nelson,K.C. (2004). Volunteermacroinvertebratemonitoring in the United

States: resource mobilizationand comparative statestructures. Society andNatural Resources, 17,817839.

Pocock, M.J.O., Chapman,D.S., Sheppard, L.J. & Roy,

H.E. (2014). A StrategicFramework to Support theImplementation of CitizenScience for EnvironmentalMonitoring. Final Report onbehalf of SEPA. Centre forEcology & Hydrology.

Pocock, M.J.O. & Evans,D.M. (2014). The success ofthe horse-chestnut leaf-miner, Cameraria ohridella,in the UK revealed withhypothesis-led citizenscience. PLOS ONE, 9,e86226.

Rotman, D., Preece, J.,Hammock, J., Procita,K., Hansen, D., Parr, C.,Lewis, D. & Jacobs, D.(2012). Dynamic changes inmotivation in collaborative

citizen-science projects.Proceedings of the ACM2012 Conference onComputer SupportedCooperative Work, 217.

Roy, H.E., Pocock, M.J.O.,Preston, C.D., Roy, D.B.,Savage, J., Tweddle, J.C.,Robinson, L.D. (2012).Understanding CitizenScience & Environmental

Monitoring. Final Report onBehalf of UK-EOF. Centrefor Ecology & Hydrology,Wallingford, Oxfordshire.

Silvertown, J. (2009). Anew dawn for citizenscience. Trends in Ecology &Evolution, 24, 46771.

Tweddle, J.C., Robinson,L.D., Pocock, M.J.O. &Roy, H.E. (2012). Guide to

Citizen Science: Developing,Implementing andEvaluating Citizen Scienceto Study Biodiversity andthe Environment in the UK.Natural History Museumand Centre for Ecology& Hydrology for UK-EOF,London, UK.

References and resourcesReferences
http://www.birds.cornell.edu/citscitoolkit/toolkithttp://www.birds.cornell.edu/citscitoolkit/toolkithttp://www.birds.cornell.edu/citscitoolkit/toolkithttp://www.ceh.ac.uk/products/publications/documents/citizenscienceguide.pdfhttp://www.birds.cornell.edu/citscitoolkit/toolkithttp://www.birds.cornell.edu/citscitoolkit/toolkithttp://www.birds.cornell.edu/citscitoolkit/toolkit


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An example of a bespoketechnology designedfor specific purpose andaudience is the NatureLocatorsmartphone apps http://naturelocator.org/and theonline databases of many

extant citizen science projects.Examples of adaptabletemplate-type platforms

Epicollecthttp://www.epicollect.net/for mobileapplications

PyBossahttp://crowdcrafting.org/forcrowd-sourcing

CitSci.orghttp://www.citsci.

org/for data collection andvisualization

Ushahidihttp://www.ushahidi.com/for crowd-sourced mapping

OpenTreeMaphttp://www.azavea.com/products/opentreemap/formapping trees

Examples of flexible

and user-friendly datasystems are:

Indicia (http://www.indicia.org.uk/)a database toolkitdeveloped by the Centre forEcology & Hydrology, whichis purpose-designed forthe collection, visualisation,verification and sharingof biodiversity data andcould, with adaptation, be

used for the collection ofenvironmental data as well).

Google code(http://code.google.com/)

24

Before you startIs citizen science the best approach?References and resourcesResources and links

About the authors

Michael Pocock([email protected]) is anecologist at the Biological RecordsCentre within the Centre for Ecology& Hydrology. He co-leads Conker TreeScience and has been involved inseveral other citizen science and publicengagement with science projects.

Daniel Chapman([email protected]) is a spatial ecologistwho works on modelling the spreadof invasive species and studyingphenology, such as the timingof flowering in spring, by usingbiological recording data collected

through citizen science.

Lucy Sheppard([email protected]) is a fellow at theCentre for Ecology & Hydrology,working on the impacts of pollutionon ecosystems. She helped developa 'lichen-based index to nitrogenair quality' that has been used forcitizen science.

Helen Roy([email protected]) is an ecologist at theBiological Records Centre within theCentre for Ecology & Hydrology. She hasenjoyed many opportunities to developand participate in citizen science, andcoordinates the UK Ladybird Survey.
http://naturelocator.org/http://naturelocator.org/http://www.epicollect.net/http://www.epicollect.net/http://crowdcrafting.org/http://crowdcrafting.org/http://www.citsci.org/http://www.citsci.org/http://www.ushahidi.com/http://www.ushahidi.com/http://www.azavea.com/products/opentreemap/http://www.azavea.com/products/opentreemap/http://www.azavea.com/products/opentreemap/http://www.indicia.org.uk/http://www.indicia.org.uk/http://code.google.com/http://code.google.com/mailto:michael.pocock%40ceh.ac.uk?subject=Choosing%20and%20Using%20Citizen%20Sciencemailto:michael.pocock%40ceh.ac.uk?subject=Choosing%20and%20Using%20Citizen%20Sciencemailto:michael.pocock%40ceh.ac.uk?subject=Choosing%20and%20Using%20Citizen%20Sciencemailto:dcha%40ceh.ac.uk?subject=Choosing%20and%20Using%20Citizen%20Sciencemailto:dcha%40ceh.ac.uk?subject=Choosing%20and%20Using%20Citizen%20Sciencemailto:dcha%40ceh.ac.uk?subject=Choosing%20and%20Using%20Citizen%20Sciencemailto:ljs%40ceh.ac.uk?subject=Choosing%20and%20Using%20Citizen%20Sciencemailto:ljs%40ceh.ac.uk?subject=Choosing%20and%20Using%20Citizen%20Sciencemailto:ljs%40ceh.ac.uk?subject=Choosing%20and%20Using%20Citizen%20Sciencemailto:hele%40ceh.ac.uk?subject=Choosing%20and%20Using%20Citizen%20Sciencemailto:hele%40ceh.ac.uk?subject=Choosing%20and%20Using%20Citizen%20Sciencemailto:hele%40ceh.ac.uk?subject=Choosing%20and%20Using%20Citizen%20Sciencemailto:hele%40ceh.ac.uk?subject=Choosing%20and%20Using%20Citizen%20Sciencemailto:ljs%40ceh.ac.uk?subject=Choosing%20and%20Using%20Citizen%20Sciencemailto:dcha%40ceh.ac.uk?subject=Choosing%20and%20Using%20Citizen%20Sciencemailto:michael.pocock%40ceh.ac.uk?subject=Choosing%20and%20Using%20Citizen%20Sciencehttp://code.google.com/http://code.google.com/http://www.indicia.org.uk/http://www.indicia.org.uk/http://www.azavea.com/products/opentreemap/http://www.azavea.com/products/opentreemap/http://www.azavea.com/products/opentreemap/http://www.ushahidi.com/http://www.ushahidi.com/http://www.citsci.org/http://www.citsci.org/http://crowdcrafting.org/http://crowdcrafting.org/http://www.epicollect.net/http://www.epicollect.net/http://naturelocator.org/http://naturelocator.org/


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