cim magazine march/april 2007

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February/février 2006 www.cim.orgMarch/April • mars/avril 2007 www.cim.org

CopperTheAgeGlobal growth

at a frenzy

A D D R E S S M E TS O M I N E R A L S - M I N I N G , 2 4 0 A R C H S T R E E T, YO R K , PA 1 7 4 0 3 U S A P H O N E + 1 7 1 7 8 4 3 8 6 7 1 FA X + 1 7 1 7 8 4 5 5 1 5 4 E - M A I L M I N E R A L S . I N F O @ M E TS O. CO M

Concentrating on Mining …Proving our worth

It’s All About Adding True Value.

No two ores, no two mines, and no two minerals processing plants are identical. Which is why our extensive experience and industry-wide know-how are so valuable to our customers – to ensure that they get the recovery rates and concentrate qual-ity they expect, the throughput and the availability they want.

So if size reduction, enrichment, upgrading, and materials handling are all central to your needs then Metso can provide the solutions you need to lower operational risks and operating costs.

Adding value with expert industry know-how and innovative thinking is Metso’s true value to you.

www.metsominerals.com

Editor-in-chief Heather [email protected]

Assistant Editor Andrea [email protected]

Technical Editor Joan TomiukPublisher CIM

Published 8 times a year by CIM855 - 3400 de Maisonneuve Blvd. West Montreal, QC, H3Z 3B8Tel.: (514) 939-2710; Fax: (514) 939-2714 www.cim.org; Email: [email protected]

Subscriptions: Included in CIM membership ($140.00); Non-members (Canada), $171.20/yr (GST included; Quebec residents add $12.84 PST; NB, NF and NS residents add $24.00 HST); U.S. and other countries,US$180.00/yr; Single copies, $25.00.

Advertising Sales:Dovetail Communications Inc.30 East Beaver Creek Rd., Ste. 202Richmond Hill, Ontario L4B 1J2Tel.: (905) 886-6640; Fax: (905) 886-6615www.dvtail.com <http://www.dvtail.com> Account Managers: (905) 886-6641Joe Crofts [email protected] ext. 310Janet Jeffery [email protected] ext. 329Randy Grunfeld [email protected] ext. 315

This month’s coverCathode production at Tintaya open pit mine in Peru.Photo courtesy of Xstrata Copper.

Layout and design by Clò Communications.

Copyright©2007. All rights reserved. ISSN 1718-4177. Publications Mail No. 09786. Postage paid at CPA Saint-Laurent, QC. Dépôt légal: Bibliothèque nationale du Québec.The Institute, as a body, is not responsible for statements made or opinions advanced either inarticles or in any discussion appearing in its publications.

Printed in Canada

4 CIM Magazine n Vol. 2, Nº 2

Crash course on copper

The global copper industry is massive, and growing. New technologies haveimproved the process of producing copper, resulting in healthier bottomlines and less environmental impact. This issue of CIM Magazine includes a

feature section on copper, demonstrating the robustness of the industry, andhighlighting the global activity driving the copper market.

The Metallurgical Society of CIM is providing the opportunity to ensure youare on top of the copper industry today, as it will be hosting Cu2007 as part ofthe Conference of Metallurgists (COM2007) this August. This international con-ference is a truly global event and, considering the great energy of the copperbusiness today, promises to be a terrific experience. A tremendous amount ofknowledge will be packed into the technical program. Couple that with theinternational crowd that will flock to Toronto for the conference, offering a ter-rific opportunity to build your network, and I know I, for one, plan to be there.More information is available at www.Cu2007.org.

Phillip Mackey, Xstrata Process Support, has been instrumental in pullingtogether this issue. His article, The changing landscape of copper in 2007, onpage 35 is a tremendous guide to the copper industry today. As well, PascalCoursol, also of Xstrata, has invested much effort to bring authors and techni-cal papers together to amplify the copper focus. Special thanks go to these twoindividuals for the extensive time they’ve committed to build this issue of themagazine.

As we ramp up to the CIM Conference and Exhibition only a few weeks away,excitement is building about the new energy at CIM, and the opportunities wewill welcome going forward. CIM belongs to its members, such as Phil andPascal—so don’t hesitate to help build its plans for the future. Contact your soci-ety or branch chair, or any one of us here in the CIM office today!

See you soon at the Montreal conference,

Heather EdnieEditor-in-chief

March/April 2007 5

Copper News35 The changing landscape in copper in 2007

by P.J. Mackey51 L’aspect changeant du cuivre en 2007

43 New copper concentrate and leaching facility at Morenciby H. Ednie

45 Growth and acceptance of the ISASMELTTM process by M.L. Bakker and P.S. Arthur

48 Rich heritage of copper production in Canada by P.J. Mackey

49 Chile maintains position as world leader in copper

CIM News60 CIM welcomes new members61 Canadian Mining and Metallurgical Foundation—

Poised to promote education for industry62 Investing in the leaders of tomorrow by A. Nichiporuk62 Investir dans les futurs leaders64 Lecturer Mueller found experience positive66 La Section de Québec recoit un éminent conférencier66 Wilson visits Quebec Branch66 Hamilton Branch—Awash in steel?67 La Section de Québec passe au vote67 The votes are in68 CIM Conference and Exhibition—The countdown is on!

History72 The Basalt Controversy II (Part 16) by R.J. Cathro75 Muslim Mining in the Iberian Peninsula (Part 1)

by O. Puche Riart, L.F. Mazadiego Martinez, and P. Kindelán Echevarria

Technical Section78 This month’s contents79 Executive summaries84 Exploration and Mining Geology Journal—

Volume 15, Numbers 1 and 2 preview85 Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly—

Volume 46, Number 1 preview

News9 Mineral flotation and patentable utility by J. Pivnicki

10 New technology for smarter blasting by C. Hersey12 Student mine rescue training in Sudbury by L. Rudd13 Putting a stop to energy waste16 Training miners in Newfoundland by L. Rich18 Extracting geothermal heat from mines by H. Ednie

Columns19 The Supply Side by J. Baird20 Mining Lore by A. Nichiporuk22 MAC Economic Commentary by P. Stothart24 Canadians Abroad by D.A. Shinkle26 Eye on Business by D.V. Tingey and R. Ezekiel28 Student Life by R.M.S. Toole29 Parlons-en par L. Gagnon30 Engineering Exchange by H. Weldon32 Standards by D.A. McCombe34 HR Outlook by R. Montpelier90 Voices from Industry by D. Rodier

DepartmentsEditor’s Message 4 President’s Observations/Mot du président 6 Letters to the Editor 8 Calendar 65 Bookshop 87 Professional Directory 88

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There are many books on leader-ship available today, promisinginsight to successful navigation inour highly competitive environment.I have just finished reading an inter-esting one called Good to Great by JimCollins, recommended to me by myson.

The author, with his team ofresearchers, tried to identify why some companies transformedthemselves from good to great and consistently out-performedtheir competitors in various industries.

What they found was that the good-to-great companies hadLevel 5 leadership during the transition years. Level 5 refers toa five-level hierarchy of executive capabilities, with Level 5being at the top. Good companies were often led by executiveswith Level 4 leadership traits. Level 5 executives are humbleyet have great professional will. The difference with Level 4executives is that they are, first and foremost, ambitious for thecompany and not themselves. Level 5 leaders set up their suc-cessors for even greater success when they depart, whereascompanies directed by Level 4 leaders often fail in ensuringgood succession. Their research found that Level 5 leaders areoften modest, self-effaced, and understated, whereas two-

6 CIM Magazine n Vol. 2, N° 2

De nos jours, il est facile de trouver de nombreux livressur le leadership; ils promettent un moyen de naviguer avecsuccès dans notre environnement hautement compétitif. Jeviens tout juste d’en lire un très intéressant recommandé parmon fils «De la performance à l’excellence» par Jim Collins.

De concert avec son équipe de chercheurs, l’auteur essaied’identifier pourquoi, dans diverses industries, certainescompagnies se transformaient de bonnes à excellentes etavaient constamment un rendement supérieur à leurs com-pétiteurs.

Il appert que, durant les années de transition, les com-pagnies cotées bonnes à excellentes avaient des chefs deniveau 5, lequel correspond au plus haut niveau d’unehiérarchie de compétence exécutive. Les bonnes compagn -ies sont souvent gérées par un exécutif possédant les cara -ctéristiques de leadership de niveau 4. Les exécutifs deniveau 5 sont humbles mais ils ont une grande volonté pro-fessionnelle. La différence avec un exécutif de niveau 4 estque leur ambition est tout d’abord dirigée vers la compagnieet non vers eux-mêmes. À leur départ, les chefs de niveau 5préparent leur successeur pour des réussites encore plusgrandes alors que les compagnies dirigées par des chefs deniveau 4 ont souvent des difficultés à assurer une bonne suc-cession. Selon les chercheurs, les chefs de niveau 5 sont sou-vent modestes et effacés ou ils se sous-estiment alors que lesdeux tiers des compagnies comparables à rendement moyenou médiocre avaient des chefs à l’ego enflé. Les chefs de

De bon à excellentniveau 5 agissent plus comme des chevaux de trait que deschevaux de parade. Ils sont déterminés à faire tout ce qu’ilfaut pour amener la compagnie à un niveau d’excellence,peu importe la taille ou la difficulté des décisions. Les chefsde niveau 5 ont tendance à attribuer le succès à des facteurssur lesquels ils n’ont aucun contrôle et à prendre la respon-sabilité lorsque les choses vont moins bien. Les chefs deniveau 4 font tout le contraire.

L’un des chapitres qui m’a frappé était celui concernant lesgens et la vision. Les chercheurs ont découvert que, lors duprocessus de transformation, les chefs bons à excellents prê-taient une attention particulière pour attirer les bonnes per-sonnes et se départir des moins bonnes et ils déterminaientensuite le chemin à parcourir. Cela signifie en fait qu’ils étab-lissent en premier le qui (les gens) avant de déterminer lequoi (la vision, la stratégie, la structure, les tactiques…).

Le livre aborde aussi d’autres questions telles que l’ap-proche à la technologie, la culture de l’organisation, la défi-nition de l’organisation ainsi que d’autres sujets stratégiques.

Je voulais partager quelques observations des chercheursavec vous. Nous avons tous des chefs de niveau 5 dans nosorganisations. Dix sur onze chefs d’entreprises cotéesbonnes à excellentes provenaient de l’intérieur même de l’or-ganisation. Ils sont déjà là. Il faut simplement savoir quoirechercher.

François Pelletier Président

Leading the transition from good to great

president’s observationsmot du président

thirds of the comparator companies within mediocre or aver-age-performing companies had enormous egos. Level 5 leadersare more like plow horses than show horses. They are resolvedto do whatever it takes to make the company great, no matterhow big or hard the decisions. Level 5 leaders have a tendencyto attribute success to factors on which they have no control,and take the responsibility for things when they go poorly.Level 4 leaders do the opposite.

One of the chapters that struck me was the one regardingpeople and vision. What the researchers found within thetransformation process by good-to-great leaders was that theyput a lot of attention in getting the right people on the bus, thewrong people off the bus, and then figured out where to driveit. This basically says that they first determined who (people),before what (vision, strategy, structure, tactics, etc.).

The book also addresses other issues such as approach totechnology, culture of the organization, defining your organi-zation, and other strategic topics.

I wanted to share some of their observations with you. Weall have Level 5 leaders in our organizations. Ten of 11 good-to-great company leaders came from inside the organizationsthat were examined. They are there. We just have to knowwhat to look for.

François PelletierPresident

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lettersCIM Executives,

I was awardedthe $2,000 CIMscholarship for afirst year gradu-ate student inVancouver. Dueto illness I wasunable to attendthe student nightdinner to acceptthe award and soI could not

express my gratitude in person. However I would like to saythank you for your continued support. I won a CIM Hydro -metallurgy book award as an undergrad in 2005, and nowthis. Thank you very much for this—your support for otherstudents and me means a lot. I hope I can make the organi-zation proud with my work and future career.

All the best,Patrick LittlejohnUBC Materials EngineeringHydrometallurgy Group

Safety remains a priorityDear Heather,

I have both a positive com-ment and a negative commenton the Dec06/Jan07 issue ofCIM Magazine. They actuallyended up related to eachother.

On the positive note, Ithought the President’sObservations was an excellentarticle, focussing on the realimportance of effective safetyprograms.

On the negative side, myfirst impression on looking at the cover was related to safety. Icertainly would not want one of our employees leaping fromrock to rock! I really think that everything in the magazineshould set a good example with respect to safe and environ-mentally friendly operating practices. This cover photo cer-tainly did not, and was clearly inconsistent with the very realand touching message from the president.

Thank you for your time,Cam McIntyre

Giving students support

Errata• The February 2007 issue of CIM

Magazine should have been Vol. 2,No. 1. We apologize for anyinconvenience.

• Apologies to Fady Haddad,author of the Student Life col-umn for the Dec 2005/Jan 2006issue. We accidently listedanother person as author in theTable of Contents.

To agree or not agree…Something in this issue strike a chord with you?

Whether to agree with information we’ve printed, or disagree entirely, share your thoughts with CIM.

Send your comments to [email protected]

M i n e r a lflotation is acommonlyused methodto separate amineral froma ganguematerial andproduce amineral con-centrate. Themineral feedto a flotationdevice isground quitefinely, and is

usually treated with flotation reagents,which improve the mineral separationprocess.

In 1925, this method of mineralflotation with reagent assistance was inits infancy and Mineral SeparationNorth America Corporation was issuedCanadian Patent CA 247,5761 (the’576 patent) entitled “Froth FlotationConcentration of Ores.” MineralSeparation subsequently licenced theirpatent to many of the biggest miningcompanies of the day, includingInternational Nickel Co. and HudsonBay Mining & Smelting.2 However,several other Canadian mining compa-nies, including Noranda Mines, refusedto take out licences. MineralSeparation sued Noranda Mines forinfringement of their patent. In theirdefence, Noranda Mines contendedthat the patent was invalid, and there-fore, could not be infringed.

This landmark case, which was firstheard in 1947, was appealed all the

1 The CA 247,576 patent is available online at Canadian Intellectual Property Office:http://patents1.ic.gc.ca/intro-e.html

2 Mineral Separations North American Corp. v. Noranda Mines Ltd. [ (1947 (Ex. Ct.), 12C.P.R.; (S.C.C) 12 C.P.R. 99; 1952 (P.C.) 15 C.P.R. 133].

3 The Patent Act ( R.S., 1985, c. P-4 ), Section 27(3)(a), available at CIPO: http://laws.jus-tice.gc.ca/en/P-4/text.html

way to the Judicial Committee of thePrivy Council of the House of Lords in1952, which was the highest Canadianjudicial body at the time.

The ’576 patent described a flota-tion process where “xanthates” or“sulphur derivatives of carbonic acid”were used to “greatly increase the effi-ciency of the froth-flotation process.”The claims of the patent (i.e. the por-tion of the patent that defines the legalboundaries of the invention protectedby the patent) were directed to “aprocess for concentrating ores” and an“improvement in the concentration ofminerals by flotation” using thedescribed xanthates. The claims of the’576 patent covered the use of all typesof xanthates as the flotation reagent,and therefore included cellulose xan-thates that were known to hinder, andnot enhance, mineral flotation andthus did not do what was promised bythe patent.

The Judicial Committee of theHouse of Lords ruled that the claims ofthe ‘576 patent were invalid, becausethey were not operable and did notmake good their promise to improveflotation of minerals when cellulosexanthates were used.

In Canada, the three main require-ments for patent validity are: novelty,non-obviousness, and utility. Thesethree requirements are the principalfoundations on which patent validity isbuilt; the lack of any one of theserequirements will invalidate the patent.

For a patent to have utility, it mustbe operable. The description must besufficiently detailed and must “cor-

rectly and fully describe the inven-tion”3 such that it allows a skilled per-son to use the invention.

The subject matter of a patent lacksutility if the invention either does notwork at all or the description prom-ises something that the invention doesnot do. n

newsMineral flotation and patentable utilityby John Pivnicki, patent agent-in-training, Ogilvy Renault

Giving backMaking Xmas a little easier for some

IOC employees raised $9,930 inDecember for the MinisterialAssociation 2006 Christmas Appeal.The company matched employeedonations, bringing the grand totalto $19,860. The money raised wentto make Christmas a little brighterfor families in the Labrador Westarea.

The fight against homelessnessIn Calagry, there has been a 32 per

cent increase from 2004 in individualswho are homeless. As a result, Calgarycorporate, government, and commu-nity leaders have joined together tocreate the Calgary Committee to EndHomelessness. The committee’s ten-year plan is slated to be revealed bymid-2008. Members of the committeeinclude, among others: Steve Snyder,CEO, TransAlta; Rick George, CEO,Suncor Energy; and Tim Hearn, CEO,Imperial Oil.

Breaking their own recordOver 900 charities and non-profit

groups benefited from Suncor Energydonations in 2006, which totaled awhopping $11.2 million. Suncor andSuncor Energy Foundation focusedprimarily on community projects,educational programs, and environ-mental initiatives.

March/April 2007 9

news

If someone were tooffer you fifty dollarsfor every one dollar youinvested, would youcommit? If you’re likeany other human onthe planet with a pulse,you probably wouldn’tthink twice about it. Anew electronic blastmovement monitor,mutually developed bythe Julius KruttschnittMineral ResearchCentre (JKMRC) andBlast MovementTechnologies (BMT),revolves around exactlythat concept—invest alittle, gain a lot.

Currently, mostmines are using a rangeof techniques to meas-ure muck pile move-ment, from sand bagsand poly-pipe to electronic sensors. Thepossibilities are endless, but the resultsnever quite as good as they could be.Ore loss and dilution due to insufficienttechniques can add up to tens of mil-lions of dollars lost per mine per year.

New technology for smarter blastingby Carolyn Hersey

For example (with an ore block 50metres wide and a flitch five metreshigh), missing the ore boundary by justone metre can result in up toAUS$100,000 of lost gold. According toDarren Thornton, senior research officer

at the JKMRC in Indooroopilly,Australia, this new technology couldsave the industry an extra five to ten percent, a considerable amount for a smallinvestment price.

Research on the Blast MovementMonitors (referred to as JKBMMs)began back in 2003, and they havesince been used in several mines withresults generating much interest amongintrigued mining companies around theworld. The JKBMMs are used to accu-rately measure ore movement, in turndecreasing ore loss and dilution, andthereby increasing profits and revenue.The technology is really quite simple.The JKBMM is a directional transmitterencased in a protective shell (typicallythe size of a softball) and has abouteight hours of battery life immediatelyafter having been assembled. Thesetransmitters are then placed in separatedrill holes (which are selected accord-ing to desired blast outcome) prior toblasting. After the blast, a directional


AchievementsOutstanding investor relations

PotashCorp was recognized forexcellent investor relations. The com-pany’s 2005 annual report was namedbest in Canada by IR Magazine Canada.

A well-deserved recognitionImperial Metal’s president Brian

Kynoch received the E.A. ScholzAward for excellence in mine develop-ment in British Columbia.

Good times at GolderAccording to CE News magazine,

Golder Associates Inc. is one of the“Best CE Firms to Work for.” This isthe fifth straight year that the companymakes the list.

CMP recognizes excellenceThe Canadian Mineral Processors

Society of CIM awarded GekkoSystems’ sales manager Jennifer Abolswith the Bill Moore SpecialAchievement Award. Abols, an activemember of CMP, was one of many rec-ognized for their achievements thisyear. For a full listing of award win-ners, visit www.c-m-p.on.ca.

It’s a tieSuncor Energy was recognized for

its leadership in renewable energydevelopment, aboriginal programs, andsustainability reporting. The companywas tied for first place in the oil and gascategory of the Globe & Mail Report onBusiness Magazine’s annual Canadiancorporate social responsibility ranking.

Lighthall receives awardFor his leadership in the environ-

mental management of mining proj-ects, Peter Lighthall received theCanadian Pacific Railway EngineeringMedal, awarded by the EngineeringInstitute of Canada. Lighthall, who hasover 35 years' experience as a geotech-nical engineer, has worked on over100 mines and is currently a miningengineer with AMEC.

news

receiver, much like a metal detector, isused to detect the signal produced byeach transmitter. The horizontal loca-tion of the JKBMM is recorded and itsdepth is determined by the strength ofthe signal. Once all of the JKBMMs andtheir respectful positions have beenaccounted for, calculations are made todetermine the three-dimensional move-ment vectors of the transmitters. Withthe help of these blast movement mon-itors, the movement vectors for eachJKBMM can be available in less than anhour (for approximately 12 JKBMMs),saving time and money normally spenton trying to recover traditional visualmarkers.

Paul Adams, who works forPorcupine Joint Venture in northernOntario, has been using the systemsince last January and can’t imaginehow in the world they ever got alongwithout it. Before the JKBMMs camealong, workers were forced to digthrough muck piles before even know-ing the movement of the ore. Wastewas being shipped off to the concentra-tor, while ore (mistaken for waste) wasbeing hauled off to the waste dumps.Translation: loss of revenue, unhappyconcentrator, and reduction of profit.Also, traditional markers, such a shov-els or poly-pipe, were difficult torecover, if at all, and the time spentfinding them resulted in movementinformation that was too late to be use-ful. Since implementing the technol-ogy, Adams stated that they can nowpredict ore movement much moreaccurately, both dilution and ore losshave decreased significantly, and prof-its are up. One blast test performed atPorcupine using the JKBMMs alreadyrevealed enthusiastic results; dilutionhad decreased by approximately 11.4per cent and ore loss by approximately7.6 per cent. “I love these things; theyreally improve the way we workaround here,” Adams said with definiteenthusiasm.

Based on the success of currentresults, research will continue in thisarea of blast engineering and ore con-trol. There are still aspects of the sys-tem that have not been fully developed,

and there are likely some improve-ments to be made to ensure its practi-cality for everyday use. According toresearch officers at both JKMRC andPlacer Dome Technical ServicesLimited, some topics could possiblyinclude:• Extending the transmitter’s battery

life from eight hours to severalmonths

• Reduction of the transmitter’s diame-ter to allow entry into drilled holessmaller than 100 millimetres

• Improving the survival rate of trans-mitter electronics and protective case

• Developing unique identification foreach transmitter to permit multipleunits per hole

• Improving transmission throughmore than 10 metres of rock

• Developing models and software tolink with ore block modelling pack-agesDespite it still being a relatively new

product on the mining market, theadvantages of this technology areimpossible to ignore. Amidst today’scurrent blasting techniques, JKBMM hasstolen the spotlight. It is possibly theonly efficient method available today toaccurately measure blast movement, inaddition to not requiring a massive cap-ital investment in consumables (thanksto disposable transmitters). For a merefew cents extra per ton of rock blasted,open cut mines around the world can bereaping the rewards of this new technol-ogy. The system provides results muchsooner after blasting and before excava-tion commences, and there is littleinterference with current blasting oper-ations. The transmitters themselves aremore easily detected than visual mark-ers such as chains or shovels, and, beingdisposable, there is no precious time ormoney spent trying to recover them. Ofcourse, the biggest benefit from theJKBMM is the overall better grade prod-uct. Less waste and more ore spells bet-ter business, higher profit, smiling con-centrators, and more revenue for anyopen cut mine. Soon enough, JKBMMfever will be spreading like a wildfireand more popular than bell-bottoms inthe 60s. n

March/April 2007 11

news


Sponsored by M.A.S.H.A. (TheMines and Aggregates Safety andHealth Association of Ontario), 12mining engineering students fromLaurentian University School ofEngineering and the University of

Toronto Lassonde Institute combinedduring their "study week" to partici-pate in the annual Ontario MineRescue student training course.Students taking this course receive fullcertification at the basic level of minerescue. It involves several hours of the-ory about mine rescue procedures, andsafe practice in a mine emergency—especially fire. Coupled with this, theymust become fully conversant andexpert in servicing and maintainingthe Drager BG4 oxygen breathingapparatus.

Once fully conversant with theapparatus, and armed with the knowl-edge of poisonous and noxious gases as

well as rescue procedures, the studentsare subjected to the very rigorous testof a mock rescue at a mine. They haveto locate and rescue a "casualty"trapped in dense smoke, deep in amine. The students also have to suc-

cessfully pass a writtenexam, as is the casewith all of OntarioMine Rescue people.Having volunteered tosacrifice their studyweek they can proudlysport the hard-wonOntario Mine Rescue

decal on their hard hats, and await thatfull-time job upon graduation, whenthey can extend their mine rescuetraining to become full volunteer mem-bers of a mine rescue team.

The week in Sudbury was not allwork. Through Emily Brisson, cus-tomer relations officer for OricaExplosives of Sudbury, the studentswere treated to a Friday "graduation"lunch plus a Sudbury Wolves hockeygame. These young students are to becommended for their volunteer efforts,and it will not be too long before theyare making a positive contribution toour industry, as they embark on theirprofessional careers. n

Movin’ on upMcLellan newest team member

Former Deputy Prime Minister ofCanada A. Anne McLellan joined NewMillennium Capital as a strategic advi-sor. McLellan has been with BennettJones LLP since July 2006.

Ingersoll welcomes new VPMarcia J. Avedon is Ingersoll Rand’s

new senior vice president, HR and com-munications. Most recently, she wassenior vice president, HR, at Merck.

Onward and upwardAlex Losada-Calderon, an experi-

enced exploration geologist and proj-ect manager, was named vice presi-dent, exploration, of SouthwesternResources. Most recently, he wasworking for Ausenco onSouthwestern’s Boka project.

The team + 3Golder Associates’ Ore Evaluations

Services team has grown with theaddition of three new senior members:Greg Greenough, Kevin Palmer, andMatt Wunder. They each bring over 20years’ experience to the company.

Appointment at TaheraGary M. Jones was appointed a

director of Tahera. He is currently vicepresident, business development, ofTeck Cominco, and has been with thecompany for over 27 years.

New president and CEOLynda Bloom was named president

and CEO of Halo Resources. She hasbeen a director of the company sinceNovember 2006.

Bringing about changeSuncor Energy is strengthening its

senior management team: SteveWilliams, former executive vice presi-dent, oil sands, was appointed chiefoperating officer; and Mike Ashar, for-mer executive vice president of US-based downstream operations, becamethe new executive vice president,strategic growth and energy trading.

John Hagan (left) Ontario Mine Rescue 0fficer (instructor) and the new student Mine Rescuerecruits. Laurentian University School of Engineering

Student mine rescue training in Sudburyby Lionel Rudd. C.E.T., engineering technologist

Having volunteered to sacrifice their study week they can proudlysport the hard-won Ontario MineRescue decal on their hard hats

news

March/April 2007 13

Movin’ on upChanges underway at Stornoway

Matt Manson was appointed to Stornoway's board ofdirectors and took on the position of president of the com-pany. Previously president and CEO of Contact DiamondCorporation and Ashton Mining of Canada, Manson beingsover 12 years' experience in diamond exploration, develop-ment, and production to the position.

Farewell Mr. CarterAfter a long and

distinguished career,Jim Carter is retiring atthe end of April.Carter's journey withSyncrude began in1979 when he washired on as manager ofoverburden opera-tions. He quicklymade his way up thecorporate ladder, mak-ing vice president ofoperations by 1989 and president and COO in 1997.Throughout his career, Carter has served as a promoter of,among other things, diversity in the workplace, aboriginalengagement, safety, and skills development.

The Ontario Mining Association(OMA) and Ontario Power Authorityhave teamed up to give energy waste theslip, with the launch of the SustainableLeak Prevention Program (SLPP) nowunderway at three northern Ontariomines. This project is to improve electric-ity efficiency and could result in hundredsof dollars of savings for mining companiesand their operations, with spin-off appli-cations to other industries in the province.

Ontario’s mining industry spendsmore than $500 million annually forenergy, accounting for a range from 15to 30 per cent of operating costs.Compressed air systems are one of thelargest contributors to energy consump-tion. Even a small air leak in such a sys-tem can result in substantial electricitycost increases by causing compressorsto overwork.

Putting a stop to energy wasteFor example, a single hole equal to

1/8 inch in diameter wastes air at a rateof about 12 litres per second. Even atthe low rate of 4 cents/KWh, this leak

alone can waste over $1,000 per year—and it’s well known that most systemshave a number of leaks. In fact, someplants report a leak rate equal to 20 percent of total compressed air productioncapacity.

In the $532,000 SLPP project, theOMA will oversee audits of compressedair systems at the Williams mine inHemlo near Marathon, CVRD Inco’sSouth mine in Sudbury, and FNX’sMcCreedy West mine, also in Sudbury.

Funding for 41 per cent of the proj-ect comes from the OPA’s ConservationFund, with the balance provided by theOMA and participating sites.

“Repairing compressed air leaks inthe mine is a cost-effective way toincrease energy efficiencies and toensure ongoing low-cost nickel pro-duction,” said Dave Tomini, divi-sional energy coordinator, CVRDInco. “This initiative is in line withour continuing efforts to build a sus-tainable future.”

Key finding of the audits will be pre-sented to the OMA this March, with afinal report submitted to OPA in May. n

Ontario’s mining industry spends more than $500 million annually for energy◊

Jim Carter. Image courtesy of SyncrudeCanada Ltd.

news

It was December 2005 when BerniceWalker, the diminutive but dynamic pres-ident and CEO of Corona College, satdown with representatives of AurResources Inc. to cement a partnershipfor training students in hard rock mining.

Walker had earlier learned througha media report that Aur Resources wasbeginning to develop a new mine atDuck Pond, in a remote area nearMillertown in central Newfoundland,and she recognized an opportunity tomeet the company’s need for trained,skilled workers.

“I didn’t have a clue about mining,and hard rock meant nothing to me at

Training miners in Newfoundlandby Len Rich

the time,” she said recently. “But after20 years of being in the education field,I did identify an opportunity to train aportion of our labour force and keepthem in the province, employed in acareer that was meaningful to them-selves and their families.”

Walker began to utilize her staff andthe Internet to identify job opportuni-ties, and was surprised to learn thatthe mining industry forecasted a needfor more than 80,000 new personnelover the next decade. She also learnedthat mining and exploration inNewfoundland and Labrador were atan all-time high.

Armed with this information, she con-tacted Duck Pond mine manager GuyBelleau and his safety supervisor, HaroldHeath. The initial contact led to severalmeetings and more discussion about con-tent and the needs for safety-related mod-ules in a core program. In the final analy-sis they developed a 16-week programthat included both classroom educationat the college campus in Grand Falls-Windsor, and onsite training at the mine.

The program was submitted to theDepartment of Education for approval,a qualified instructor was located, andthe program got underway in December2005, with a first class of 12 students.


and are working diligently to meet thoseneeds through training.”

— B. Walker

“We have recognized the industry’s needs

Students receive hands-on training within the mine itself.

“We didn’t know what to expect,”said Belleau. “It was new for us as well,and we had some concerns aboutwhether the program would be suc-cessful. But we were all pleasantly sur-prised. The students were eager tolearn, well-trained, and safety con-scious. They integrated with our otherstaff and were a joy to have at the minesite. They were treated with respectand as equals by our workers.”

The program was so good that thefirst class was followed by two more, anda fourth began this February. Studentshave found work at Duck Pond mineand Petro Drilling within the province,and at sites across Canada, includingVoisey’s Bay in Labrador, Dynatec, andmines in northern Ontario.

More recently, at the CIMConference in St. John’s, Newfound -land, Walker was chatting withGarfield MacVeigh, chairman of theboard of Rubicon Minerals, who sug-gested there was a huge need for dia-mond drillers across Canada.

She wasted no time in locatingdrilling companies with operations in

the province, and was soon convers-ing with Cabo Drilling Corporation,Canada’s third largest mineral drillingcompany, and their Newfoundlandsubsidiary, Petro Drilling, located inthe small community of Springdale.

Within a matter of days she hadentered into a partnership with themto develop and teach a program indiamond drilling at the college, withonsite training included.

Their new arrangement wasannounced during the one-yearanniversary celebrations of theCorona College–Aur Resources part-nership, held at the campus in mid-December. Media coverage of theevent generated enormous interestacross the province, and it nowappears there will be enough enrol-ment for a fifth hard rock miningclass to begin in late spring or earlysummer. The diamond drilling pro-gram already has enough interestedstudents to make up half a class, andthey are ready to enrol.

What’s next for mining educationat Corona College? A program formill operators is in the final stage ofapproval with the Department ofEducation, and a surface mining pro-gram is nearly ready for processing.These programs will meet growingneeds of the province’s mining sector.

“I take pride in the fact that we arethe leading educational institution inthis province, perhaps in the Atlanticregion, to offer these programs for themining sector. We have recognizedthe industry’s needs and are workingdiligently to meet those needsthrough training,” said Walker.

“Our goal is to stem the out-migration of workers who areattracted by the lure of jobs in theAlberta oil sector. We want to keepour skilled workers here in thisprovince, where they can enjoy alifestyle and reasonable income, rela-tive to their level of knowledge. Themining sector can provide that forthem. We project a great future inmining activity and are doing ourpart to train our people for these veryimportant jobs.” n

Bernice Walker, president/CEO of CoronaCollege, speaks to the first graduating

class of hard rock miners.

March/April 2007 17

news

Throughoutthe last twodecades, muchconcern hasmounted aboutthe environ-mental impactsof traditionaland develop -inge n e r g yresources. Inresponse to this,research and

development is underway to finessealternative methods of generating energy.

One resource under development isthe use of low-temperature geothermalheat from mines. Generally regarded asa benign energy source, particularlywhen compared to today’s most popu-lar sources such as nuclear, oil, andcoal, it is, however, a sustainable andenvironmentally sound solution tosome energy requirements.

The Earth/Mine Energy ResourceGroup (EMERG) at McGill University,headed by Professor Ferri Hassani, wasformed to investigate and advance thesustainable development of alternativeenergies from both active and aban-doned surface and underground mines.Efforts underway are focused onemploying the physical characteristicsand properties of different types ofmines, such as thermal heat, its poten-tial energy, and its enclosure capacity.

Hassani said there is much potentialfor ground heat to be extracted andused, either for commercial purposesfor mining applications, such as heat-ing deep oil sands deposits, or districtheating of buildings in the communi-ties, or employing this heat for dryingof food products. In some cases, suchenergy has been used for heating thewater for fish farming.

The goal of EMERG is clear: tomake the mining operations truly sus-tainable by developing an integratedalternate energy during the life of the

Extracting geothermal heat from minesby Heather Ednie

mine, as well as after mine closure. Itwill enable local communities to usethis sustainable and inexpensive sourceof energy to attract other businesses tosustain the existing communities.

EMERG aims to promote the use ofabandoned mines to generate sustain-able energy and encourage the sustain-able development of mine energyresources such as low-temperaturegeothermal energy resources in an eco-nomic and environmentally responsi-ble manner.

The use of active or abandonedmines as a source of geothermal energyis not rocket science—there are alreadyproductive examples of such technol-ogy. Mines, particularly undergroundmines, are ideal locations for geother-mal systems.

The first 100 metres or so under-ground is well suited for supply andstorage of thermal energy. In fact, cli-matic temperature change over theseasons is reduced to a steady temper-ature at 10 to 20 metres deep, withfuture depth temperature increasingaccording to the geothermal gradient,which is about 1° to 3°C for each 100metres down.

Geothermal energy is the energyproduced internally by radiogenicheat production and long-term cool-ing of the planet. Various applicationscan be used from this energy, includ-ing direct use for heating and electric-ity generation.

Due to the steady temperatures deepdown, geothermal sources are excellentfuels for heating and cooling systems.For a mean surface air temperature of15°C, the ground temperature at adepth of 1,000 metres will be about 30°to 45°C—therefore, in the winter,when the surface air temperature dropsto -10°C, there will be a temperaturedifference of 40 to 55 degrees.

The potential to use abandonedmine sites for geothermal energy pro-duction is well recognized today—

work and development is now under-way at many sites. Heat pump systemsare already at work in Canada,Germany, and Scotland at flooded,abandoned mines as low-temperaturegeothermal reservoirs for heating andcooling purposes.

One example of such a system canbe found in Springhill, Nova Scotia,where Ropak Can Am Ltd. is usingfloodwater from abandoned mines toheat and cool the company’s facility atthe site. It’s an efficient and economicproject that produces annual savings of$45,000, or the equivalent of about600,000 kWh, when compared to con-ventional systems.

At Springhill, the warm water supplywell is tapped into the No. 2 mine,which extends four kilometres into theearth at a 32 degree angle. Mine water ispumped from the No. 2 mine at a depthof 140 metres, with a flow rate of 4 litresper second. The water is then cooleddown from 18 degrees to 13 degrees inheat pumps, then re-injected into theNo. 3 mine at the 30 metre level.

In the summertime, the system isreversed to produce a cooling effect,and the mine water is used as a heatsink instead. Ten heat pumps in theplant provide the heating and coolingof the facility.

The Springhill example proves geo-thermal energy from abandoned, orexisting, mines is a feasible alternativeenergy source. Further efforts couldresult in it becoming a more effectiveand attractive option for the reclama-tion of abandoned mines. In fact,Hassani envisions such systems inte-grated into the reclamation plans fromthe time of mine development, so thatany necessary infrastructure could beadded during the production stages.

With some patent-pending tech-nologies, EMERG’s vision of suchenergy projects as one more step inthe typical mine plan could be tomor-row’s reality. n


Ferri Hassani

March/April 2007 19

the supply side

the company made the product, while35 per cent were buying the productfrom the advertiser or a competitor and19 per cent bought from the advertiser.This is proof that advertising gets acompany’s message in front of new,interested prospects.

A US supplier of pumps and com-pressors measured the awareness ofpetroleum industry executives andfound that it had risen fully 21/2 timesafter advertising. A study in the chemi-cal industry of 2,594 product linesshowed that buyers were 250 per centmore aware of the 614 that had beenadvertised than the 1,980 that had not.Many studies show that the higher thelevel of advertising, the higher the levelof brand awareness.

The next question is, does awarenesslead to brand preference? Again, theanswer is yes. The same chemical indus-try study showed that advertised prod-ucts had a 330 per cent greater increasein buyer preference than those notadvertised. Further, the higher the levelof advertising, the greater the increase inpreference.

So far, we have seen that advertisingplays a major positive role in establish-ing contact and arousing interest amongcustomers and prospects. And we’veseen how it increases brand awarenessand builds brand preference, which inturn leads to increased sales and greatermarket share. But, does advertisingincrease profitability?

Again, research shows that there is adirect relationship between advertisinginvestment and profits. For a portablesafety product, advertising raised profitssix times. For a $10,000 commercialtransportation component, a high levelof advertising raised profits by a factorof four.

There’s proof—all kinds of proof—that in business-to-business marketingand selling, advertising works. n

words actually mean? A brand has beendescribed as “everything you do,” thatis, the whole company, including theproducts and services that it offers.Branding is the communications pro-gram that conveys your company’simage to prospective clients.

Perhaps the most important point toremember about the ‘brand’ concept isthat your brand resides primarily withthe customer. It is fine for you to knowyourself and believe in all the goodthings that you can provide the world ofmining; however, if you do not commu-nicate the message frequently and well,you will not succeed in becoming a pre-ferred supplier.

Those who do not know aboutadvertising typically ask three ques-tions. First, is there proof that advertis-ing works? Second, how does advertis-ing actually work to build a brand? Andthird, what is the financial payoff?

The fact is that study after study hasshown that advertising makes market-ing more efficient by:• Making contact far beyond the reach

of the sales force• Arousing interest• Generating brand awareness• Creating leads• Building brand preference• Increasing sales• Increasing market share• Boosting profits

You may feel great about having twoestablished clients in Chile, but how areyou going to reach the other 100 miningoperations in that country that shouldbe buying from you? Sales calls wouldbe expensive—advertising is theanswer.

A 20-year study of 375,000 leads cre-ated by advertising revealed that 82 percent of those showing interest had nevermet a salesperson from the companythey enquired about. Sixty-one per centdid not know prior to seeing the ad that

In the increasingly globalizingmining market, companies thatunderstand advertising and use it

well will have a crucial business advan-tage. Those who don’t may get leftbehind.

No matter what business you are inor how big or small you are, advertisingcan make or break your bottom line.Think about it—who will buy from acompany that they have never heard ofor one that has a less than industry-leading image?

Advertising in today’s multi-channeluniverse offers both challenges andopportunities and it is becoming moreand more important as a tool.Advertising encompasses all the waysyou can use to get your name out thereand build your brand. For suppliersdealing with the mining industry, thisincludes print advertising, mediareleases, trade shows, websites, directmail and email, graphics, brochures,newsletters, technical papers, sponsor-ships, and more.

The words ‘brand’ and ‘branding’ arecommonly used, but what do these

Does advertising work?by Jon Baird, managing director, CAMESE

A page for and about the supply side ofthe Canadian mining industry

It is late at night. Your work at themine has just ended and you are makingyour way up to the surface. You are tiredand longing for your warm comfortablebed, when suddenly a rumbling soundenvelopes you. Within seconds, themine walls and parts of the ceiling begincaving in around you… a miner’s worstnightmare. This cannot be happening, itmust not be real. Unfortunately, onApril 12, 1936, for three men in aMoose River gold mine, they were livingthe nightmare. They were trapped 43metres below surface with little hope ofmaking it out alive.

Gold was discovered in 1866 aroundthe future site of Moose River GoldMines. In 1910, the gold mining indus-try in Nova Scotia was in a down cycle,and many mines shut down. However,years later, in 1936, Herman RussellMagill and David E. Robertson, both ofToronto, purchased one of the MooseRiver gold mines and had it up and run-ning by March. Little did they know thatthe ore they were mining was from therock pillars set up as roof supports.

At close to midnight on EasterSunday, Magill, Robertson, and AlfredScadding, the mine’s timekeeper, werefinishing up their inspection of themine. As the men discussed the infra-structure’s appalling condition, theywere overcome by a loud rumblingsound. They sprinted to the skip andrang the alarm. Within minutes, work-ers flocked to the area. As the skip wasbeing hoisted, the cable holding itsnapped. The mine was caving in. Stuckat the 43-metre level, the only thingholding up the debris was a single woodbeam lodged across the shaft.

Reality sets inUnderground, the men panicked.

Above ground, the gravity of the situa-

A disaster felt around the worldby Andrea Nichiporuk

tion set in. Animmediate call for“single men withguts” wassounded, andhundreds of min-ers from acrossNova Scotia andn e i g h b o u r i n gprovinces raced tothe mine.

Blueprints ofthe undergroundshafts were non-existent, and res-cue attempts viathe surroundingshafts were unsuc-cessful. TheMeagher shaft caved in, nearly trappingrescuers.

By day two of the rescue operation,crews of 40 worked tirelessly to get themen out. The area the three men weretrapped in was cold and damp, theeffects of which were already beingfelt—Scadding’s feet went numb.

The Meagher shaft caved in a secondtime, and on day three, government offi-cials succumbed to public pressure andallowed Billy Bell, of the Nova ScotiaDepartment of Mines, to bring a dia-mond drill to Moose River to aid in therescue. Bell, his crew, and the equip-ment were set up by noon the followingday. While blasting occurred all day andnight above ground, below, Magill wasslipping in and out of consciousness.

Finally, on day six, the borehole Bellhad drilled reached the area where thethree men were trapped. Spirits werelifted, the men would be saved. A flarewas sent down the pipe while workerswaited for a sign that the men were stillalive. However, upon seeing the flames,they quickly extinguished them. When

no sign of life was heard, officials calledoff the rescue efforts.

Having been trapped in mine cave-ins himself on two previous occasions,Bell was not about to give up that easily.He began blowing a steam whistle intothe pipe at regular intervals. At 12:30a.m. the following day, 11 hours into it,Scadding realized what the sound wasand began tapping on the pipe. Theywere alive, but barely.

The race is onRescue efforts resumed with a

vengeance, and food and water weresent down the pipe. The MaritimeTelephone and Telegraph Company sentF.T. Pond, J.A. Bowman, and F.H.Pinforld to Moose River with a tinytransmitter they had constructed. Upontheir arrival, they began working onconnecting a telephone cable fromMiddle Musquodobit to Moose River.

The rescuers were running out ofoptions. They had to get the men outquickly or they would surely die. Thedecision was made to reopen the


Men waiting at the rescue tunnel for the trapped men to be brought out

mining lore

Reynolds shaft, which had long sincebeen condemned. A crew from Westvilleand Stellarton, familiar with working insimilar unstable mine conditions,

started clearing the tunnel at a rate offour feet per hour. Unfortunately, forMagill, this was not fast enough. Hedied the same day of pneumonia.

On day eight, a telephone was sentdown to the men, and a second hole wasdrilled. J. Frank Willis, regional directorfor the Maritimes of the Canadian RadioBroadcasting Commission, was sent into report on the rescue efforts. Thewater level in the mine was quickly ris-ing, enabling Scadding and Robertson toreach the equipment and supplies being

lowered to them. By 6 p.m., Willis wasbroadcasting live on the air on over 700stations in Canada and the UnitedStates. The BBC picked up the feed and

broadcast his reports throughout GreatBritain and Europe. Over 100 millionlisteners tuned in every half hour for anupdate on the events.

By mid-afternoon on day nine, theWestville and Stellarton crew hadreached the original sloping shaft ofthe Magill mine. At midnight, theDrummond mine crew, experienced inworking with unstable roofs, took overand managed to advance almost 35feet in 15 hours. However, hours later,the roof of the tunnel caved in.

Defeated, the men were too exhaustedto continue.

A new crew from Acadia took overand continued digging away at the tun-

nel. They were getting close,and everyone prayed thatthe roof would hold. All oftheir efforts paid off, asshortly after midnight, thecrew reached the trappedmen. Robertson andScadding were pulled fromthe mine; Magill’s body wasretrieved shortly after.

A brotherhood like no other

For 242 hours, these men weretrapped, fearing they would be buriedalive by another cave-in. For 56straight hours, Willis updated listenerson the rescue efforts. This was the firstlive unscripted broadcast over theradio in North America. In August1936, the mine was permanentlyclosed. The Moose River mine disasterwas a testament to the strength andcompassion of the human spirit. n

March/April 2007 21

Mrs. Robertson listening to her trapped husband at the opening of the hole drilled by Billy Bell

An immediate call for “single men with guts” was sounded, and hundreds of miners from across Nova Scotia and neighbouring provinces raced to the mine.

mac economic commentary


theme, it is evident that each will alsobring environmental baggage to anupcoming election campaign. TheLiberals had a thirteen-year period ofgovernment, during which they madeprogress on some issues, though laggedon others – such as climate change.The Conservatives have displayed adisorganized environmental effort intheir first year as a government andremain dogged by past remarks byStephen Harper expressing skepticismon climate change. The NDP retains animage as a party where the big spend-ing and regulatory hand of governmentwill be used to fix everything – regard-less of commercial or fiscal implica-tions.

The confluence of these politicalforces suggests that more rigorousenvironmental demands will be placedupon industry in the coming months,particularly in the air pollution and cli-mate change areas. In the present polit-ical atmosphere, it is unlikely that anyparty will advocate on behalf of volun-tary measures, for example. Whilenumerous industry groups and associa-tions, including MAC, will be callingfor a balanced and achievable environ-mental plan, there is no guarantee thatthis will be the outcome of the presentpolitical debate. Indeed, the parliamen-tary committee recently decided toredraft the clean air act, which presentsan interesting case study—the govern-ment has unveiled its intent to regulateand each opposition party willundoubtedly aim to “out-green” theother through advancing ways totoughen this proposal.

The Canadian mining industry, forits part, is well-placed to respond towhatever new environmental chal-lenges may emerge from the ongoingprocess. The industry has a long recordof enhancing environmental perform-ance, improving occupational health

and safety, and responding to socialissues within a sustainable develop-ment framework.

For example, the mining sector,through its industry association, intro-duced the Towards Sustainable Mining(TSM) initiative in 2004. TSM requiresMAC members to report on perform-ance indicators and targets for tailings

management, energy use, greenhousegas emissions management, externaloutreach, and crisis management. Newindicators are being developed for bio-diversity and aboriginal relations. MACproduces a public report with TSMresults each year (see: http://www.min-ing.ca/www/Towards_Sustaining_Mining/index.php).

Canadian mining companies havealso made significant progress over thepast decade in reducing emissions ofkey pollutants. The table highlightsthe progress of MAC member compa-nies (representing most of Canada’s

Environmental progress of Canada’smining industryby Paul Stothart, vice president, economic affairs, Mining Association of Canada

While much can happen betweennow and then, it does seem likely thatthe next federal election campaign willbring greater focus upon environmentalissues than has traditionally been thecase.

Among other factors, the LiberalParty has recently selected a formerenvironment minister as its new leader.The Green Party has also chosen along-time environmentalist as leaderand is jockeying for participation inany televised federal leaders debates.The Conservatives have tabled cleanair legislation and are working throughregular announcements and communi-cations, to establish an environmentalimage. The NDP and Bloc Quebecoisare traditionally perceived as beingdefenders of the environment.

While each of the three major feder-alist parties will be highlighting this

The confluenceof these

political forcessuggests that

morerigorous

environmentaldemands

will be placedupon industry

in the coming months

mac economic commentary

mining production) in reducing envi-ronmental releases over the 1993 to2003 period. For example, mercuryreleases have been reduced by 91 percent, cadmium and zinc each by 71 percent, and lead by 68 per cent duringthe decade. This reflects the success ofinvestment by mining companies incleaner processes and technologies inresponse to early-stage voluntaryactions and Canadian laws.

Beyond these improvements in spe-cific key pollutants, the industry hasalso improved its energy managementpractices and, consequently, its per-formance on greenhouse gas emissions.

For example, the non-ferrous metalsmelting and refining industry hasreduced its energy requirements from50 terajoules per kilotonne of produc-tion output in 1990 to 42 in 2004. This18 per cent improvement reflects indus-try investment in energy managementand efficient process technologies. Theindustry has reduced greenhouse gasemissions from 1.9 kilotonnes of CO2per kilotonne of production output in1990 to 1.3 in 2004. This 33 per cent

improvement is due to investments inenergy efficiency and to a shift awayfrom heavy fuel oil and natural gasenergy sources towards electricity pro-duced from cleaner sources.

The industry is also activelyinvolved in environmental partner-ships, such as the Mine EnvironmentNeutral Drainage initiative, throughwhich Canadianmining companiesand governmentshave reducedCanada’s liabilitydue to acidicdrainage by some$400 million overeight years. Thisinitiative is relevantto proposed, active,and abandonedmines. In general,the assessment andremediation oforphaned andabandoned minesites across Canadahas received

increased national attention since theestablishment in 2002 of another min-ing industry-government partner-ship—the National Orphaned/Abandoned Mines Initiative.

The Canadian mining industry isrightly viewed as a world leader in itsenvironmental performance.Companies have invested heavily overthe past 15 years in process improve-ments as well as in new end-of-pipeand remediation technologies. Theindustry will continue to improve inresponse to whatever new environmen-tal targets and requirements may bestipulated by the government.Conversely the industry expects theCanadian government to do its part—by encouraging new clean investmentthrough the appropriate tax treatmentand by developing environmental per-formance targets that are achievableand that reflect Canada’s place in acompetitive world economy. n

March/April 2007 23

Release of substances to the environment, 1993 and 2003 (tonnes per year)

1993 2003 Per cent change

Arsenic 110 120 9

Cadmium 85 25 (71)

Copper 700 270 (61)

Hydrogen sulphide 380 60 (84)

Lead 1,100 350 (68)

Mercury 11 1 (91)

Nickel 500 250 (50)

Zinc 1,400 400 (71)

MAC

factsThe mining industry has reduced greenhouse gas

emissions 33 per cent from 1.89 kilotonnes of CO2 per

kilotonne of production output in 1990 to 1.26 in 2004.

This 33 per cent reduction is due to investments in

energy efficiency and a shift away from heavy fuel oil

and natural gas energy sources to electricity produced

from cleaner sources.

canadians abroad

It has been my experience that in theworld of graduate studies, it is verycommon for graduate students to spendtoo much time in the office without anyopportunity to get out and see the verythings we study. Being a graduate stu-dent in economic geology, I believe it isimportant for students like me to getout on as many field excursions as pos-sible so that we can see ore deposits andmining operations first hand.

From January 5 to January 13, 2007,my supervisor, Dr. David Lentz, and Iwere fortunate enough to have beenaccepted in the Society of EconomicGeologists (SEG) student-dedicatedfield course on the ore deposits ofnorthern Chile. Not only did theindustry sponsors and SEG provide mewith a travel grant to pay for my air-fare, they also provided me with anunparalleled opportunity to observeand study some of the richest copper-molybdenum porphyry deposits on theplanet. Amazing opportunities like thisprovide an enormous incentive for stu-dents to do their graduate studies inthe field of geology, as well as give stu-dents like myself the chance to see oredeposits and mining operations in far-off parts of the world.

Education can take you placesby David Andrew Shinkle

The reason that this field excursionwas such an amazing experience is thatI had the good fortune to be allowed tovisit a different open pit mine every dayof the course, as well as the opportu-nity to experience a different cultureand network with other students andindustry professionals from across theglobe. After arriving in Antofagasta onJanuary 5, I prepared to meet and dis-cuss our itinerary with the rest of thegroup involved in the field course,comprised of 16 students from acrossthe globe, three industry representa-tives, and our course leaders, Dr.William X. Chavez of New MexicoTech, and Dr. Erich U. Petersen of theUniversity of Utah.

The following days involved a lot ofgetting up at 5:00 a.m. in order toarrive promptly at the various mineson our itinerary, largely due to the factthat there was much preparation thathad to take placeon behalf of themines in order toensure the safetyof all thoseinvolved. Theearly morningswere a small priceto pay in order to be able to safely gainaccess and study these deposits, be ableto take as many samples and photo-graphs as I desired, get a really goodfree lunch at every mine I visited, andhave the opportunity to meet other stu-dents from Canada, the United States,Europe, Argentina, and Chile. With thehelp of the bilingual students, it took asurprisingly short period of time for allof us to learn a little Spanish andbecome fast friends as we set out tovisit our first stop on January 6, theLomas Bayas porphyry Cu-Mo deposit.

My visit to Loma Bayas consisted ofa discussion of porphyry systems ingeneral, and the importance of regionalstructures in the control of porphyryemplacement and timing. On January 7,

I visited the Quetena copper brecciasystem where we had a discussion onthe “Toki Cluster” porphyry Cu-Modeposits located adjacent to theDomeyko Fault Zone, and had achance to collect some very beautifulCu sulphate minerals. I went to 4,400m.a.s.l. to visit the El Abra copperoxide/porphyry Cu-Mo deposit onJanuary 8, where we reviewed copperoxide zone genesis and supergeneenrichment. The following dayinvolved a visit to Radomiro Tomic Cuoxide/porphyry Cu-Mo system wherewe discussed the Chuquicamata por-phyry system as well as Oligocene Beltporphyry systems in general. I visitedthe El Tesoro exotic copper deposit andSierra Gorda tourmaline breccia Cu-Mo systems on January 10, where weexamined the exotic mineralized fan-glomerates at the mine, and discussedthe mobility of metals within porphyry

systems. January 11 and 12 involvedvisits to the Spence Cu-Mo porphyrydeposit and the Zaldivar porphyry Cu-Mo system, respectively. The visit toSpence included a review ofPaleocene/Oligocene age porphyry“belts,” whereas the visit to Zaldivarinvolved an evaluation of leached cap-ping, the geochemistry of supergeneoxidation processes, as well as copperoxide genesis and preservation (and aview of the Escondida open pit from adistance).

These deposits provided me withthe opportunity to collect samples ofsupergene minerals like atacamite[Cu2Cl(OH)3], chrysocola [Cu(Fe,Mn)Ox-SiO2-H2O], pseudomalachite[Cu5(PO4)2(OH)4], chalcanthite


I had the good fortuneto visit a different open pit mine every day,as well as to experience a different cultureand network with other studentsand industry professionals from across the globe.

canadians abroad

(CuSO4.5H2O), andturquoise [CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8.4H2O],but the most incrediblesamples were the sul-phates from the Quetenacopper breccia system,such as antlerite[Cu3SO4(OH)4], bonat-tite (CuSO4.3H2O),brochantite [Cu4SO4(OH)6], chalcanthite(CuSO4.5H2O), copi-apite [Fe5(SO4)6(OH)2.20H2O], coquimbite[Fe2(SO4).9H2O], andvoltaite [K2Fe8Al(SO4)12.18H2O], to name a few.Furthermore, I obtained iron and cop-per hydroxide samples from theleached cap zone, as well as somehypogene samples containing sulphideminerals like bornite (Cu5FeS4), chal-copyrite (CuFeS2), chalcocite (Cu2S),and covellite (CuS). To gain access toan abundance of these extremelycolourful minerals is the dream of anyperson with a mineral collection,although the majority of the sulphatesamples rapidly lose their colour fromhydrating after collection.

I found one of the most interestingdeposits I visited was the El Tesoroexotic copper system in that the miner-

alized fanglomerates bore a strikingsimilarity to “continental red bed-type”copper mineralizations in Carboni -ferous sandstones of southern NewBrunswick. The Cu ± Pb ± Zn ± Agbase-metal sulphide mineralizationsseen in southern New Brunswick’sCarboniferous rocks is represented byover 30 major and minor occurrences,and is associated with carbonized plantmaterial or diagenetic pyrite withingrey, fluvial sandstone bodies abovethick red bed and/or evaporatesequences. However, El Tesoro con-tained a more diverse mineralogy inthat the ore minerals are comprised ofmalachite [Cu(CO3)(OH)2], azurite

[Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2], ata-camite, chrysocola, copperwad, and copper pitch asopposed to the NewBrunswick mineralizations,which are comprised pre-dominantly of malachite andazurite.

By the time I had to leaveI had been completely over-whelmed, not only by theshear abundance of potentialthere is in northern Chile forporphyry Cu-Mo explo-ration, but also by the amaz-ing technology they use tofind and mine these large-

scale deposits. For example, at theSpence mine, they performed griddrilling through piedmont gravels ofMiocene age and identified a 1,000 ppbCu anomaly above the deposit by sam-pling the groundwater from 25 drillholes. After further drilling and sam-pling, it took the Spence mine approx-imately six months to construct anopen pit and begin economical miningoperations via the use of modern min-ing technology.

After this experience I can’t helpbut feel that my intrinsic interest ingeology has been magnified signifi-cantly, and that every graduate stu-dent should have the opportunity toget out in the world and see first handhow large-scale mining operationsfunction in foreign countries. Theexperience has also shown how it isimportant for graduate students ingeology to get out and exploredeposits in far-off parts of the worldso that they can broaden their scopeof where they might base themselvesin the future, and learn about howmining regulations vary from countryto country. This opportunity waswithout a doubt one of the most pos-itive experiences of my entire life, andhas left me with a love for Chileanculture, a broadened mind in terms ofinternational employment, and agreat feeling of gratitude towards theindustry and professional sponsorswho provided the funding to make itall possible. n

March/April 2007 25

eye on business

Climate change is daily front-pagenews in Canadian newspapers and thecurrent minority Conservative govern-ment may well fall on the issue of anappropriate Canadian response to regu-lating greenhouse gas emissions. Someargue that the debate raging in thebackground is not really about the sci-ence or whether Canada can or shouldlive up to existing international com-mitments (the Kyoto Protocol), butrather how the Canadian economy cancontinue to grow as an energy user, pro-ducer, and exporter while at the sametime accommodating emissions con-trols. Targeting emissions efficiency, asthe US federal government has pro-posed to do, may not by itself beenough, unless it also results in reduc-tions to aggregate emissions.

Accessing foreign carbon creditsthrough Kyoto or other mechanismsoffers a way for the Canadian econ-omy to mitigate the pain of accommo-dation, particularly if limits on aggre-gate emissions are imposed. This solu-tion is often maligned, though, asmerely a hemorrhaging of Canadianwealth abroad. But that is only half ofthe story. Not all foreign carbon cred-its are created equal. Canadian busi-ness does not need to buy excessemission rights abroad; it can bringcredits back to Canada for free by“participating” in Kyoto projects. Thedifference is simple to understand—itis the difference between an expenseand a return on an investment.

Carbon financing opportunities and the mining industryby Douglas V. Tingey and Ron Ezekiel, Fasken Martineau DuMoulin LLP

As an Annex 1 party to theKyoto Protocol, Canada is per-mitted to supplement domes-tic efforts to reduce aggregateemissions, with the efforts ofCanadian businesses abroad.Canada can subtract from itsaggregate emissions, for pur-poses of meeting its aggregatecap, credits earned byCanadian industry by partici-pating in Kyoto projects out-

side of Canada (in other Annex 1 juris-dictions and non-Annex 1 jurisdic-tions). Canadian Kyoto project partici-pants can earn, inaddition to theusual returns—dividends onequity, interest onloans, royaltiesfrom intellectualproperty, feesfrom services—carbon credits that caneither be sold within the Canadianmarket, keeping the sales proceeds inCanada, or used to meet their domesticemissions reduction compliance obli-gations. Canada may use them in turnto meet its international obligations.

The Kyoto Protocol establishes three“market mechanisms.” Two of the mech-anisms are project-based. The third is“emissions trading.” The project-basedmechanisms are the Clean DevelopmentMechanism (CDM) projects hosted bynon-Annex 1 jurisdictions, and JointImplementation (JI) projects hosted byAnnex 1 jurisdictions. CDM and JI proj-ects create emissions reduction creditsthat can be used to meet emissionsreduction obligations of Annex 1 juris-dictions. They are tradable for value viaemissions trading markets. At its purest,Kyoto Protocol-inspired carbon financeis project finance available to projectparticipants. The credits or the proceedsfrom their sale by project participantsinto carbon markets may be allocatedamong the participants, by contract, to

meet the financial needs of the projectand to reflect the differing needs andcontributions of the participants.

Given the global reach of the busi-ness, Canadian miners and metal proces-sors are well positioned to take advan-tage of carbon finance markets, utilizingtheir international business skills and byleveraging their local economic develop-ment obligations assumed in the contextof developing mines, particularly indeveloping countries. Even absent adomestic compliance obligation, creditshave value. The CDM project pipelinenow includes 1,450 projects; 496 proj-

ects are registered and another 104 areseeking registration. It is an active mar-ket, with real opportunities for carbonfinance, not just in respect of miningprojects, but in a variety of projects thatmay still be of interest or help to minersand processors. Examples include devel-opment of small-scale run-of-riverhydro, wind farms, landfill gas capture,and biomass/biofuels.

An obvious way forward for under-ground coal miners relates to methanegas capture. Methane is a greenhousegas. It is 21 times more effective as agreenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.Methane is a safety concern for mostunderground coal mines around theworld, and venting methane from amine directly into the atmosphere isbusiness as usual. Coal mine and coalbed methane capture and conversion isa lucrative source of carbon credits.

The CDM Executive Board (EB) hasapproved a consolidated baselinemethodology for coal bed methane andcoal mine methane capture, utilization,and destruction at working coal mines


Canadian business does not needto buy excess emission rights abroad;it can bring credits back to Canadafor free by “participating” in Kyoto projects.

eye on business

(whether new or existing mines). Theessential purpose of the methodologyis to specify what sorts of projects willqualify as CDM projects and themethod by which the number of cred-its resulting from the project will becalculated. This methodology is beingused in the JI context as well.

The methodology applies to “…sur-face drainage wells to capture coal bedmethane associated with mining activi-ties; underground boreholes in themine to capture pre-mining coal minemethane; surface goaf hole, under-ground boreholes, gas drainage gal-leries, or other goaf gas capture tech-niques, including gas from sealedareas, to capture post-mining coal minemethane; and ventilation coal minemethane that would normally bevented.” The methodology does notapply to “…open cast mines; methanecaptured from abandoned/decommis-sioned coal mines; “virgin” coal bedmethane extracted from coal seamsindependently of any mining activitiesor use of carbon dioxide or any otherfluid/gas to enhance coal bed methanedrainage before mining takes place.”

A Project Design Document pre-pared and submitted to the CDM EB bytwo Chinese coal mines, with aggregateannual production of 1.5 million tons,illustrates how captured methane willbe converted to electricity in twopower plants rated at 5.7 and 10.8 MW.At capacity, these two power plants areprojected to produce 79,000 MWh ofenergy and 267,000 GJ of recoverablewaste heat combusting 25 Mm3 ofmethane annually. This level of activitywill create approximately 390,000credits annually, not to mention rev-enues earned or costs saved from thegeneration of power and heat.

The debate over Kyoto and Canada’sresponse to it is not over, but weshould not lose sight of the fact that itis already real in many other parts ofthe world. The Kyoto Protocol andemissions trading presents Canadianbusiness with a tremendous newopportunity to finance internationalprojects. It is only a matter of timebefore we seize upon it. n

March/April 2007 27

CIM Conference and ExhibitionEnergy and Mines

Montreal, QuebecApril 29 to May 2, 2007

www.cim.org

Build your toolbox of techniques and best practices tooptimize your energy management at your site. Participatein the full Energy Management stream at the CIMConference.

The plenary session will be a high-calibre investiga-tion of the oulook for the energy market, led by ThierryVandal, president and CEO, Hydro-Quebec, and Jean Bernier,president, Ultramar. Then get the facts straight during aroundtable discussion on energy management and mining,moderated by Guy Dufresne, retired and former CEO ofQuébec Cartier Mining. Panellists include:

Tim GitzelSenior Vice President and COO, Cameco

Chris JonesCOO, Albian Sands Energy

Ian PearceCEO, Xstrata Nickel

Eberhard ScherkusPresident and COO, Agnico-Eagle Limited

George WhiteConsultant and Senior Advisor, Office of the President, SherrittInternational Corporation

student life

During the summer of 2006, whilemost university students were workingnine-to-five jobs, I was spending mytime in the remote confines of TulksValley of central Newfoundland staringat drill core samples, hoping to catch aglimpse of semi-precious metals.

In the spring of 2006, I graduatedfrom Acadia University with a B.Sc.(honours) in geology. Even thoughmost of my friends and classmates choseto move out into the working world, Idecided to continue my education at theMaster’s level, studying under the super-vision of David Lentz at the Universityof New Brunswick. In the course of adiscussion with Lentz, he suggested I doa project on petrography and geochem-istry associated with the “Boomerang”volcanogenic massive sulphide Zn-Cu-Pb-Ag-Au deposit discovered byMessina Minerals in centralNewfoundland. Considering how theprice of zinc had been steadily rising inrecent history, in addition to thethought of being able to work in

From the woods to the conference roomby Ryan M.S. Toole, Master’s student, University of New Brunswick

Newfoundland, I accepted and beganresearch in late May.

Throughout the summer I learnedhow to interpret and log drill core sam-ples, oversee drilling operations, andcontribute to the exploration process,all the while experiencing my firstexploration camp where the only link tothe outside world was a satellite phone.There was also the odd ‘slack’ day whenI was able to hop onto one of the ATVsand head out to my favorite fishing hole.Aside from the breathtaking scenery,there were all kinds of interestingwildlife—caribou, moose, and bear toname a few—which I would encounternearly everyday.

Near the end of August, after I hadfinished sampling, I headed back to theUniversity of New Brunswick and beganto learn what being a grad student wasall about. For years I had heard horrorstories that grad students actually hadwork to do and papers to write, andwere rarely seen out of their offices onSaturday nights. Yes, I guess this is true

if you consider work to be field trips toremnants of ancient volcanoes, goingunderground in the largest zinc produc-ing mine in the world, or attending con-ferences where potential employers treatyou to dinner and offer you jobs follow-ing graduation. So, when the idea ofchairing the University of NewBrunswick SEG-CIM Student ChapterWorkshop at the Atlantic GeoscienceSociety’s annual colloquium came up, Iseized the opportunity.

The workshop, entitled “A review ofphysical volcanology: a metallogenicperspective,” focused on volcanic-hosted massive sulphide deposits. The27 students and 27 professionals inattendance provided a great educationaland networking opportunity. For me,the most beneficial aspect of chairingthe conference was the opportunity tomeet so many highly distinguished pro-fessionals within the field of volcanol-ogy. I was especially thankful for theopportunity to meet Wulf Mueller, aCIM Distinguished Lecturer, as he

shared his insights andresearch on volcanic-hosted massive sulphideexploration with medirectly.

The workshop was agreat success due to thehigh quality of presentersand outstanding industrysupport. I am grateful tothe Atlantic GeoscienceSociety for allowing us toconduct the studentchapter workshop duringtheir annual colloquium.I cannot over-emphasizethe importance of allow-ing students to attendand be involved in suchevents. Every opportu-nity to meet and interactwith accomplished professionals should be seized. n


The hard days work of a field geologist (Ryan Toole)

parlons-en

L’arrivée sur la Côte-Nord desgrandes sociétés minières américainesdans les années cinquante, soixante etsoixante-dix a entraîné le développe-ment d’un tissu de PME dans ledomaine de la fabrication mécanique etmétallique. Couplée à la présence desgrands barrages hydro-électriques, dedeux alumineries de grande capacité,ainsi que d’une industrie forestière éten-due sur tout le territoire, l’industrielourde nord-côtière continue d’offrirune foule de possibilités pour les entre-preneurs industriels créatifs et efficaces.

Entouré des entreprises de services,de réparation, des distributeurs, desbureaux d’ingénieurs-conseils et desentrepreneurs spécialisés en construc-tion industrielle, la vingtaine de PMEindustrielles de la Côte-Nord forme unemasse critique permettant de croire à lapossibilité de lui appliquer le modèle ducluster industriel.

Par la volonté du milieu, sous unplan de travail élaboré par le ministèredu Développement économique, del’Innovation et de l’Exportation(MDEIE), un plan d’action a étédéveloppé par un comité composé prin-cipalement de représentants des PME,de bureaux d’ingénieurs et de l’industrielourde régionale, de même que dereprésentants de divers organismes desoutien à l’industrie. Dans le cadre desprojets de développement régionalACCORD, on a mis sur pied le créneaud’excellence «ingénierie des procédésindustriels, miniers et métallurgiques(IPIMM)», sous la présidence deMonsieur Carol Lavoie, Directeur de laformation aux adultes et aux entreprisesdu Cégep de Sept-Îles et Président duCentre d’aide technologique aux entre-prises – Côte-Nord du Québec (CATECôte-Nord).

Ce sont vingt-neuf membres ducomité IPIMM qui ont supervisé le tra-vail de développement du plan d’actionélaboré par le CATE Côte-Nord,d’après une étude de tendance et d’é-

Cluster industriel en formation sur la Côte-Nordpar Luc Gagnon, directeur général, CATE Côte-Nord

talonnage menée par la firme Deloitte àl’automne 2004. Présenté en décembre2005 et ayant franchi les diversniveaux d’approbation, il ne reste plusque la signature de l’entente de mise enœuvre, prévue à l’hiver 2007.

Les membres du comité ont élaboréle plan d’action en considérant lesmeilleures pratiques de clusters indus-triels comparables en Suède, Norvège,France et Canada. Ils se sont égalementguidés à l’aide de quatre questions :• Où sommes-nous?• Où voulons-nous être?• Comment s’y rendre?• Qui fait quoi?

L’analyse stratégique des élémentsmentionnés a débouché sur un pland’action comprenant trois axes dedéveloppement. Le premier, celui surlequel le milieu régional a le plus d’in-fluence, s’énonce de la façon suivante :« Consolidation du créneau IPIMMexistant ». Quant aux deux autres axes,il s’agit de « Exploration / Exploitationminière», ainsi que de «Transformationmétallique / Diversification régionale ».Ces derniers dépendent moins directe-ment de nos objectifs et actions collec-tives que de la volonté d’investisseursprivés.

Le premier axe, celui de la consoli-dation, a été subdivisé en trois orienta-tions stratégiques regroupant septobjectifs et vingt-cinq actions pro-posées. Les dirigeants du comité decréneau espèrent que l’application surun horizon de cinq ans de ces actions

Nouveau cette année au Congrès et Salon commercial de l'ICM

Traduction simultanéeLa séance plénière Énergie et mines ainsi que les séances Les femmes enexploitation minière et Les ressources humaines qui se dérouleront le mardi1er mai seront traduites en simultané en français.

Ne manquez rien des exposés et profitez de cette belle occasion.

permettra de faire évoluer les acteursde ce créneau vers un cluster fonction-nel et compétitif, en mesure de sedévelopper et de créer de la richessesur la Côte-Nord.

C’est avec l’apport volontaire desindustriels et l’appui systématique desorganisations à caractère économique etéducationnel (dont la section QuébecNord-Est de l’ICM) que l’on pourra con-solider, renforcer et accroître nos leviersde développement économique. Uneattitude «gagnant-gagnant» de tous lesjoueurs permettra de soutenir etaccentuer la collaboration entre les PMEet les grands donneurs d’ordre, élémentessentiel à l’essor des entreprises dumilieu. Ainsi, la région développera unnoyau de PME compétitives, favorisantl’intérêt des groupes industriels mondi-aux à la recherche de sites pour s’im-planter dans la métallurgie ou de ter-rains propices à l’exploration et à l’ex-ploitation minière.

La démarche demeurerarespectueuse des priorités et desintérêts de chaque entrepreneur, per-sonne n’étant contraint à participer àquelque activité de cluster que ce soitou à développer une expertise qui nelui convient pas. Le créneau IPIMMoffrira des possibilités; ce sera auxindustriels de les saisir. Nous croyonspouvoir en convaincre une grande par-tie par l’à-propos des actions définies.On en verra les effets graduellementd’ici cinq ans, mais on aborde déjà lamise en œuvre avec impatience. n

March/April 2007 29

engineering exchange

Last year, EBA EngineeringConsultants Ltd. celebrated its fortiethyear in the consulting business, havingsuccessfully grown its key areas of spe-cialization in geotechnical engineering,environmental sciences, and transporta-tion. In the early 1970s, EBA formedtheir exclusive “Arctic team,” whichfocused on engineering projects northof 60 for the oil and gas industry, in suchfrigid environments as the MackenzieDelta and the Beaufort Sea. When themining industry extended its arm intothe Far North in the mid-1980s, severalcompanies turned to EBA for theirknowledge and expertise in handlingthe challenges of permafrost. “We didn’thave to look for contracts; mining cameto us,” said CEO Paul Ruffell.

Between 1998 and 2004, EBAdesigned and oversaw the constructionof five water control dams at BHPBilliton Diamonds Inc.’s EKATI mine.EBA engineers utilized their knowledgeof frozen core construction and appliedsimilar technology for an experimentaltoe berm to surround waste rock piles toinhibit discharge, possibly the first of itskind so far north.

The toe berms, made up of frozenoverburden, abut a granite rockfill

Engineering the Northby Haidee Weldon

blanket at the fringes andare capped with rockfill.The initially dry granitewaste rock is spread outinside this structure, andwaste rock is then piled upin 15-metre-thick layersinside the toe berm. Thewaste rock naturally freezesby the end of the first win-ter, and water infiltratinginto the pile during thespring and summer initi-ates pore-ice formation inthe blanket and core of thepile. The toe berm alsoreduces seasonal runoff atthe fringe. The top fivemetres thaws and the restremains frozen, providingan excellent long-termreservoir for pore-ice.Kevin Jones, senior projectdirector, Arctic Region,EBA, pointed out an excit-ing and unexpected discov-ery. “The arctic windsblowing across the wasterock created convectivecurrents in the porouswaste rock that in turn supercooled the waste rock maintaining the frozen

core colder than the natural per-mafrost ground in the area.”

EBA monitors the site regularly,measuring the temperature of the wasterock, and the BHP Billiton environmentdepartment monitors surroundingwater bodies on a monthly basis, to con-firm that contaminates are not beingreleased from the waste rock piles. “Anypossible impact on surrounding waterbodies—no matter how slight—is unde-sirable in the aggressive regulatoryregime within which the mine oper-ates,” Jones explained.

The initial toe berms at the Pandawaste rock pile at the EKATI mine werefound to be effective; therefore con-struction of similar toe berms at the Foxpit were soon underway. Toe berms will


Fuel trucks on the Tibbitt to Contwoyto winter road

Frozen core dam for water diversion, Beartooth pit EKATI mine, Panda pit in the background.

engineering exchange

be employed at new waste rock piles asadditional open pits are developed.

EBA took a special interest in theTibbitt-to-Contwoyto ice road in 2006.

The 570-kilometre-long ice road, ofwhich nearly 85 per cent is built overlakes, is a lifeline for a handful of minesin the Far North. It is usually open onlyeight to 12 weeks each year and in theorder of 8,000 truckloads of supplies aretransported north from Yellowknife dur-ing this short operating season. InMarch 2006, the road was shut downprematurely following an unseasonablywarm winter. As a result, mines likeEKATI and Diavik Diamond mine were

forced to fly in supplies (particularlydiesel fuel) as well as machinery andparts, with an estimated whopping $30to $50 million price tag.

EBA’s Don Hayley, principal engi-neer, and Samuel Proskin, senior proj-ect engineer, have begun research tooptimize understanding of the iceroad. Several factors are involved in iceroad stability. Warm weather is ofcourse the primary one, but alsoimportant is the route the road fol-lows. Blowouts can occur at the sidesof narrow lakes that the road crosses.Erosion of short sections of the roadcan occur due to undercurrents and

water erosion. The ice actually deflectsdownward and then rebounds aftereach truck passes. Our own efficiency-driven society is also to blame—trucksare multi-axle and bigger, carryingheavier loads, which in turn addsstress to the road.

For the past decade, rudimentaryand intermittent testing of the ice roadinvolved drilling ice cores. Repair,when possible, has involved coveringpoor sections of ice with rig mats. EBAis developing a system of continuousprofiling with radar to measure icethickness. Continuous monitoringcould result in repairing a weak areabefore the section has eroded, prevent-ing accidents and closures. This tech-nology is still in its early stages and inpast years has been labour-intensive tointerpret the data, preventing it fromproviding real-time interpretations.However, EBA has just completeddeveloping its next generation softwareand processing programs to interpretthe data from the radar on-the-fly andhas been using it throughout the cur-rent winter.

EBA has more than 600 engineers,scientists, technologists, and supportstaff from 10 offices located in westernand northern Canada. The mining sec-tion consists of environmental serv-ices, mine waste management, regula-

tions and permits, and site develop-ment. EBA provides design and con-struction expertise to sub-arctic andalpine mining projects. Examples oftheir solutions include frozen coredams to achieve “zero discharge” facil-ities, a frozen cell dock to withstandlarge ice flow impacts, use of frozenbackfill to facilitate a cost-effectiveunderground operation, and thickenedtailings deposition schemes to createpermafrost tailings. n

March/April 2007 31

“We didn’t have to look for contracts; mining came to us.”

— P. Ruffell

standards


One of the cornerstones of NI43-101Standards of Disclosure for MineralProjects is the technical report. The pur-pose of the report is to provide a sum-mary of the scientific and technicalinformation concerning mineral explo-ration, development, and productionactivities on a mineral property that ismaterial to an issuer. The reports mustbe prepared in accordance with NI43-101 and Form 43-101F1 TechnicalReport and the information must be cur-rent as of the date of the filing of thetechnical report. As these reports pro-vide important information to theinvesting public, qualified personspreparing these reports should, as muchas possible, write in plain, simple lan-guage that can be easily read and under-stood by people who are not geoscien-tists or engineers.

So let’s review some of the commondeficiencies with technical reports.

Non-current technical reportSome of the factors you should con-

sider when determining if your previ-ously filed technical report is still cur-rent are as follows:• Is there new technical information

on the property, such as drilling,assays, metallurgical testwork?

• Have you made changes to keyassumptions, parameters relating tomineral resources or mineralreserves, or economic analysis?

• If you have completed the previouslyrecommended work, are your rec-ommendations still current?Similarly, are your report recommen-dations consistent with what you aretelling your shareholders or disclos-ing in the use of proceeds in youroffering documents? For example, ifthe recommendations in the reportconsist of further exploration andmetallurgical testwork prior to com-pleting a preliminary feasibilitystudy and you have completed theproposed work and are now raising

money for a final feasibility study,the report is probably not current.Non-current technical reports can

cause huge delays and major headachesduring the sometimes very short win-dow for financing. In most cases, this isavoidable with some planning and duediligence reviews. It is the responsibil-ity of the company to ensure its reportsare current and compliant.

DisclaimersDisclaimers are specifically prohib-

ited by NI43-101, except in the verylimited circumstance permitted byItem 5 of the Form, Reliance on OtherExperts. At least one qualified personmust take responsibility for each sec-tion of the report. It is up to the quali-fied person to review the previousinformation and determine the level ofdue diligence required to enable thequalified person to take responsibilityfor the information and provide a cer-tificate and consent. If your consentincludes a disclaimer, we will likely askyou to refile it.

Proximate cautionary languageThe disclosure of historical esti-

mates, exploration targets, and pre-liminary assessments is permitted

under NI43-101, provided it is accom-panied by proximate cautionary lan-guage. We often find that the caution-ary language is included the first timethat historical estimates, explorationtargets, and preliminary assessmentsare disclosed. However, the technicalreport disclosing this informationmust also include the proximate cau-tionary language.

Insufficient information on keyassumptions, parameters, andmethodologies

Often, an issuer will disclose the min-eral resources and mineral reserves in anappropriate manner; however, the keyassumptions, parameters, and method-ologies are not disclosed. The technicalreport should include enough informa-tion for a reasonably informed person tounderstand how the estimates were pre-pared and the basis for the estimate.

Development and production prop-erties—cash flows and budgets

All companies with developmentand producing projects should includethe cash flow tables that are requiredunder item 25 of the Form. Also, weare increasingly finding that while aqualified person discloses recommen-dations for further work, a budget isnot provided. A budget is required forproperties at all stages of exploration,development, or production.

Personal inspections or site visits byindependent qualified persons

If an issuer triggers the filing of atechnical report by an independentqualified person, the independent qual-ified person must carry out the sitevisit. An in-house qualified person canassist the independent qualified personwith the preparation of the report; how-ever, the independent qualified personmust visit the site and take responsibil-ity for the complete report when anindependent report is required.

Is your NI43-101 technical report compliant?by Deborah A. McCombe, chief mining consultant, Ontario Securities Commission

standards

Compliance with Form 43-101F1

We strongly recommend that quali-fied persons preparing technicalreports follow the Form. If an item ofthe Form is not included in the techni-cal report, we consider it to be non-compliant. For example, if there is nodisclosure about sampling method, it isunclear whether any sampling hasbeen carried out in the past, whetherthe qualified person did any independ-ent sampling, etc.

A qualified person may refer to apreviously filed technical report foritems 6 through 11 of the Form, pro-vided they state the name, date, andauthor of the previously filed techni-cal report and that information hasnot changed. n

March/April 2007 33

MAC

factsCopper was the third ranked mineral in value of production

in Canada in 2005.Ontario, Quebec,

and British Columbia account for about 90 per cent

of copper production.

Mineral Agreements and Royaltiesby Karl J.C. Harries, Q.C., P.Eng

Special Volume 55What is it? This two-volume set is a compilation and

update of the author’s previous three books: MiningExploration Agreements (1994), Mining Royalties Between

Private Parties (1996), and Entry and Work on PrivateProperty (1997).

What is it about? The books are not legal texts but rathergeneric guides that are intended to assist anyone involved

directly or indirectly in the mineral exploration industry. They arewritten in an informal manner and cover a wide variety of sub-

jects that one may encounter in either exploration or the negotiation of propertyacquisition agreements. They examine the subjects from the point-of-view of boththe explorationist and property owner.

Quantities are limited. Order today!

For more information and to order your copy, please visit www.cim.org or call 514.939.2710

HR outlook


• Improved training content andknowledge capture mechanisms

• Employers better equipped, informed,and able to engage a broader spectrumof the potential workforceThe skills shortage in the Canadian

mining industry is forcing employers toexplore all possible avenues of attraction,

recruitment, and retention.Unfortunately, most of these efforts aredisconnected and independent of oneanother, resulting in significant duplica-tion of effort and some inconsistent mes-saging. While individual employers havebeen reasonably successful in finding theworkers they need for the short term,poaching from one employer by anotheris rampant and clearly not a sustainableapproach to staffing. Industry must worktogether to grow the pool of workers andskills so that the entire industry’s needscan be met over the long term. ThisMARS project will facilitate this process.

MARS will leverage the best productsand outreach practices already devel-oped by industry employers, andthrough MiHR’s coordination, informa-tion will be shared nationally with allindustry stakeholders. Through themany MARS activities planned over thenext three years (listed above), MiHR isin an excellent position to help industryensure an adequate supply of workersand skills to maintain Canada’s leader-ship position on the mining world stage.

For more information on MARS or tobecome involved in the project, pleasecontact the Mining Industry HumanResources Council at [email protected] or [email protected]. n

Project deliverables• Mining career path and knowledge

capture videos• Pan-Canadian mentorship program• Targeted mining career presenta-

tions, a speakers’ toolkit, includingclassroom resources, and a nationalmining industry speakers’ bureau

• Best practices guidebook for employ-ers to facilitate recruitment andretention

• Mining-related educational contentlinked to provincial curricula,including hands-on / in-classresources for teachers

• Web-based marketing campaign tar-geting Canadian youth

• Summer employment strategy toimprove summer employmentopportunities for students

• Employer guides for school site visitsand for developing apprenticeshipprograms

• Web portal on mining careers, educa-tional resources, and training tools

Long-term project outcomes• Increased awareness and improved

perception of the mining sector• Increased delivery of earth sciences

and mining-related curricula• Increased awareness among

Canadians of mining career opportu-nities

• Increased enrolment in mining-related post-secondary programs

• Improved industry workforce plan-ning

• Improved linkages between studentsand mining industry employers

It is a well-known factthat the min-ing industry isin the midstof a humanresource cri-sis, with aneed to fill ane s t i m a t e d80,000+ jobs

over the next ten years. Since the releaseof its landmark sector study of theCanadian Minerals and Metals Industry,the Mining Industry Human ResourcesCouncil (MiHR) has been workingfeverishly trying to help the miningindustry meet its human resource needs.

On March 6, 2007, a significant stridewas made. At the PDAC annual confer-ence, Human Resources and SocialDevelopment Canada minister, theHonourable Monte Solberg, announced$2.5 million in funding over three yearsfor MiHR’s newest initiative, the MiningAttraction, Recruitment, and RetentionStrategy, also known as MARS.

MARS will help inform Canadiansabout the myriad opportunities thatexist in the modern mining industryand will also help industry find theright workers, with the right skills, atthe right time. The project will intro-duce Canadians to potential careers inmining through industry-led outreachactivities and hands-on classroomresources linked to provincial curricula.MiHR will work with industry toengage and retain new entrants andhelp with training new recruits throughmentoring programs and knowledgecapture mechanisms. MARS fundingwill also allow the Council to researchand identify best practices and potentialpitfalls in recruiting and retaining non-traditional sources of labour such asaboriginal people, women, newCanadians, retirees and ex-patriots(workers who left the mining industryin the past).

MiHR reaches MARS and beyondby Ryan Montpelier, director of operations, Mining Industry Human Resources Council

Human Resources and Social Development Canadaannounced $2.5 million in funding over three years

for MiHR’s newest initiative, the Mining Attraction, Recruitment,and Retention Strategy, also known as MARS.

March/April 2007 35

Overview

T he copper industry has had a good time of late. Whilethe copper price has now dipped below the recordhighs of 2006, the price cycle is considered reasonably

robust and the copper price remains at levels not seen in sev-eral decades (Fig. 1). Many analysts are projecting a lower aver-age 2007 price in the range of about US$2.00 to US$2.50 perpound of copper amid continuing steady demand for the redmetal, especially in China and India. With several new, largegreenfield projects coming on stream in South America andelsewhere, copper output also continues to expand, allowingoutput to just about meet the growing demand.

The current strong price cycle, referred to by some as a“super cycle” (Fig. 1), had its beginnings some years ago withthe awakening of demand for metal resources in China and

India. The technology landscape and production processes atnew operations have also been changing and this has con-tributed to the ability of the copper industry to attain recordoutput levels (Fig. 2).

Since its inception in 1987, the Copper/Cobre series ofinternational conferences has established itself as the prime

world forum for discussing technology advances in copperprocess metallurgy. The sixth event in this conference serieswill be held in August2007 in Toronto, Ontario,in conjunction with COM2007, the Conference ofMetallurgists.

Given both the strong technology focus of the conferenceand the current burgeoning of the copper market, a “snap-shot” of the “world of copper” in 2007 is presented in this briefoverview.

Current copper productionand demand

Important global drivers for copper demand currently andinto 2008-2009 remain the following:• Positive world economic growth• Developments in China, Southeast Asia, and India• Production met by new, large projects just coming on-

stream, as well as several brownfield expansions, and alsothe revival of copper in Africa

by P.J. Mackey,Xstrata Process Support

Falconbridge, Ontario

Historical Annual Copper Price, 1900 to 2006 in Constant 2006 US dollars

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Year

Co

per

Pri

ce

, U

S c

en

ts/l

b (

in c

on

sta

nt

US

20

06

do

lla

rs)

Source: Brooke Hunt, UK

Fig. 1. Trend in world copper production, 1900 to 2006

World Mined Copper Output, 1800 to 2020

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020

Year

Wo

rld

co

pp

er

ou

tpu

t, m

illi

on

to

nn

es

Sources: Xstrata data pre-1950, after 1950, Brooke Hunt, UK data used

Fig. 2. World mined copper output, 1800 to 2006

• The role of hedge funds, which impacted the market in2006, is uncertainWorld mined copper in 2006 totaled some 15 million

tonnes (Fig. 2). The geographic distribution of mined copper in2006 is illustrated in Figure 3; it is seen that over 40 per centwas produced in South America. Of this, about 84 per cent, cor-

responding to about 35 per cent of world mined copper, wasproduced in Chile.

The current growth rate for refined copper consumptionglobally is about three per cent per year and this growth rateis expected to continue until about the end of the decade.Based on the intensity of use trends and overall economic out-look, many analysts see this rate continuing or increasingslightly to around 3.5 per cent per year after 2010. It is notedthat this rate compares with a rate of 4.7 per cent per year thatwas experienced in the boom years of the 1960s. Even so, withcurrent global copper consumption of around 17 milliontonnes annually and growing, a three per cent growth raterequires about 500,000 tonnes of new copper to be broughton line each year—quite a substantial amount.

World copper consumption, broken down by regions, isshown in Figure 4. It is seen that Western Europe, North

America, and Japan combined accounts forabout 47 per cent of global demand; interest-ingly, China alone now accounts for about 23 percent of global demand in copper, correspondingto nearly 4 million tonnes in 2006, a figure whichis growing at around seven to eight per centannually. The role of China and India in contribut-ing to copper demand is discussed a little later.

Copper production and technology

Copper produced by smelting now accountsfor about 82 per cent of world mined copper;the balance is produced by leach-SX-EW opera-tions, as will be discussed below. Flash and bathsmelting technologies are now employed toproduce the bulk of smelter output, withabout 35 per cent of plants employing flashsmelting, 35 per cent using bath smelting,while other technologies cover the balance.The Outokumpu flash furnace is the domi-nant flash smelting furnace technology inthe world today, while the major bathsmelting technologies include: Mitsubishicontinuous smelting, El Teniente con-verter, Noranda reactor, Top SubmergedLance technology – both Isasmelt andAusmelt – and the Vanyukov furnace. Asnoted by Ramachandran et al. (2003), theadvantage of the bath smeltingapproach, with its high-intensity smeltingmode, “enables the added charge toquickly reach smelting temperatures andthe chemical reactions to rapidly proceedto completion; this feature translates tosmaller sized furnaces per unit of capacityand a high overall level of efficiency. Inaddition, bath smelting permits the recy-cling of coarse secondary materials to thesmelting unit.”

Isasmelt bath smelting and theOutokumpu flash furnace are the current unitsof choice for new or smelter retrofit projects,and several projects based on these technolo-gies are currently underway around the world.The Isasmelt technology is described in an articlein the current issue of CIM Magazine (p. 45); thistechnology now accounts for over some 6.3 mil-lion tonnes of copper concentrate feed per year,roughly 15 per cent of world smelted copper. Anew Outokumpu flash furnace-flash converter isbeing considered for the large upgrade atOlympic Dam, eventually bringing capacity to over500,000 tonnes of copper; this and other new proj-ects underway mean that a significant proportionof smelted copper will continue to be producedvia flash smelting.


South America

North America

Australia & Indonesia

Rest of Western World

Former East Bloc

Note: Chile was the single largest producer representing some 35% of world production in 2006

Source: Based on data by Brook Hunt, UK.

Distribution of 2006 mined copper production by region, % (Total: 15 million tonnes)

Fig. 3. Distribution of 2006 mined copper production by region, % (total: 15 million tonnes)

World copper consumption by region - 2005 (Total: 16.9 million tonnes)

Western Europe

North America

Japan

Rest of Western World

CIS

China

Other former East Bloc


Fig. 4. Copper consumption in 2005 by region

Large-tonnage operations now dominatecopper production—whether for sulphide min-ing, milling, smelting and electrolytic refining, oroxidic copper mining-leach-SX-EW. Table 1 liststhe top ten plants in each production area. Forexample, the top ten smelters shown in Table 1account for the treatment of over some 30 percent of world mined copper. The trend towardslarger copper smelters was discussed byRamachandran et al. (2003) at the Copper 2003Conference in Santiago, Chile. In 2005, some 70per cent of smelted copper was produced inplants sized 200,000 tpy of copper or larger. Asshown in Figure 5, the proportion of copperproduced at large smelters has been increas-

ing since the mid-1970s and this trend is expected to con-tinue, albeit more slowly.

Of the top ten smelters (Table 1), six are “custom smelters”meaning that they treat concentrate shipped from themine/mill on a custom basis, and much of this concentrateoriginates in South America. With regards to the mines, it canbe seen in Table 1 that in fact six of the ten largest mines arelocated in South America; four of these large mines ship con-centrates. It is also seen that South America, and specificallyChile, dominates the large copper leach-SX-EW plants, withnine of the ten largest such plants being located in Chile’snorthern region (Table 1).

On the other hand, the largest copper smelters are seen tobe geographically distributed more widely. It is noted that thegeographical distribution of the ten largest electro-refineries

March/April 2007 37

Table 1. Ten largest sulphide mines and copper smelters (2006)

Sulphide Mines Copper SmeltersNo. Plant Country Present No. Plant Country Present

Capacity Capacity(2006), ktpy (2006), ktpy

1 Escondida Chile 1085 1 Onsan South Korea 532

2 PT Freeport Indonesia 615 2 Guixi China 445

3 Chuquicamata Chile 510 3 Chuquicamata Chile 430

4 Norilsk Russia 421 4 Saganoseki Japan 430

5 El Teniente Chile 415 5 Norddeutsche Germany 411

6 Collahuasi Chile 395 6 Caletones Chile 395

7 Antamina Peru 382 7 Toyo Japan 372

8 Los Pelambres Chile 321 8 Norilsk Russia 360

9 Rudna Poland 283 9 Ilo Peru 320

10 Bingham USA 270 10 Altonorte Chile 282 (see note 2)

Total (see note 1) 4,697 Total (see note 1) 3,977Note 1: The above total of the top 10 sulphide mines represents about 38 per cent of world mined sulphide copper, while the total for the above top 10

smelters represents about 32 per cent of world smelted copper.

Note 2: The Sterlite smelter in India was a close No. 11 with 280 kt in 2006 and, as noted in the text, is presently ramping up to about 400 ktpy of copper.

Source: Developed from data by Brook Hunt, CRU, and Xstrata data.

Table 1. (continued) Ten largest copper electrolytic refineries and copper leach-SX-EW plants (2006)

Electrolytic Copper Refineries Copper Leach-SX-EW PlantsNo. Plant Country Present No. Plant Country Present

Capacity Capacity(2006), ktpy (2006), ktpy

1 Onsan South Korea 515 1 Morenci USA 380

2 Guixi China 445 2 El Abra Chile 225

3 Chuquicamata Chile 430 3 Radomiro Tomic Chile 159

4 Norddeutsche Germany 375 4 Zaldivar Chile 143

5 Las Ventanas Chile 375 5 Escondida Chile 140

6 Montreal East (CCR) Canada 370 6 Codelco-Norte-Sur Chile 127

7 Yunnan (Kunming) China 365 7 Cerro Colorado Chile 119

8 Norilsk Russia 360 8 Quebrada Blanca Chile 73

9 Pyshma Russia 350 9 Lomas Bayasi Chile 64

10 Olen Belgium 343 10 Collahuasi Chile 58

Total 2,928 Total 1,632Source: Developed from data by Brook Hunt, CRU, and Xstrata data

in Table 1 follows a similar pattern as the large coppersmelters.

Custom concentrate trade now accounts for some 60 percent of world sulphide concentrates and highlights the impor-tance of custom smelters to the copper industry. For manydecades, and up until the first part of the of last century, it wasgenerally the practice to locate the copper smelter next to anew mine; gradually however, shipping concentrate to a dis-tant custom smelter tended to become the general practice. Arecent example of a new mine developed with concentrateshipment to custom smelters was the large Antamina mine inPeru.

For many years since its startup in 1988, Olympic Dam inAustralia stood as the last captive smelter built. In this case,several considerations, including distance from the port andconcentrate quality issues, favoured a captive plant. The new80,000 tpy of copper Outokumpu smelter at Khatoon-Abad,Iran, changed this, even though this smelter also treats a vari-ety of concentrates from neighbouring regions. The proposeddirect copper Outokumpu flash unit for Vedanta in Zambia isexpected to become the newest captive or semi-captivesmelter. On the other hand, the planned Lumwana mine inZambia will truck roughly 400,000 tpy of concentrate from theplant site in the northwest province to one of the smelters onthe copperbelt. As discussed below, a large amount of newcustom smelter capacity is increasingly being built in Chinaand India to provide metal for the expanding infrastructureprojects and increasing domestic demand in these countries.These plants will also to be able to handle new concentrateentering the market; hence the custom concentrate market isexpected to remain vigorous for some time to come.

Given the well-known relationship between size of plantand direct cash cost, or C1 cost—large plants tend to havelower costs due to the ‘economies of scale’—the trendtowards larger copper smelting plants will likely continue. Thissuggests that many of the current mid-tier-sized smelters, saythose between about 100,000 to 250,000 tonnes per year, willlikely either expand to keep unit costs in check, or if appropri-ate, diversify into treating more higher-value complex feed, orpotentially close. As discussed in a brief review of copper pro-

duction trends in Canada over the last 150 years(see article on page 48 of this issue), the trend ofincreasing smelter size over time is not new, andthe average size of copper smelters in Canada hasbeen continually increasing ever since the firstcopper smelter began in Canada in 1849.

As regards to the maximum ultimate size, atsome point, there may be considerations relatedto the optimum maximum size of a plant, likelyrelated to either feed handling aspects or disposalin available markets of the large amounts of sul-phuric acid produced. The largest copper smelterin Table 1 (Onsan in South Korea), for example,produces some 1.5 million tonnes of sulphuricacid per year. On the other hand, other metallur-gical industries handle very large amounts ofmaterial. As an example, a new iron blast fur-nace-steel plant may process up to 5 or 6 mil-lion tonnes of pig iron per year, requiringupwards of 8 million tonnes of iron ore peryear. Perhaps by borrowing systems used inthe iron and steel industries, one may seeeven larger copper smelters in the future.

The conclusion to be drawn from theseconsiderations on technology and plantsize is that copper plants, their capacity,and technology are constantly changingand adapting. In other words, change hasalways being a fact of life in the copperbusiness; perhaps today it is, or it seems tobe, occurring at a faster rate than appearsevident in earlier times.

The copperlandscape in 2007

Several key topics will likely dominatethe copper world in 2007 and beyond as fol-lows:• Demand and production growth in China

and India• The revival of copper production in Africa• Developments in technology and new

operations• Environmental issues—sulphur dioxide under

control—water use becomes important

Demand and smelter output in China and India

China and, to a lesser extent, India have playeda major role as the engine of growth for copper inAsia and the world. China has thus become a keymarket for the mining industry; India will soon fol-low suit. The recent strength of Chinese demand,coupled with the economic performance in theUnited States and Europe, has all helped to drivecopper demand. For the last five to about tenyears, the growing needs required by the construc-


World trend in copper smelter size - 1975 to 2006The distribution of smelter output according to smelter capacity

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

1975 1985 1995 2005

Year

% o

f C

u s

me

lter

pro

du

cti

on

in

eac

h s

ize

ra

ng

e

More than 200 k tpy Between 100 k tpy and 200 k tpy less than 100 k tpy

Source: Based on data by Xstrata.

Fig. 5. Trend in size of copper smelters

tion and electrical industries, along with infrastruc-ture development, can be particularly observednot only in China, but in other Asian countries andalso in developed countries. With demand close tooutstripping supply in some years, copper priceshave recently been pushed higher (Fig. 1). Refinedcopper production and consumption in China andIndia since 1990 is illustrated in Figure 6. It is notedthat copper consumption in China of some 1.9million tonnes in 2000 compares with 0.63 milliontonnes in 1990, just ten years earlier, and 0.33 mil-lion tonnes in 1980; this represents an increaseof over six times in a period of 20 years.

It is of interest to compare per capita copperconsumption in India, China, and the UnitedStates to illustrate a range of potential futurerequirements (Fig. 7). As noted earlier, thesefactors are expected to contribute to anexpected 3 to 3.5 per cent annual growthrate in world copper demand up to 2010and beyond.

Modern, advanced technology can beobserved at copper smelters in China andIndia. Technology now utilized in Chinaincludes the Noranda Process, Outokumpuflash, and Isasmelt and Ausmelt technolo-gies. These plants are well run and many arecomparable to the best plants anywhere.Smelters in these countries make the listingof the largest copper smelters in 2006(Table 1). The Sterlite smelter in India, whichalmost tied as the No. 10 plant in 2006, ispresently ramping up to 400,000 tonnes peryear of copper. It is expected, therefore, thatplants in these countries will no doubt fea-ture more prominently in such a plant rank-ing in future.

The revival of copper production inAfrica

In the 1960s and 1970s, the African conti-nent was a large producer of copper; however,since about that time, production has fallen dra-matically. For example, in 1974, one of the peakyears, smelters in Africa produced some1,440,000 tonnes of copper, representing about20 per cent of total world mined copper at thattime. Of this African output, about half of this(710,000 tonnes) was produced in Zambia andabout 30 per cent (467,000 tonnes) was producedin what was then known as Zaire, now theDemocratic Republic of the Congo; the balance(~20 per cent) was produced in several otherAfrican countries, including South Africa.

Since the late 1970s, output from these coun-tries has declined dramatically as nationalizationpolicies failed terribly and the state-run operations

were starved of capital for supplies and replacement compo-nents, combined with a lack of expertise. By the late 1990s, thecopper output of Zambia, for example, reached a low of lessthan 250,000 tonnes of copper per year, a drop of nearly 70 percent from that of the peak years.

But times have changed with new privatization policiessupported by recent high copper prices, and Zambia is prepar-ing for new projects, which will see a return of copper outputonce again in excess of 700,000 tonnes per year within a fewyears. Some projections are placing Zambian copper output ataround 1.2 million tonnes per year by the end of the decade.

Some of the new producers on the Zambian copperbeltare:• Vedanta Resources plc and its majority-owned Konkola

Copper Mines plc—Nchanga and the former Nkanasmelter and the new Konkola properties, targeting a total ofsome 400,00 tpy of copper. The Nkana smelter is currentlybeing upgraded; as well, plans are underway for the con-struction of a new smelter, originally to be built on a newsite near Chingola. This facility will be based on the directblister Outokumpu flash smelting process and will includean acid plant and anode facilities.

March/April 2007 39

Refined copper production and consumption - India and China compared, 2000 to 2006

0

1

2

3

4

5

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

Year

Co

pp

er

am

ou

nt,

milli

on

to

nn

es

Chinese refined copper production

Chinese refined copper consumption

Indian refined copper production

Indian refined copper consumption

Source: Based on data by Brook Hunt, UK and Ref. (2).

Fig. 6. Refined copper production and consumption in China and India, 1990 to 2006

Growth Potential - China and India - Non Ferrous Metals(Per capita consumption of non-ferrous metals for India, China and US compared - data for 2003-2004)

0.0

0.1

1.0

10.0

100.0

Ni Zn Pb Cu Al

Metal

Sp

ecif

ic C

on

su

mp

tio

n,

kg

/cap

ita

Consumption - India, kg/capita

Consumption - China, kg/capita

Consumption - US, kg/capita

Data developed by Xstrata, approximate only and typical for 20043-2004 period.

Fig. 7. Growth potential, China and India – non-ferrous metals


• Mopani Copper Mines plc—Mufulira mine, with the adja-cent Mufulira smelter, which is in the midst of commission-ing a new 850,000 tpy of concentrate Isasmelt unit and acidplant, producing some 250,000 tpy of copper (see article onp. 45 on the Isasmelt technology for a brief description ofthis new plant). The new smelter replaces the older electricfurnace facilities. This electric furnace, with an originaldesign capacity of 36 MVA for the production of 230,000tonnes of copper per year, began operations in May 1971; itwas the largest such unit when introduced for smeltingcopper concentrates in the early 1970s.

• First Quantum Minerals—This company, which beganoperations on the copperbelt with the Bwana Mkubwa tail-ings re-treatment leach-SX-EW plant, is now planning ahigh-pressure leach operation at Kansanshi Mines, target-ing for the bulk of the output of some 145,000 tpy copper,the balance as sulphide concentrate for trucking to one ofthe copperbelt smelters.

• Equinox Copper Ventures Ltd is planning the US$850 mil-lion Lumwana mine-mill operation in the northwestprovince for the production of an average of some150,000 tpy of copper in concentrate for trucking to one ofthe copperbelt smelters. A conventional roast-leach-EWfacility had been examined earlier as a process route; how-ever, this is now considered as a potential project enhance-ment as production expands in future. The concentrate willcontain some gold values and cobalt; the latter will not berecovered at the present time. Evidently, separate mineral-ized areas contain zones with appreciable uranium levels;this may be recovered in a later stage of development.

• China Nonferrous Metals group operates the Chambishiproperties and has a number of expansion plans inprogress.Total copper output in Zambia in 2006 was 537,000 tonnes

as indicated in Table 2.

In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, a new agree-ment between Phelps Dodge and the newly elected govern-ment, along with owner Tenke Mining of Vancouver, has pavedthe way for the giant Tenke Fungurume project to begin.Located some 400 kilometres northwest of the former

Lubumbashi operations, the project will initially produce115,000 tonnes of copper and 8,000 tonnes of cobalt per yearby leaching and SX-EW operations. It is slated to come onlinebefore 2010 with a reported capital cost of US$650 million.Other projects are also slated for the DRC.

Developments in technology and new projects

HYDROMETALLURGY

A certain amount of copper has always been producedby leaching, along with recovery of the metal from theresulting solution. For most of the last century, the totalworld amount of copper so produced was quite small.Beginning with the world’s first use of solvent extractiontechnology for copper recovery from acidic solutions inMarch 1968 at the Ranchers Bluebird Mine at Miami, Arizona(adapted at the time from technology in place for uraniumrecovery), an increasing amount of copper has been pro-duced by leaching-SX-EW.

The amount of world mined copper produced by leach-SX-EW (mainly from oxides, but increasingly from low-gradesulphides as well) and by smelting (from sulphides) is shownin Figure 8. In 2006, some 2.8 million tonnes, or about 18 per

cent of world mined copper, was produced by leach-SX-EW.This is an impressive amount; however, as seen in Figure 9,the growth trend appears to be plateauing. As a compari-son, the amount of leach-SX-EW copper produced in 2006corresponded to total world mined copper of the mid-1950s.

The ten largest leach-SX-EW operations in 2006 are sum-marized in Table 1, and as noted above, nine of these largeoperations are located in Chile.

Three of the recent largest leach-SX-EW plants are as follows:• The BHP-B Escondida’s new 180,000 tpy copper leach oper-

ation in Chile. This plant commenced in 2006 by treatinglow-grade sulphide and oxide material from the pit. Thisplant continues to ramp up. When fully operational, theoutput of this plant and the existing leach-SX-EW plant willdeliver some 300,000 tpy of EW copper.

Table 2. Copper output in Zambia in 2006Operation/Plant Copper Output (2006)

(tonnes)

Smelting

Mufulira and Nkana 260,000

Sub-total 260,000

Leach-SX-EW

Bwana Mkubwa 51,000

Kansanshi 70,000

Nchanga 43,000

Others 51,000

Sub-total 215,000

Exported concentrates 62,000

Total 537,000Based on data by Brook Hunt

Global mined copper production by sulphide concentrates to smelter and copper

by Leach-SX-EW operations, 1984 to 2006

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Year

Min

ed

co

pp

er

ou

tpu

t, k

to

nn

es

Leach-SX-EW operations

Sulphide concentrate to smelters

Source: Brook Hunt, UK with permission

Fig. 8. New copper output by sulphide smelting and leach-SX-EW operations (by year)

March/April 2007 41

• The BHP-B Spence project in Chile, a 200,000 tpy copperleach operation treating a mixture of sulphide and oxideore which began operations at the end of 2006. Leachingand solvent extraction is being carried out in two separatecircuits, with a common electrowinning plant.

• PD’s Morenci 65,000 tpy copper concentrate leach opera-tion in Arizona, following several years of testing at thecompany’s technology demonstration plant at Bagdad,Arizona. This plant, with a capital cost of over $US100 mil-lion, will treat in the order of 220,000 tonnes of concentrateper year.Together, these three plants, when fully operational, are

expected to produce about three per cent of world minedcopper in 2007. It can be seen that for the growth curve inFigure 9 to continue to move upwards, at least two such plantswould need to be brought online each year.

There are a number of new sulphide and oxide copperprojects in the pipeline throughout the world, and it is

believed that in the short term, development of such projectswill allow future copper demands to be met.

Environmental issues—sulphur dioxide undercontrol—water use becomes important

In the period before the late 1990s, the fixation of sulphurdioxide from copper smelters was a major technical and envi-ronmental topic of consideration. Due to the gradual adoptionof new smelting technologies that facilitate the production ofsulphuric acid from smelter gas, the problem of sulphur diox-ide emissions from copper smelters has, in general, largelybeen solved. As will be discussed by Diaz and Mackey in apaper to be presented at the Copper 2007 conference inToronto in August, as a result of application of new smeltingtechnologies worldwide, the average world SO2 fixation for allcopper smelters is now approaching and will soon exceed 90per cent. This is compared to average levels of about 50 to 60per cent in the early 1990s, while it was much lower than thisprior to that time.

Recent new brownfield conversions to new technology,boosting the world average SO2 fixation level, have beenthose at the Ilo smelter in Peru and the Mufulira smelter inZambia. The recently commissioned Isasmelt units and associ-ated acid plants at each of these plants are currently rampingup to full production.

The world sulphur trade has rebalanced, reflecting a largeramount of acid produced from base metal smelters than for-merly; out of a world total of 72.1 million tonnes of sulphur-in-all-forms consumed in 2005, about 20 per cent was in the formof sulphuric acid from base metals smelters, with a large frac-tion of this from copper smelters.

A major challenge now for copper operations is the use ofwater and control of water in the plants. Environmentalaspects regarding water treatment and re-use of water arealso extremely important. Water issues are particularly impor-tant in Chile, which produces over 35 per cent of world minedcopper. Northern Chile, one of the driest places on earth, also

Proportion of total world mined copper output by leach-SX-EW operations

0

5

10

15

20

25

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Year

Co

pp

er

by

lea

ch

-SX

-EW

, %

of

wo

rld

min

ed

co

pp

er

Leach-SX-EW copper as % of world mine production


Fig. 9. Growth trend in copper output by leaching-SX-EW. The present growth trend appears to be plateauing,

at least for now

Fig. 10. The continuous Noranda bath smelting vessel at theAltonorte smelter of Xstrata plc in northern Chile. This plant pro-

duced some 0.282 million tonnes of copper in 2006.

Fig. 11. The Collahuasi mine in northern Chile showing the Ujina concentrator. Last year, this operation produced

a total of some 0.44 million tonnes of copper (86 per cent in concentrate and the balance as EW copper).

has in the order of 30 per cent of worldreserves of copper. Major challenges for thecopper industry, particularly in Chile, havenow become: the adoption of best wateruse and treatment practices, the efficientuse of water, the potential application ofdesalination plants, and new technologyregarding water, as well as new explorationefforts to find new water resources.

AcknowledgmentsThe author wishes to thank many col-

leagues within Xstrata and also colleaguesin the industry who have provided informa-tion and support. Particular thanks aregiven to Cam Harris and Tony Eltringhamfor valuable discussions and ideas. Theauthor acknowledges the use of certaindata provided by Brook Hunt and CRU forthis article. The author thanks XstrataProcess Support for giving permission topublish this article. n

References

Ramachandran, V., Diaz, C., Eltringham,T., Jiang, C.Y., Lehner, T., Mackey, P.J.,Newman, C.J., and Tarasov, A.V. (2003).Primary Copper Production – A Surveyof Operating World Copper Smelters. InC. Díaz, J. Kapusta & C.J. Newman (Eds.),Copper 2003-Cobre 2003: Vol. IV.Pyrometallurgy of Copper (Book 1), TheHermann Schwarze Symposium onCopper Pyrometallurgy (pp. 3-106).Montreal: The Metallurgical Society ofCIM.

Fushan, S. (2006). Suggestions forChinese Copper IndustryDevelopment in the Eleventh Five YearPlan Period. Proceedings of The 2006China International CopperConference. Beijing: Beijing AntaikeInformation Development Co. Ltd.

Diaz, C. and Mackey, P.J. (2007). TheCopper-Cobre Series of Conferences: APrime Forum for Active Discussion ofCopper Smelting Technology Practiceand Innovation. Paper to be presentedto the Copper 2007 InternationalConference, August 2007, Toronto,Ontario. Montreal: The MetallurgicalSociety of CIM, Montreal.

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March/April 2007 43

Construction is well underway of anew copper concentrate leachingand direct electrowinning facility at

the Morenci, Arizona, mine of Phelps DodgeMining Co., a part of Freeport-McMoRanCopper & Gold Inc. This concentrate leachingplant, scheduled to start up in the third quar-ter of this year, will be capable of treatingabout 217,000 tonnes of copper concentratea year while producing acid for the leachingfacilities on site.

The facility will employ proprietary tech-nology the company developed anddemonstrated at its copper mine in Bagdad,Arizona, to process mixed primary and sec-ondary copper ores. The new concentrateleaching facilities will be incorporated intothe existing leaching and electrowinningcomplex at Morenci, which is the world’slargest. Production from these facilities willreplace an expected decline in Morenci’s heap leach outputlater this decade.

At a total capital cost in excess of US$100 million, this proj-ect is an example of the technology development work that isa cornerstone of the company’s success.

“Our primary objective for the application of this technol-ogy is to produce copperat a lower cost,” said JohnMarsden, senior vice pres-ident, technology and

product development, Phelps Dodge. “We will con-tinue to evaluate potential applications of this tech-nology at several sites and projects.”

The Morenci facility will use medium-temperaturepressure leaching with direct electrowinning toprocess the copper concentrate. It’s one example of asuite of technologies developed by the former PhelpsDodge for pressure leaching of copper.

In general, Marsden said there are two types of pres-sure leaching for copper they have commercialized. Thefirst, high-temperature pressure leaching, has been inoperation at the company’s Bagdad mine since 2003. In2005 the facility converted to operating medium-tem-perature pressure leaching with direct electrowinningfor a period of eight months, as a demonstration plantto support the decision to use this process at Morenci,then converted back to high-temperature.

The main difference, Marsden explained, is the twoprocesses produce different amounts of sulphuric

Transport vehicle on Interstate 10 moving a pressure leach vessel to Morenci mine

by Heather Ednie

New copper concentrateand leaching facility at Morenci

Transport vehicle: engines three trucks, one in front and two in rear, with operators in each truck


August 2007 issueSpecial section on

GOLDWhat are the latest developments inthe gold industry?

Who is leading the pack, where is theaction happening?

CIM Magazine invites readers to sharetheir knowledge of the Gold Market.From technology, through projects andoperations, to markets, what’s in storefor this precious commodity?

Email the editor at [email protected]

acid as a byproduct. In high-temperature pressureleaching, almost 100 per cent of the sulphur is con-verted to sulphuric acid, used in the leaching process.In medium-temperature, a significant portion of thesulphide sulphur is converted to elemental sulphur,which remains in the residue as a stable product. Asmaller amount converts to acid, for leaching.

“We select the process that meets the acid require-ments at site,” Marsden said. “Ore mineralogy, oregrade, and configuration of the circuit all determinewhat mode to utilize for a particular application.”

The Morenci mine operation is cutting into an areaof the deposit which contains a greater proportion ofchalcopyrite, making it less effective to leach onheaps and stockpiles, as traditionally done onsite. Thenew facility will be used to treat this portion of theore, and has an expected life of greater than sevenyears.

To implement the new facility, a preexisting mill,shutdown in 2001, will be restarted in essentially itsoriginal configuration, of crushing to ball milling, to flotation.“Startup of the mill is a refurbishing job, including some equip-

ment replacement, the reconditioning of some equipment,and general maintenance work on the rest,” Marsden said.

Aker Kvaerner Metals Inc was awarded the engineering andprocurement services agreement for the development of thefacility at Morenci.

A brief history of MorenciThe existing Morenci mill and concentrator began opera-

tion in 1942, then doubled in size two years later to supportthe World War II effort. It ceased operation in 2001, and in 2006resumed limited operation. Until completion of the concen-trate leach facility later this year, concentrate is shipped to thecompany’s smelter in Miami, Arizona.

In 1998, Phelps Dodge launched a program to investigatealternative technology for the extraction and recovery of cop-per, and other metal values, from copper concentrates. Thedrivers included increasing capital and operating costs forsmelting and refining in recent year; the need to drive copperproduction costs down; and the need to provide safe andenvironmentally sound alternatives for processing of concen-trates. The result—the world’s first commercial application ofhigh temperature pressure leaching of chalcopyrite concen-trate was at Bagdad in 2003.

Last year Morenci copper production reached 16.5 thou-sand tons (33 million pounds) concentrate; 391.3 thousandtons (782.6 million pounds) electrowin; for a total of 407.8thousands tons (815.6 million pounds) of product.

A number of companies and organizations are active in thedevelopment and implementation of new concentrate leach-

ing technology for copper, but “it’sfair to say we’re at the forefront ofdevelopment and implementationof this technology,” Marsden added.“It is important to stress that thistechnology is site specific, and not auniversal replacement for smeltingglobally. It has to provide a good fit

with an application and the technology must be integratedinto the site; however, we see it as a very important stepchange for the copper industry.” n

Massive 325-foot-long transport vehicle has 160 tires on the road

Our primary objectiveis to produce copper at a lower cost and high production rate

— J. Marsden

March/April 2007 45

The ISASMELT™ process is a submerged lance smeltingtechnology operating in base metal smelters in Australia,the USA, Belgium, India, Germany, Malaysia, China, and

Zambia. Further plants are under design or commissioning inPeru and Kazakhstan. Following the invention of the Sirosmeltlance technology, Mount Isa Mines recognized the commercialpotential in the novel top-blown bath smelting process, andembarked on a development program that has lasted morethan 25 years. After successful operation of pilot plants anddemonstration plants producing copper and lead, Mount IsaMines decided to license the technology to external compa-nies. Since the purchase of Mount Isa Mines by Xstrata in 2003,Xstrata Technology has assumed responsibility for transferringthe technology to ISASMELT™ licensees. This documentupdates the reader on the design of the most recently commis-sioned ISASMELT™ plant, namely the Mopani copper smelter inZambia.

Technology developmentThe development of the Sirosmelt lance at the

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation(CSIRO) during the 1970s opened up new opportunities for the

non-ferrous pyrometallurgy industry. Prior to its introduction,the injection of gases into liquid slag or matte was achievedpredominantly through tuyeres, with inherent design complica-tions and refractory problems. Mount Isa Mines Limited wasintroduced to the submerged lance technology during the1970s and recognized its potential for improving the efficiencyof operations at its lead and copper smelters. The lance enabledthe use of stationary furnaces with simple design but very highreaction rates. Following initial joint collaboration with CSIRO,

the ISASMELT™ process was developed to commercial successat the Mount Isa smelting complex. The history has been sum-marized elsewhere (Arthur and Hunt, 2005).

Development of the process has centred on smelting of leadand copper concentrates or secondaries on a commercial scale.The first demonstration-scale lead furnace was commissionedin Mount Isa, Australia, in 1983 to treat lead concentrates. It wasfollowed in 1987 with a demonstration-scale copper plant,which in turn was followed by construction of a full-scale cop-per plant in 1992. This3.7-metre diameterfurnace smelts all cop-per concentratetreated in the MountIsa copper smelter.

During almost 25 years of developing and operating sub-merged lance technology on large-scale plants, significanttechnical improvements have occurred in areas such as fur-nace design, feed preparation systems, offgas handling, operat-ing and process control strategies, refractory management, andoperator training. The combined experience led to what is nowknown as the ISASMELT™ technology package, which islicensed to external clients. By 2009, commercial ISASMELT™furnaces operated by Xstrata and external licensees will have acombined annual smelting capacity of more than seven mil-lion tonnes of concentrates or secondary raw materials. Manyof the improvements implemented by plant operators havebeen passed on to, and adopted by, other licensees. Exchangeof ideas and technical improvements occur through ad hocvisits to fellow licensee sites and through regular licensee work-shops arranged by Xstrata Technology.

Table 1 shows the commercial plants that have beenlicensed to date.

Mopani Copper Mines copperISASMELT™

In 2006, Mopani Copper Mines Plc (MCM) commissioned anew copper ISASMELT™ furnace at the Mufulira coppersmelter in Zambia. MCM decided to install an ISASMELT™ fur-nace after concluding that it was not feasible to rebuild theirexisting electric furnace. They selected ISASMELT™ after com-paring it with alternative technologies including flash smelt-ing, Mitsubishi process, Teniente converters, and Ausmelt TSL(Ross and de Vries, 2005).

Growth and acceptance of the ISASMELT™ process

by M.L. Bakker and P.S. Arthur,Xstrata Technology

Fig. 1. ISASMELT™ plant locations


Table 1. Commercial ISASMELT™ plantsStartup Plant Plant Plant Plant

Owner Location Type Capacity

1991 Mount Isa Mines Limited Mount Isa, Australia Lead smelter 60,000 tpa lead metal

1991 Britannia Refined Metals Northfleet, UK Secondary lead smelter 30,000 tpa lead metal

1992 Phelps Dodge Miami Arizona, USA Copper smelter 700,000 tpa copper concentrate

1992 Mount Isa Mines Limited Mount Isa, Australia Copper smelter 1,000,000 tpa copper concentrate

1996 Sterlite Industries (India) Ltd Tuticorin, India Copper smelter 450,000 tpa copper concentrate

1997 Umicore Precious Metals Hoboken, Belgium Secondary copper smelter 300,000 tpa feed

2000 Metal Reclamation Industries Pulau Indah, Malaysia Secondary lead smelter 40,000 tpa lead metal

2002 Hüttenwerke Kayser Lünen, Germany Secondary copper smelter 150,000 tpa feed

2002 Yunnan Copper Kunming, China Copper smelter 800,000 tpa copper concentrate

2005 Sterlite Industries (India) Ltd Tuticorin, India Copper smelter 1,200,000 tpa copper concentrate

2005 Yunnan Metallurgical Group Qujing, China Lead smelter 160,000 tpa lead concentrate

2006 Mopani Copper Mines Mufulira, Zambia Copper smelter 850,000 tpa copper concentrate

2007 Southern Peru Copper Ilo, Peru Copper smelter 1,200,000 tpa copper concentrate(commissioning)

2009 Doe Run Peru La Oroya, Peru Copper smelter 270,000 tpa copper concentrate(under design)

2009 Kazzinc Ust-Kamenogorsk, Copper smelter 250,000 tpa copper concentrate(under design) Kazakhstan

2009 Kazzinc Ust-Kamenogorsk, Lead smelter 280,000 tpa lead concentrate(under design) Kazakhstan

A flowsheet for the new ISASMELT™ plant appears in Figure 2.In addition to the ISASMELT™ furnace, the copper smelter mod-ernization included a new feed preparation system, electric set-tling furnace, wet gas cleaning plant, acid plant and oxygen plant,as well as improvements to the converter aisle and anode plant.

The new furnace has an internal diameter of 4.4 metres andwas designed to treat 850,000 tpa of concentrates.Concentrates sourced from local mines are brought by truckto the smelter where they are stockpiled in a blending shed.The blended concentrates are conveyed to day bins in thenew feed preparation system. Moist concentrates, fluxes, coal,and reverts are metered out of the day bins, mixed in a twinshaft paddle mixer, and conveyed with approximately 8 to10% moisture to the building by belt conveyor. This conveyordelivers the mix to the final feed conveyor above the furnace,

which delivers it to the feed chute. This simple feed prepara-tion is a feature of the ISASMELT™ process. Fuel oil injectedthrough the lance is used for fine control of bath temperature.Oxygen and air are also injected through the lance.

Matte and slag are tapped from the ISASMELT™ furnacethrough a water-cooled taphole and flow down a water-cooledlaunder into the electric settling furnace, where they are sepa-rated by gravity settling. The slag is tapped intermittently fromthe settling furnace into a granulation system. Matte is tappedinto ladles and transferred by aisle crane to the converters.

A radiation channel, evaporative cooler, and electrostaticprecipitator are used to cool and clean the gas before it passesto the sulphuric acid plant.

MCM operations staff were trained at the Mount Isa coppersmelter for three months prior to commissioning. The hands-on training program enabled them to be technically compe-

Fig. 3. MCM ISASMELT™ offgas trainFig. 2. MCM ISASMELT™ process flowsheet

March/April 2007 47

tent and able to take control of the plant from the beginningof the startup, allowing the Xstrata Technology commissioningteam to focus on advanced training and plant optimization.

The MCM plant was successfully commissioned in the finalquarter of 2006.

Growth and acceptanceThe ISASMELT™ process is gaining wider acceptance

throughout the base metals industry worldwide. It is nowdemonstrated as a proven process for implementation ineither brownfield or greenfield smelters. Figure 6 shows howthe feed rate to ISASMELT™ plants has grown over the yearssince the first commercial plant was installed at Mount Isa. By2009, the cumulative feed rate to all ISASMELT™ furnaces glob-ally will exceed seven million tonnes per year. The fundamen-tal simplicity of the ISASMELT™ concept, coupled with MountIsa Mines’ many years of operating experience and Xstrata’stechnology transfer process, allows the process to be installedfor a relatively low capital cost and ramp-up to full capacityquickly. This inherent simplicity has been demonstrated inlocations as diverse as Arizona, China, India, and Zambia. TheVedanta furnace, located in Tuticorin in India and commis-sioned in 2005, is now producing over 300,000 tonnes per yearof copper in matte, and the smelter is reported to be the low-est cost copper smelter in the world.

At the same time, the advantages of ISASMELT™ technol-ogy are being used to meet tighter environmental standardsmuch more simply and at lower capital cost than alternativetechnologies. This is achieved due to the inherent nature ofthe high-intensity bath smelting process that uses a compact,stationary furnace with simple feed preparation, high-strengthoffgases, low heat loss, and very low dust recycle. Installation ofISASMELT™ at Hüttenwerke Kayser in Germany and UmicorePrecious Metals in Belgium enabled these plants to continueoperating in highly sensitive locations despite the introduc-tion of strict new environmental regulations. The ISASMELT™plant at Southern Peru Copper Corporation is allowing thecompany to meet new environmental regulations, while min-imizing capital investment and operating costs.

ConclusionsOver the last 20 years, Mount Isa Mines/Xstrata have devel-

oped submerged lance smelting from a novel idea to a provensmelting process, which is now licensed as the ISASMELT™technology package. The family of successful ISASMELT™licensees using this low-cost new smelting process continuesto grow. The concept is fundamentally simple with sophisti-cated process control systems and intensive training pro-grams developed over many years of operation at Mount Isa.These attributes, together with Xstrata’s technology transferprocess, allow new ISASMELT™ plants, such as that commis-sioned at Mopani Copper in Zambia, to ramp up quickly. Plantoperators rapidly learn to run the process stably, ensuring longcampaign lives with minimal maintenance. The technical andeconomic success of the existing plants should ensure contin-uing adoption of the process by smelters around the world. n

References

Arthur, P.S., & Hunt, S.P. (2005). ISASMELT™ – 25 years ofcontinuous evolution. In M. Nilmani and W.J. Rankin (Eds.),Floyd International Symposium on SustainableDevelopments in Metals Processing. NSC Associates(Australia).

Ross, J., & de Vries, D. (2005). Mufulira smelter upgrade proj-ect—‘industry’ smelting on the Zambian copperbelt.Pyrometallurgy 05, Capetown, Minerals EngineeringInternational.Fig. 5. MCM ISASMELT™ plant

Fig. 6. Global ISASMELT™ plant annual feed rate

Fig. 4. Training at the Mount Isa copper smelter


The average size or output of the copper smelters built inCanada has steadily increased over the more than 150-yearperiod since that first plant at Bruce Mines (Figure 2). At first, theplants were naturally quite small; the average nominal smeltersize was only about 1,300 tonnes per year of copper in 1900. Bythe early 1930s, the average size had increased to 62,000 tonnesper year of copper follow-ing the commissioning ofthe rich Horne mine andsmelter in 1927, the FlinFlon facilities in 1930, aswell as expansions at the Copper Cliff smelter in Sudbury. By the1960s to 1970s, the average nominal size had plateaued atabout 85,000 tonnes per year of copper. The average nominalsize of the present smelters (including Ni-Cu smelters) is just100,000 tonnes per year of copper. Excluding the Ni-Cu plants,the nominal average of the four copper (only) smelters inCanada is about 125,000 tonnes per year, considerably belowthe average output of 400,000 tonnes per year of copper for theten largest (and generally the lowest cost smelters) in the worldtoday (see Table 1 on page 37). The smaller size of the Canadianplants, coupled with constantly rising costs for fuel, electricity,and labour, is a worrisome trend.

Canadian technology in copper smelting has few equals.Among the first experiments in the world in the flash smeltingof sulphide material were tests carried out in the 1920s in

Rich heritage of copperproduction in Canada

by P.J. Mackey,Xstrata Process Support

Falconbridge, Ontario

Fig. 2. Trend in average smelter output or size of Canadian copper smelters, 1880 to 2010

Canada has a long and rich history in all aspects of cop-per production—exploration, mining, milling, smelting,and technology development. The first copper smelter

in Canada was located at Bruce Mines, Ontario, where a rever-beratory furnace based on the Welsh Process began in 1849(Kossatz and Mackey, 1989). The plant had a capacity of about50 to 100 tonnes of copper per year, and operated for about ayear before it was destroyed by fire. A new plant, based onroasting and leaching, was then built on the same site andoperated until 1875 when it finally closed. Across the country,many other mines were subsequently discovered andopened, and in many cases, generally due to the remotenessof the location as regards to ore or concentrate shipping, cap-tive smelters were built to treat the ore. Usually these plantsoperated for a period, and most eventually closed. In fact, since1849, over 50 copper and copper-nickel smelters have beenbuilt in Canada (Figure 1) and all but the seven operatingplants today have closed—generally for a combination ofhigh operating cost, low copper prices, and/or exhaustion ofcopper ore. The seven plants are: Horne, Kidd, Falconbridge,Copper Cliff, Flin Flon, Thompson, and Trail. The latter began asa copper smelter, hence is included here; since the early 1900s,it has treated lead and zinc materials. The last smelter to shutdown was the Gaspé smelter in Quebec, which closed in 2003due to the above factors.

Fig. 1. Cumulative number of copper and copper-nickel smeltersbuilt and operated in Canada, 1800 to 2010

March/April 2007 49

Canada, at first on pyrite using a single vertical shaft (Freeman,1930), a forerunner of the now well-established Outokumpuflash furnace later developed in Finland for copper concen-trates involving a vertical reaction shaft and a separate gasuptake shaft (Sarkikoski, 1999). In Canada, flash smelting of cop-per concentrates was also perfected by Inco (Anon., 1953). Thewell-known Noranda Process was developed in Canada(Pannell and Mackey, 1988), and this process is now used at sev-eral plants around the world. The Kidd technology for electro-refining copper was developed in Canada, and this is nowwidely used at many plants around the world (Laezza, Box, andScott, 1990).

By keeping costs in check and with continued discovery ofnew ore bodies, along with technology development, theprospects for Canada’s copper industry would appearbright. n

References

Freeman, H. (1930). Transactions of CIM, Vol. XXXIII, pp. 99-109.

Kossatz, E., & Mackey, P.J. (1989). The first copper smelter inCanada. In M. Wayman (Ed.), All that glitters – Readings inhistorical metallurgy (pp. 160-161). Montreal: TheMetallurgical Society of CIM.

Laezza, J., Box, R., & Scott, J.D. (1990). The Kidd Copper refin-ery”, In P.L. Claessens and G.B. Harris (Eds.),Electrometallurgical plant practice (pp. 3-19). Montreal: TheMetallurgical Society of CIM.

Pannell, D.G., & Mackey, P.J. (1988). Noranda process opera-tions 1988 and future trends. Paper presented to theCopper Committee Meeting of the GDMB, Antwerp,Belgium.

Sarkikoski, T. (1999). A flash of knowledge, Outokumpu Oy.

The Staff (1955). The oxygen flash smelting process of theInternational Nickel Company (pp. 158-166). Transactions ofCIM, Vol. LVIII.

(continued from page 48)

Maintaining its position as the leading copper producer,Chile has a number of new projects on the go prom-ising increased production rates. Highlights include:

CodelcoA progressive company committed to growing its copper

production, Codelco has a number of ongoing developmentprojects, including:• The Gaby 150,000 tpa copper oxide heap leach/SX/EW

joint venture.• Expansion of the Andina Division, 80 kilometres northeast

of Santiago, to increase production by enlarging the openpit and underground mines and constructing infrastruc-ture to increase processing throughput.

• A development plan aimed to allow the processing of5,500 kty of concentrates by 2012 will use synergies of thefour Codelco smelters, replacing the traditional batch-typeconverting process by a continuous available convertingtechnology.

BHP BillitonOne of the world’s largest copper producers, BHP Billiton is

strong in Chile, with new projects on the go such as:• The Escondida sulphide bio-heap leach, a 180,000 tpa cop-

per project, which ramped up last July• The recent startup of the Spence project, a 200,000 tpa

oxide and secondary sulphide heap leach operation nearAntofagasta.

Xstrata CopperXstrata Copper enjoys a strong presence in Chile, with all

operations focused on growth plans for the future, including:• Expansion of the smelter at Altonorte, a custom copper

smelting operation near Antofagasta in northern Chile with

Chile maintains position as world leader in copper

The Ujina oen pit at the Collahuasi copper mine in Chile


a current capacity to process 820,000 tonnes of copperconcentrate per year.

• Development of the Fortuna de Cobre deposit to feed theexisting Lomas Bayas heap leach/SX/EW plant in theAtacama Desert, to increase mine life by 10 years to 2023.

• Recent approval of the next phase of development of theEl Morro joint venture with Metallica Resources Ltd. Theproject consists of two porphyry systems—the El Morro

system and the La Fortuna deposit. Feasibility work will beadvanced this year on La Fortuna.

Anglo AmericanWith two major operations in Chile, including Collahuasi

and Minera Sur Andes, Anglo American will be ensuring itshigh production levels with the expansion of Los Broncesmine, part of Minera Sur Andes, near Santiago.

Antofagasta Minerals With very promising projects, Antofagasta Minerals faces

progressive growth in Chile, with projects including:• Expansion of the Los Pelambres mine, one of the largest

open pit mines in Chile located 200 kilometres northeast ofSantiago, with an estimated life of at least 30 years.

• Developing the new Esperanza heap leach/SX/EW plant,having completed its feasibility study.

Aur ResourcesGrowth is a strategy Aur Resources is making reality in

Chile, with last summer’s announcement that development ofthe Andacollo hypogene copper-gold deposit is a go-ahead.At a pre-production capital cost of $336 million, the developeddeposit will produce 157 million pounds of copper and 59,200ounces of gold annually over 21 years. The open pit mine andprocessing plant is to ramp up by late 2009. n

Mantos Blancos copper mine, Chile - cathode harvesting

Escondida BM 91 Escondida Los Colorados Mill. Photo courtesy of BHP Billiton

March/April 2007 51

Vue d’ensemble

L’industrie du cuivre va très bien ces jours-ci. Alors que leprix du cuivre a maintenant chuté par rapport aux som-mets de 2006, le cycle des prix est considéré comme

raisonnablement robuste et le prix du cuivre demeure à desniveaux non atteints depuis plusieurs décennies (figure 1).Plusieurs analystes prévoient une moyenne inférieure pour2007, de l’ordre de 2,00 à 2,50 $US/lb Cu dans le cadre d’unedemande soutenue, surtout de la Chine et de l’Inde. Avec desprojets complètement nouveaux en Amérique du Sud etailleurs, la production de cuivre augmente continuellement,permettant à l’offre de satisfaire presque la demande.

Le cycle actuel de prix forts, que certains qualifieront de« super cycle » (figure 1) a débuté il y a quelques années avecl’éveil de la demande pour des métaux en Chine et en Inde.

Les aspects technologiques et les procédés de production desnouvelles exploitations ont aussi changé et cela a contribué àde nouveaux sommets de production pour le cuivre (figure 2).

Depuis son début en 1987, les conférences internationalesCopper-Cobre sont devenues le forum mondial par excellencepour discuter des percées technologiques en métallurgie du

cuivre. La sixième édition de ces conférences aura lieu en août2007 à Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

L’actuel bref survol présente un portrait instantané du« monde du cuivre » en 2007.

Production et demande actuellesdu cuivre

Les grands moteurs de demande du cuivre, présents et àvenir en 2008–2009, demeurent les suivants :• croissance économique mondiale positive• développements en Chine, en Asie du Sud-Est et en Inde• production rencontrée par l’entrée en jeu de nouveaux

gros projets, des expansions et la reprise du cuivre enAfrique

• le rôle des placements spéculatifs, lesquels ont eu unimpact sur les marchés en 2006, est incertain.Dans le monde entier, quelque 15 millions de tonnes de

cuivre ont été extraites en 2006 (figure 2). La distribution géo-graphique de la production de cuivre est illustrée à la figure 3;on y voit que plus de 40 % provient de l’Amérique du Sud. De

Prix historique annuel du cuivre, 1900 à 2006, en $US constants, 2006

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Année

Pri

x d

u c

uiv

re ,

¢U

S /

lb (

en

$U

S c

on

sta

nts

20

06

)

Source: Brooke Hunt, GB

Fig. 1. Tendances mondiales du prix moyen du cuivre, 1900 à 2006

Cuivre extrait de mines mondiales, 1800 à 2020

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 Année

Pro

du

cti

on

mo

nd

iale

de

cu

ivre

, m

illi

on

s d

e t

on

ne

s

Sources : avant 1950, données Xstrata; après 950, données , Brooke Hunt, GB

Fig. 2. Cuivre extrait de mines à travers le monde, 1800 à 2006

cette production, environ 84 % provient du Chili, ce qui corre-spond à environ 35 % du cuivre extrait dans le monde entier.

Le taux actuel de croissance du cuivre affiné est d’environ3 % par année et ce taux de croissance devrait persister jusqu’àla fin de la décennie. En se basant sur les tendances d’utilisa-tion et les perspectives économiques générales, plusieurs ana-

lystes considèrent que ce taux demeurera constant ou aug-mentera légèrement jusqu’à 3,5 % par année après 2010. Cetaux se compare bien avec le taux annuel de 4,7 % des bonnesannées 1960. En considérant une consommation mondialeannuelle de cuivre d’environ 17 millions de tonnes et un tauxde croissance de 3 %, cela signifie qu’environ 500 000 tonnesde cuivre neuf doivent être produites chaque année.

La figure 4 illustre la consommation mondiale de cuivreventilée par régions. L’Europe de l’Ouest, l’Amérique du Nordet le Japon représentent ensemble environ 47 % de lademande mondiale. Il est intéressant de noter que la Chinereprésente à elle seule près de 23 % de la demande mondialedu cuivre, ce qui correspondait à environ 4 millions de tonnesen 2006, un chiffre qui croît annuellement d’environ 7 à 8 %. Le

rôle de la Chine et de l’Inde dans l’accroissementde la demande de cuivre est traité plus loin.

Production ettechnologie du cuivre

Le cuivre produit par fusion représente envi-ron 82 % du cuivre mondial, le reste est produitpar lixiviation et extraction par solvant et électro -lyse (SX-EW). Les technologies de fusion éclair etde fusion pour matte sont maintenant utiliséespour la plus grande partie de la production parfusion et environ 35 % des usines utilisent lafusion éclair. Le four à fusion éclaird’Outokumpu représente la technologie defusion dominante dans le monde alors que lesprincipales technologies de bain de fontecomprennent : la fusion en continue deMitsubishi, les procédés El Teniente etNoranda, la Top Submerged LanceTechnology – Isasmelt et Ausmelt – et lefour Vanyukov. Tel que noté parRamachandran et al. (2003), l’avantage dubain de fonte et son mode à haute inten-sité « permet à la charge ajoutée d’attein-dre rapidement les températures defusion et les réactions chimiques pourcompléter le processus; cette caractéris-tique signifie des fours plus petits parunité de capacité et un niveau globald’efficacité élevé. De plus, le bain de fontepermet de recycler des matériaux sec-ondaires grossiers. »

Le bain de fonte d’Isasmelt et le four defusion éclair d’Outokumpu représententles unités de choix pour les nouveaux pro-jets ou les projets de mise à niveau. La tech-nologie Isasmelt est décrite dans un articledans ce numéro du CIM Magazine (p. 45); plusde 6,3 millions de tonnes de concentré decuivre sont produites par cette technologie,soit en viron 15 % du cuivre produit par fusiondans le monde. Un nouveau procédé fusionéclair-convertisseur éclair Outokumpu est à l’é-tude à Olympic Dam, rehaussant éventuelle-ment la capacité à plus de 500 000 tonnes decuivre. Ce projet et d’autres en cours signifientqu’une proportion importante du cuivre sera pro-duite par fusion éclair.

Les exploitations à gros tonnage dominentmaintenant la production de cuivre. Le tableau 1liste les dix principales usines dans chaque régionde production. Par exemple, les dix plus grossesfonderies du tableau 1 représentent environ 30 %du traitement de cuivre extrait mondialement. Latendance vers des fonderies de cuivre plusgrandes a été discutée par Ramachandran et al.(2003) lors du congrès Copper-Cobre 2003 à

Amérique du Sud

Amérique du Nord

Australie et Indonésie

Reste du monde occidental

Anciens pays de l’Est

Note : le Chili était le plus gros producteur unique, représentant ~35 % de la production mondiale en 2006

Source : selon des données de Brook Hunt, GB

Distribution du cuivre extrait en 2006, par régions, % (15 millions de tonnes au total)

Fig. 3. Pourcentage de distribution du cuivre extrait en 2006, parrégions (15 millions de tonnes au total)

Consommation mondiale de cuivre, par région - 2005 (total: 16,9 millions de tonnes)

Europe de l’Ouest

Amérique du Nord

Japon

Reste du monde occidental

Communauté des États indépendants

Chine

Ancien bloc de l’Est, autre

Source : selon des données de Brook Hunt, GB

Fig. 4. Consommation mondiale de cuivre en 2005, par région(16,9 millions de tonnes)


Santiago, au Chili. En 2005, quelque 70 % du cuivrefondu était produit dans des usines de 200 000 t/aou plus. La proportion de cuivre produite dans degrosses fonderies croît depuis le milieu des années1970 et cette tendance devrait se poursuivre,quoique moins rapidement (figure 5).

Des dix plus grandes fonderies du tableau 1,six traitent les concentrés « à façon »; une grandepartie de ces concentrés provient d’Amériquedu Sud. Quant aux mines, on peut voir autableau 1 que six des dix plus grosses minessont situées en Amérique du Sud et que qua-tre d’entre elles expédient des concentrés.L’Amérique du Sud, et plus spécifiquement leChili, contient le plus de grandes usines delixi viation et extraction par solvant et élec-

trolyse (tableau 1). Par contre, les plus grandes fonderies decuivre sont plus dispersées.

Les concentrés à façon représente actuellement environ60 % des concentrés de sulfures au monde et cela soulignel’importance des fonderies à façon dans l’industrie du cuivre.Depuis de nombreuses décennies et jusqu’à la première par-tie du siècle dernier, la pratique était de situer la fonderie àcôté d’une nouvelle mine, mais la tendance s’est renversée etla pratique générale est maintenant d’expédier les concentrés.Un exemple récent est le concentré de la mine Antamina auPérou dont le concentré est expédié par navires trans -océaniques à une fonderie à façon.

Pour de nombreuses années depuis ses débuts en 1988,Olympic Dam en Australie était la dernière fonderie intégréeconstruite. Dans ce cas, plusieurs considérations, dont la dis-tance du port et la qualité du concentré, favorisaient une

March/April 2007 53

Tableau 1- Les dix plus grandes mines de sulfure de cuivre et de fonderies de cuivre (2006)

Mines de sulfures Fonderies de cuivre(concentrés de sulfures seulement)

No Usine Pays Capacité No Usine Pays Capacitéactuelle actuelle

(2006), kt/a (2006) kt/a

1 Escondida Chili 1085 1 Onsan Corée du Sud 532

2 PT Freeport Indonésie 615 2 Guixi Chine 445

3 Chuquicamata Chili 510 3 Chuquicamata Chili 430

4 Norilsk Russie 421 4 Saganoseki Japon 430

5 El Teniente Chili 415 5 Norddeutsche Allemagne 411

6 Collahuasi Chili 395 6 Caletones Chili 395

7 Antamina Pérou 382 7 Toyo Japon 372

8 Los Pelambres Chili 321 8 Norilsk Russie 360

9 Rudna Pologne 283 9 Ilo Pérou 320

10 Bingham É-U 270 10 Altonorte Chili 282(voir note 2)

Total (voir note 1) 4,697 Total (voir note 1) 3,977Note 1 : Le total des 10 plus grandes mines de sulfures de cuivre représente environ 38 % du cuivre sulfuré extrait au monde alors que le total pour les 10

plus grosses fonderies de cuivre représente environ 32 % du cuivre mondial produit par fusion.

Note 2 : La fonderie Sterlite en Inde, avec 280 kt en 2006, était en 11e place presque ex ăquo avec la 10e place; tel que noté dans le texte, cette fonderie s’a-grandi pour atteindre environ 400 kt/a de cuivre.

Source : à partir de données de Brook Hunt, de CRU et données Xstrata

Tableau 1 (suite) – Les dix plus grandes usines d’électroaffinage du cuivre et de lixiviation -SX-EW (2006)

Usines d’électroaffinage du cuivre Usines de lixiviation -SX-EWNo Usine Pays Capacité No Usine Pays Capacité

actuelle actuelle(2006), kt/a (2006) kt/a

1 Onsan Corée du Sud 515 1 Morenci É-U 380

2 Guixi Chine 445 2 El Abra Chili 225

3 Chuquicamata Chili 430 3 Radomiro Tomic Chili 159

4 Norddeutsche Allemagne 375 4 Zaldivar Chili 143

5 Las Ventanas Chili 375 5 Escondida Chili 140

6 Montréal Est (CCR) Canada 370 6 Codelco-Norte-Sur Chili 127

7 Yunnan (Kunming) Chine 365 7 Cerro Colorado Chili 119

8 Norilsk Russie 360 8 Quebrada Blanca Chili 73

9 Pyshma Russie 350 9 Lomas Bayasi Chili 64

10 Olen Belgique 343 10 Collahuasi Chili 58

Total 2,928 Total 1,632Source: à partir de données de Brook Hunt, de CRU et données Xstrata

usine intégrée. La nouvelle fonderie de cuivre Outokumpu àKhatoon-Abad en Iran, 80 000 t/a, a changé cela, même sicette fonderie traite aussi divers concentrés des régionsavoisinantes. L’unité de fusion directe Outokumpu pourVedanta en Zambie devrait être la plus récente fonderie inté-grée ou semi-intégrée. Par contre, la future mine Lumwana,en Zambie, acheminera environ 400 000 t/a de concentré parcamion du site de l’usine, dans la province du Nord-Ouest,jusqu’à l’une des fonderies de la province du Copperbelt.Comme nous le verrons plus loin, de nouvelles fonderies àgrande capacité sont en construction en Chine et en Indepour fournir les métaux requis par les projets d’infrastruc-tures et la demande interne accrue dans ces pays. Ces usinespourront aussi traiter les nouveaux concentrés entrant sur lemarché; le traitement à façon devrait donc demeurerprospère.

Étant donné la relation directe entre la taille de l’usine et lecoût effectif de la production – les grandes usines ayant descoûts moindres en raison des « économies d’échelle » – cettetendance vers les grosses usines se poursuivra. Plusieurs desfonderies de moyenne taille, entre 100 000 à 250 000 t/a,devront probablement être agrandies afin de contrôler lescoûts unitaires ou elles devront traiter des alimentations pluscomplexes à forte valeur économique; il est aussi possiblequ’elles doivent fermer.

Quant à la taille ultime, des études futures déterminerontla taille maximale optimale d’une usine, probablement enfonction des aspects de manutention de l’alimentation ou dela disposition dans les marchés de la grande quantité d’acidesulfurique produite. La plus imposante fonderie de cuivre dutableau 1 (Onsan en Corée du Sud) par exemple, produitquelque 1,5 Mt d’acide sulfurique par année. Par contre,d’autres industries métallurgiques traitent de très grandesquantités de matériaux. Par exemple, une nouvelle usined’acier de haut fourneau peut utiliser jusqu’à 5 ou 6 millionsde tonnes de fonte brute par année, exigeant plus de 8 mil-lions de tonnes de minerai de fer par année. En copiant dessystèmes utilisés dans les industries du fer et de l’acier, il serapeut-être possible de concevoir des fonderies de cuivreencore plus grosses dans l’avenir.

De ces considérations technologiques, noustirons la conclusion que la taille, la capacité et latechnologie des usines de cuivre évoluent ets’adaptent continuellement. En d’autres mots, lechangement fait partie de la vie dans le domainedu cuivre, mais le rythme semble de plus en plusrapide de nos jours.

Le portrait du cuivre en2007

Plusieurs sujets clés domineront sans doute lemonde du cuivre en 2007 et les années qui suiv-ront; nous en discutons brièvement ci-après :• la croissance de la demande et de la produc-

tion en Chine et en Inde• la reprise de la production de cuivre en

Afrique• les développements technologiques et les

nouvelles exploitations• les questions environnementales – le

dioxyde de soufre sous contrôle – impor-tance accrue de l’utilisation de l’eau

Demande et production desfonderies de cuivre en Chine et en Inde

La Chine et, à un degré moindre, l’Indeont joué un rôle majeur en tant quemoteur de croissance du cuivre en Asie etdans le monde entier. La Chine est ainsidevenue un marché clé de l’industrieminière; l’Inde suivra sous peu. La récentepoussée de la demande chinoise, jumeléeau rendement économique des États-Uniset de l’Europe, a aidé à faire croître lademande pour le cuivre. Pour les cinq à dixdernières années, les besoins croissants desindustries de la construction et de l’électri -cité ainsi que le développement des infra-structures peuvent être observés de manièreparticulière non seulement en Chine maisaussi dans les autres pays asiatiques et les paysdéveloppés. Avec une demande qui dépassepresque l’offre certaines années, le prix ducuivre a récemment augmenté (figure 1). La pro-duction de cuivre affiné et la consommation enChine et en Inde depuis 1990 sont illustrées à lafigure 6. La consommation du cuivre en Chine,environ 1,9 Mt en 2000, était de 0,63 Mt en 1990et elle était de 0,33 Mt en 1980, ce qui représenteune augmentation de plus de six fois en vingt ans.

Il est aussi intéressant de comparer la consom-mation par habitant en Inde, en Chine et aux États-Unis pour illustrer la plage des exigences poten-tielles futures (figure 7). Ces facteurs, notés plushaut, devraient contribuer à un taux annuel de

Dimensions des fonderies de cuivre – tendances mondiales, 1975 à 2005

Distribution de la production des fonderies selon leur capacité

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

1975 1985 1995 2005

Année

%

de

pro

du

cti

on

de

Cu

pa

r fu

sio

n s

elo

n l

a t

ail

le d

e l

a f

on

de

rie

> 200 kt/a > 100 kt/a et < 200 kt/a < 100 kt/a

Source : selon des données Xstrata.

Fig. 5. Dimensions des fonderies de cuivre – tendances mondiales, 1975 à 2005


croissance du cuivre dans le monde de 3 à 3,5 %,jusqu’en 2010 et même au-delà.

L’utilisation de technologies de pointe peut êtreobservée aux fonderies de cuivre en Chine et enInde. Les technologies actuellement utilisées enChine comprennent le procédé Noranda, les tech-nologies de fusion éclair Outokumpu et les tech-nologies Isasmelt et Ausmelt. Ces usines sont biengérées et elles sont comparables aux meilleuresusines mondiales. Des fonderies dans ces pays sontsur la liste des plus grandes fonderies de cuivre en2006 (tableau 1). La fonderie Sterlite en Inde, quiétait presque ex aequo en dixième place en 2006,augmente sa capacité à 400 000 t/a de cuivre. Lesusines de ces pays obtiendront sans doute demeilleurs rangs dans un relevé futur.

Reprise de la production de cuivreen Afrique

Dans les années 1960 et 1970, le continentafricain produisait beaucoup de cuivre mais,depuis ce temps, la production a chuté con-sidérablement. Par exemple, en 1974, l’unedes meilleures années, les fonderiesd’Afrique produisaient quelque 1 440 000tonnes de cuivre, soit environ 20 % de la pro-duction mondiale de l’époque. La moitié decette production (710 000 tonnes) provenaitde la Zambie et environ 30 % (467 000tonnes) provenait du Zaïre, maintenant laRépublique démocratique du Congo; lereste (~20 %) provenait de nombreux autrespays africains, incluant l’Afrique du Sud.

Depuis la fin des années 1970, la produc-tion de ces pays a chuté considérablementalors que les politiques de nationalisationont lamentablement échoué et que lesexploitations gérées par l’État manquaient decapitaux pour les fournitures et les pièces deremplacement; elles manquaient aussi d’ex-pertise. À la fin des années 1990, la productionde cuivre de la Zambie, par exemple, a atteintun creux inférieur à 250 000 tonnes de cuivrepar année; une chute de près de 70 % par rap-port aux années de pointe.

Mais les temps ont changé avec les nouvellespolitiques de privatisation soutenues par lesrécents prix élevés pour le cuivre et la Zambie seprépare pour de nouveaux projets qui remon-treront la production de cuivre au-delà de700 000 t/a d’ici quelques années. Certaines prévi-sions placent la production de cuivre zambien auxenvirons de 1,2 Mt par année à la fin de la décennie.

Parmi les nouveaux producteurs de la provincedu Copperbelt de la Zambie, on retrouve :• Vedanta Resources plc et sa filiale majoritaireKonkola Copper Mines plc – Nchanga et l’ancienne

fonderie Nkana ainsi que les nouvelles propriétés Konkola,ciblant un total d’environ 400 000 t/a de cuivre. La fonderieNkana est en voie d’être mise à jour et des plans sont encours pour la construction d’une nouvelle fonderie à proxim-ité de Chingola. Cette installation sera basée sur le procédéOutokumpu d’obtention directe du cuivre noir par fusionéclair; elle comprendra une usine d’acide et la productiond’anodes.

• Mopani Copper Mines plc – la mine Mufulira et la fonderieMufulira adjacente, laquelle fait actuellement la mise enservice d’une nouvelle unité de concentré Isasmelt de850 000 t/a ainsi qu’une usine d’acide; on y produira envi-ron 250 000 t/a de cuivre. La nouvelle fonderie remplace lesanciennes installations à four électrique.

• First Quantum Minerals – Cette compagnie, qui à sesdébuts retraitant les résidus de la mine Bwana Mkubwadans une usine lixiviation-SX-EW, planifie dans le momentune lixiviation à haute pression à la mine Kansanshi, ciblantune production de quelque 145 000 t/a de cuivre; le restesera sous forme de concentré de sulfure qui sera acheminépar camion à une fonderie externe.

• Equinox Copper Ventures Ltd planifie une exploitation de850 M$US à la mine-usine Lumwana dans la province du

March/April 2007 55

Production et consommation de cuivre affiné, comparaison Chine et en Inde, 1990 à 2006

0

1

2

3

4

5

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

Année

Qu

an

tité

de

cu

ivre

, m

illi

on

s d

e t

on

ne

s

Production de cuivre affiné en Chine

Consommation de cuivre affiné en Chine

Production de cuivre affiné en Inde

Consommation de cuivre affiné en Inde

Source : selon des données de Brook Hunt, GB et Réf. (2).

Fig . 6. Production et consommation de cuivre affiné en Chine et en Inde, 1990 à 2006.

Potentiel de croissance – Chine et Inde – métaux non ferreux

(Consommation par habitant de métaux non ferreux en Inde, en Chine et aux États-Unis, connées, données pour 2003-2004)

0,0

0,1

1,0

10,0

100,0

Ni Zn Pb Cu Al Métal

Co

ns

om

mati

on

sp

éc

ifiq

ue

, kg

/ha

bit

an

t Consommation - Inde, kg/habitant

Consommation - Chine, kg/habitant

Consommation - US, kg/habitant

Données produites par Xstrata, approximatives seulement et typiques pour la période 2003-2004

Fig. 7. Potentiel de croissance – Chine et Inde – métaux non ferreux

Nord-Ouest avec une production moyenne de 150 000 t/a deconcentré de cuivre qui sera aussi acheminé par camion àl’une des fonderies de la province du Copperbelt. Une instal-lation conventionnelle de grillage-lixiviation-électrolyse avaitété considérée comme moyen de traitement; cette voie estmaintenant retenue pour rehausser le projet lorsque la pro-duction augmentera à l’avenir. Le concentré contiendra ausside l’or et du cobalt, mais ce dernier ne sera pas récupéré pourle moment. Des secteurs minéralisés distincts contiennentdes niveaux appréciables d’uranium, lequel pourrait êtrerécupéré à une étape ultérieure de développement.

• le groupe China Nonferrous Metals exploite les propriétésChambishi et ce groupe a de nombreux plans d’expansionen cours.La production totale de la Zambie était de 537 000 tonnes

en 2006, tel qu’indiqué à tableau 2.Dans la République démocratique du Congo (RDC), une nou-

velle entente entre Phelps Dodge des États-Unis et le gouverne-

ment nouvellement élu ainsi que le propriétaire Tenke Mining deVancouver a ouvert le chemin afin que commence le projetgéant Tenke Fungurume. Situé à 400 km au nord-ouest des anci-ennes exploitations de Lubumbashi, le projet débutera par la pro-duction de 115 000 tonnes de cuivre et de 8000 tonnes de cobaltpar année; les procédés utilisés seront la lixiviation suivie de l’ex-traction du cuivre par solvant et électrolyse. Ce projet devraitdémarrer avant 2010; les coûts en immobilisations seraient de650 M$US. D’autres projets sont aussi planifiés pour la RDC.

Développements technologiques et nouveaux projets

HYDROMÉTALLURGIE

Une certaine quantité de cuivre a toujours été produite parlixiviation avec une récupération du métal de la solution.Durant plus grande partie du siècle dernier la quantité decuivre ainsi produite était relativement petite. La première util-isation mondiale d’extraction par solvants pour récupérer lecuivre à partir de solutions acides a été en mars 1968 à la mineRanchers Bluebird, à Miami, en Arizona (à l’époque une adap-tation d’une technologie utilisée pour la récupération de l’ura-

nium); depuis ce temps, des quantités croissantes de cuivreont été produites par lixiviation-SX-EW.

La figure 8 montre la quantité de cuivre produite par lixivi-ation-SX-EW (surtout à partir d’oxydes, mais de plus en plus àpartir de sulfures à faible teneur) et par fusion à partir de sul-fures. En 2006, quelque 2,8 Mt ou environ 18 % du cuivreextrait dans le monde a été produit par lixiviation-SX-EW, cequi représente une quantité impressionnante. Toutefois, selonla figure 9, la tendance semble avoir atteint un plateau. Aux finsde comparaison, notons que le cuivre produit en 2006 par lixi -viation-SX-EW correspond à la quantité totale de cuivreextraite dans le monde au milieu des années 1950.

Les dix plus importantes installations de lixiviation-SX-EWen 2006 sont présentées au tableau I et, tel que noté plus haut,neuf de ces installations sont situées au Chili.

Trois des plus récentes usines lixiviation-SX-EW sont :• la nouvelle installation Escondida de BHP-B, une installa-

tion de lixiviation du cuivre de 180 000 t/a au Chili. Cetteusine a débuté en 2006 par le traitement de sulfures etd’oxydes à faible teneur provenant de la fosse. L’usine


Tableau 2 – Production de cuivre en Zambie en 2006Exploitation/usine Production de cuivre (2006),

tonnes

Fusion

Mufulira et Nkana 260 000

Sous-total 260 000

Lixiviation-SX-EW

Bwana Mkubwa 51 000

Kansanshi 70 000

Nchanga 43 000

Autres 51 000

Sous-total 215 00

Concentrés exportés 62 000

Total 537 000Selon des données de Brook Hunt

Production mondiale de cuivre par fusion de concentrés sulfurés et des

installations de lixiviation-SX-EW (1984 à 2006)

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10 000

12 000

14 000

16 000

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Année

Cu

ivre

extr

ait

, kil

o-t

on

nes

Lixiviation-SX-EW Concentrés de sulfures acheminés aux fonderies

Source : Brook Hunt, GB, avec permission

Fig. 8. Production annuelle mondiale de nouveau cuivre par fusion de concentrés sulfurés et des installations

de lixiviation-SX-EW (1984 à 2006)

Proportion du cuivre produit par lixiviation-SX-EW

0

5

10

15

20

25

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Année

Cu

ivre

pro

du

it m

on

dia

lem

en

t p

ar

lix

ivia

tio

n-

SX

-EW

(%

)

Cuivre produit par lixiviation-SX-EW exprimé en % de la production mondiale de cuivre

Source Selon des données de Brook Hunt, GB

Fig. 9. Production mondiale de cuivre – Proportion de la produc-tion par lixiviation-SX-EW. La tendance actuelle de croissancesemble avoir atteint un plateau, du moins pour le moment.

March/April 2007 57

poursuit sa mise en service. Lorsqu’elle sera pleinementopérationnelle, cette nouvelle usine et l’usine lixiviation-SX-EW produiront quelque 300 000 t/a de cuivre élec-trolytique;

• le projet Spence de BHP-B, au Chili, une installation de lixivi-ation du cuivre de 200 000 t/a qui traite un mélange deminerai sulfuré et de minerai oxydé, a débuté à la fin de2006. Deux circuits distincts effectuent la lixiviation et l’ex-traction par solvants et une usine d’électrolyse dessert cesdeux circuits;

• Morenci, de Phelps Dodge, une installation de lixiviation de65 000 t/a de concentré de cuivre en Arizona, a vu le jouraprès plusieurs années d’essais à l’usine de démonstrationde la technologie à Bagdad, en Arizona. Cette usine qui a

nécessité des coûts en immobilisations de plus de100 M$US, traitera environ 220 000 tonnes de concentrépar année.Lorsqu’elles fonctionneront à plein régime, ces trois usines

devraient produire environ 3 % du cuivre extrait mondiale-ment en 2007. Selon la courbe de croissance de la figure 9,pour que la progression continue, il faudrait qu’au moins deuxusines de cette taille entrent en production chaque année.

De nombreux autres projets d’extraction de cuivre, sousforme de sulfures ou d’oxydes, sont planifiés à travers lemonde et, à court terme, ces projets devraient satisfaire lademande future pour le cuivre.

www.cu2007.org

Le plus grandcongrès mondial

sur le cuivre! Organisé par

le Congrès des métallurgistesCOM2007

25 au 30 août 2007Toronto, Ontario

CU

IVR

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Fig. 10. La cuve de bain de fonte en continue Noranda à lafonderie Altonorte de Xstrata plc dans le Nord du Chili. Cette

usine a produit 0,282 Mt de tonnes de cuivre en 2006.

Fig.11. L’exploitation Collahuasi dans le Nord du Chili, montrant leconcentrateur Ujina. L’an dernier, cette exploitation à produitquelque 0,44 Mt de tonnes de cuivre (86 % en concentré de

cuivre et le reste par extraction électrolytique).

Questions environnementales –le dioxyde de soufre souscontrôle et l’importance del’utilisation de l’eau

Vers la fin des années 1990, la fixation du dioxyde de soufreprovenant des fonderies de cuivre était un sujet technique etenvironnemental important. En raison de l’adoption graduellede nouvelles technologies de fusion qui facilitent la produc-tion d’acide sulfurique à partir des fonderies, ce problèmed’émission de dioxyde de soufre est grandement résolu. Telqu’il sera traité dans une conférence de Diaz et Mackeyprésentée au congrès Copper-Cobre 2007 à Toronto en août :puisque les nouvelles technologies de fusion sont appliquéesdans le monde entier, la moyenne mondiale de fixation du SO2pour toutes les fonderies de cuivre approche maintenant 90 %et ce taux sera bientôt dépassé. Cela se compare favorable-ment aux taux de 50 à 60 % du début des années 1990.

La fonderie Ilo au Pérou et la fonderie Mufulira en Zambiefigurent parmi les récentes conversions aux nouvelles tech-nologies, augmentant ainsi la moyenne mondiale de fixationdu SO2. Les unités Isasmelt récemment mises en service et lesusines d’acide qui leur sont associées sont présentement envoie d’atteindre la pleine production.

Le commerce mondial du soufre s’est rééquilibré; une plusgrande part de l’acide produit provient de fonderies demétaux de base. D’un total mondial de 72,1 Mt de soufre(toutes formes) consommées en 2005, environ 20 % était sousforme d’acide sulfurique de fonderies de métaux de base, dontune grande part de fonderies de cuivre.

Un des grands défis pour les installations est l’utilisation del’eau et le contrôle de l’eau dans les usines. Les aspects environ-nementaux concernant le traitement de l’eau et la réutilisationde l’eau sont extrêmement importants. Les préoccupationssont particulièrement importantes au Chili qui produit plus de35 % du cuivre mondial. Le Nord du Chili, l’un des endroits lesplus secs au monde, possède environ 30 % des réserves mon-diales de cuivre. Les principaux défis de l’industrie du cuivre,surtout au Chili, sont maintenant : l’adoption des meilleures

pratiques d’utilisation de l’eau et de traitement; l’utilisation effi-cace de l’eau; la construction d’usines de dessalement et desrecherches accrues pour trouver de nouvelles sources d’eau.

RemerciementsL’auteur désire remercier plusieurs collègues chez Xstrata

et dans l’industrie qui lui ont fourni de l’information et du sou-tien. Des remerciements spéciaux sont adressés à Cam Harriset à Tony Eltringham pour leurs discussions et précieusesidées. L’auteur reconnaît l’utilisation de certaines donnéesfournies par Brook Hunt et CRU pour cet article. Les photogra-phies ont été gracieusement fournies par Xstrata Copper.L’auteur remercie Xstrata Process Support pour la permissionde publier cet article. n

Références

Ramachandran, V., Diaz, C., Eltringham, T., Jiang, C.Y., Lehner,T., Mackey, P.J. , Newman, C.J. et Tarasov, A.V., PrimaryCopper Production – A Survey of Operating WorldCopper Smelters, Copper 2003-Cobre 2003, Vol. IV:Pyrometallurgy of Copper (Book 1), The HermannSchwarze Symposium on Copper Pyrometallurgy, C. Díaz,J. Kapusta and C.J. Newman, Eds., La Société de la métal-lurgie, ICM, Montréal, Québec, Canada, 2003, pp. 3-106.

Fushan, S., Suggestions for Chinese Copper IndustryDevelopment in the Eleventh Five Year Plan Period, The2006 China International Copper ConferenceProceedings, Septembre 25-27, 2006, Nanjing, China,Beijing Antaike Information Development Co. Ltd., Beijing,Chine.

Diaz, C. et Mackey, P.J., The Copper-Cobre Series ofConferences: A Prime Forum for Active Discussion ofCopper Smelting Technology Practice and Innovation, arti-cle qui sera soumis au Congrès international Copper-Cobre 2007, août 2007, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, La Sociétéde la métallurgie, ICM, Montréal, Québec, Canada, 2007.

www.cu2007.org www.metsoc.org/com2007 C

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COM Symposium◆ Light Metals 2007

Cu2007 Symposia◆ Economics and Markets◆ Mineral Processing◆ Pyrometallurgy◆ Hydrometallurgy◆ Electrowinning and Electrorefining◆ Sustainable Development,

HS & E and Recycling◆ Process Control, Optimization

and Six-Sigma◆ Downstream Fabrication

and Applications

Other Programs◆ Plenary Sessions◆ Short Courses◆ Industrial Tours◆ Poster Session◆ Student Activities◆ Companions Program

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cim newsAbraham, Sunday, SaskatchewanAderogba, Ola, NigeriaAgin, Jerome, FranceAka-Trudel, Charles-François, QuébecAmrate, Salim, QuébecAnger, Celene, SaskatchewanAnsari, Anita, British ColumbiaArchambault, Yves, QuébecArchambeault, David, USABalderas, Ricardo Juarez, MexicoBano, Nafisa, OntarioBarden, Geoffrey, QuébecBaron, Richard, QuébecBarrasso, Grace, QuébecBeaulieu, Denis, QuébecBédard, Émilie, QuébecBehnood, Nosratollah, QuébecBelair, Guy, QuébecBélanger, Christine, QuébecBenson, David, ManitobaBerg, Dag, NorwayBergeron, Robert, QuébecBesida, John, AustraliaBishop, Giles, LabradorBlackburn, Olivier, QuébecBolduc, Maxime, QuébecBooker, Rob, British ColumbiaBouhout, Nadia, QuébecBowden, Paul William, AustraliaBrisson-Cadrin, Marc-Antoine, QuébecBrown, Murray, British ColumbiaBurnett, Christopher, USACairns, David, AustraliaCarboni, Vincent, QuébecCarrier, Jean-Yves, QuébecCarrier, Rejean, QuébecCayouette, Samuel, QuébecChampoux, Pierre, QuébecCharington, Braden H., AlbertaChinloy, David, OntarioClifford, Ken, AustraliaCockcroft, Steven Lee, British ColumbiaCurell, Brad, AustraliaCzarnecka, Helena, AlbertaDabros, Tadeusz, AlbertaDavis, Michael, British ColumbiaDe Tont, Anthony Franco, QuébecDennis, S. Dave, JamaicaDepinoy, Maxime, FranceDickman, Stephen, USADonati-Daoust, Francis, QuébecDonison, David, OntarioDufour, Jean-François, QuébecDufour, Gilles, QuébecEné, Cynthia, QuébecErsayin, Salih, USAEscobar, Edgar, AustraliaEvans, Rick, OntarioFall, Mamadou, OntarioFelderhof, David, Nova ScotiaFeltin, Cameron, British ColumbiaFinley, Steven, USAFisher, Graham, South AfricaFleury, Katerina, QuébecFortier, François, QuébecFostokjian, Richard, Ontario

Fournier, Paul, QuébecFreeman, Paul, AustraliaGelinas, Martin, QuébecGeneviève, Robert, QuébecGerami, Sepehr, British ColumbiaGibson, Charlotte, OntarioGilardeau, Jean-Pierre, QuébecGilbert, Anne-Marie, QuébecGirouard, Guillaume, QuébecGoyette, Sylvain, New BrunswickGrenier, Jean-François, QuébecGrenon-Girard, François-Xavier, QuébecGulka, Andrew, SaskatchewanGuo, Zhongxin, OntarioHaller, Sebastian, QuébecHameed, Omair, OntarioHayes, Stephen, AustraliaHebert, Eric, QuébecHeidari, Reza, AlbertaHempstock, Adam, British ColumbiaHooper, Peter, OntarioJacquemart, Bernard, FranceJang, Heemun, AlbertaJaroonvuthitham, Manoch, ThailandJarry, Mélissa, QuébecJavaid, Ashfaq, AlbertaJayasekera, Sunil, AustraliaJolas, Jean-Michel, FranceKandev, Nedeltcho, QuébecKhatri, Ali, OntarioKipling, Robb, AlbertaKluck, Guy, USAKomishke, Brad, AlbertaKracht, Willy, QuébecLacroix Beaupré, Marie-Pier, QuébecLapierre-Boire, Louis-Philippe, QuébecLawson, John, AustraliaLe Quesne, Yves, FranceLebel, Normand, QuébecLefebvre, Sylvain, QuébecLessard, Pierre-Luc, QuébecLetarte-Lavoie, Francis, QuébecLeung, Ying Ting, QuébecLévesque, Kristina, QuébecLiskovych, Volodymyr, OntarioLustik, Justin, QuébecLiu, Zheng Jiang, OntarioMafuta, Rody, QuébecMagda, Akadiri, QuébecMaguire, Daniel, British ColumbiaMalard, Thiery, FranceMallah, Daniel, QuébecMallick, Tapan, IndiaMarceau, Daniel, QuébecMartineau, Philippe, QuébecMarzan, John Paul, PhilippinesMcCord, Thomas, USAMedilek, David, British ColumbiaMenuey, Justine, FranceMiller, Sian, AustraliaMireles, Hector Daniel, MexicoMladen, Jankovic, QuébecMokaila, Tefo, South AfricaMontreuil, Jean-François, QuébecMorasse, Alexandre, QuébecMukherjee, Rajib, India

Muller, Elmar, South AfricaMuller, Klaus, GermanyMuniz, Manuel Garcia, SpainNagle, Mike, British ColumbiaNg, Samson, AlbertaNgoma-Bolusala, Christian, QuébecNicolas, Roy, QuébecNumbi, Adrien Banza, QuébecO’Callaghan, John, AustraliaOccello, Yves, FranceOniovosa, Oghenemine Aghogho, QuébecOuellet, Bob, QuébecOwens, Richard, USAOxley, Anne, TurkeyParsons, Scott, Nova ScotiaPaventi, Joe, OntarioPellerin, Michel, QuébecPerras, Michel, QuébecPhillips, Percy, ManitobaPierre, Beatrice, OntarioPomarede, Vincent, FrancePouliot, Michel, QuébecPoupart, Joannie, QuébecPowell, Jordon, Nova ScotiaPrakash, Brahm, IndiaRichards, David Mark,

British ColumbiaRiopel, Charles, QuébecRoby, Luc, QuébecRomatowska, Anna-Marie, QuébecRosales, Gustavo, USARossberg, Arne, GermanyRossiter, David, AustraliaRuan, Zhihen, QuébecRuban, Phillip N., AlbertaSchaffer, Mark, AlbertaSharma, Krishna Deo, IndiaShink, David, QuébecSingh, Ashutosh, OntarioSingh, Suraj, USASmall, Sheldon, AlbertaSogabe, Nobuyoshi, JapanStevens, Laurence G., USASusukida, Daigo, JapanTabah, Erin, QuébecTimotin, Ovidiu, AlbertaTourigny, Yannick, QuébecTremblay, Sylvain, QuébecUawanichkul, Suwit, ThailandVankekeybus, Jos, BelgiumVanvoren, Claude, FranceVerraes, Virginie, FinlandVerreault, Philip, QuébecVerster, Daniel, South AfricaWang, Bob Z., USAWarner, Cliff, USAWhite, Tom, QuébecWilliams, Tim, United KingdomWyatt, Duncan, OntarioWyethe, Jacolien, South AfricaYakimchuk, Michael, SaskatchewanYan, Haijing, Nova ScotiaYeon, Je Jung, KoreaZafrullah, Shafraz M., QuébecZarate, Gabriel, ChileZilker, Greg, USA

CIM welcomes new members

cim news

The Canadian Mining andMetallurgical Foundation (CMMF) hassurpassed its original goal of $1 million,and today the board is laying plans for acampaign to greatly increase its reserve.A larger fund will result in increasedopportunities to support and promoteeducational initiatives for the Canadianminerals industry—and the CMMF isone of the prime venues to ensuretomorrow’s industry remains repletewith leading people.

The CMMF is a separate legal entityfrom CIM, though it is CIM membersthat have built it up and sit on its board.Funds come from CIM members—lifemembers primarily—and many havebeen very generous.

A board of nine trustees administerthe CMMF, many of them past presi-dents of CIM. By law, the CMMF has todispense at least 4.5 per cent of its fundeach year, and that money goes to edu-cational initiatives across the country.

After years of work to grow the fund,its healthy status today is due in greatpart to the generosity of Donald Hurd,who died on June 11, 2003, andincluded the CIM Foundation in hiswill. Currently, the CMMF has reacheda total of $1.4 million.

“As one of the original founders ofthe Foundation, I am of course pleasedwith its progression over the years,” saidRené Dufour, CIM past president andCMMF trustee. “We have a strong, ded-icated board and an active president,Glen Clark, who is investing a lot oftime in getting all of us trusteesinvolved in promoting the objectives ofthe Foundation.”

Today, confronted with a changingworld and the looming HR crisis, muchwork is required to attract young peopleto our industry, and to enable continu-ous learning for industry’s professionals.The CMMF is a tool to enable necessaryinitiatives to keep industry strong.

“The task ahead of us is tremendousand the Foundation has an active role to

Canadian Mining and Metallurgical FoundationPoised to promote education for industry

play on behalf of CIM,” Dufour said.“Several American universities haveabandoned mining and geology pro-grams, due to low enrolment; the situa-tion is becoming alarming in our coun-try. The Foundation’s role is to supportCIM’s educational activities.”

The Foundation board is laying plansto launch a major campaign, with thegoal of raising the assets of its endow-ment fund to $10 million. This wouldpermit spending over $400,000 a year tosupport various activities to reverse the

current trend of disaffection towardsour industry, and to increase the transferof knowledge and increase mineral edu-cation, both within industry and in thecommunities.

Such fund growth will require greatcommitment from CIM members,industry personalities, even the majorindustry companies. With everyoneon board, the goal is within reach—promising major long-term improve-ments for the minerals industry as awhole. n

Today, the CMMF supports a number of educational programsthat support the minerals industry. Some of the CMMF-sponsoredprograms include:

Scholarships—the CMMF awards three scholarships to univer-sity students annually: the Caterpillar Inc. and its Canadian Dealersscholarship for mining engineering; the Scotia Bank scholarship forearth sciences; and the Arthur Foley scholarship for mining engi-neering at École Polytechnique.

CIM Distinguished Lecturer Program—bringing leading knowl-edge to local CIM branches, the CMMF joins Atlas Copco inenabling this program that brings top lecturers to local halls aroundthe country.

MABC Educational Program and the PDAC Mining MattersProgram—two leading programs, bringing education about theminerals industry to the classroom, benefit from financial supportfrom the CMMF.

Mining in Society—the interactive exhibition at the CIMConference and Exhibition that is open to the public as outreach, toencourage more people to embrace the minerals industry as acareer destination. The CMMF provides financial support to ensureits success.

March/April 2007 61

Investing in educational initiativesThe CMMF today

Investir dans lesfuturs leaderspar Andrea Nichiporuk

cim news

“As the industry is in a growth cycle, there are many advantages to being a new graduate, such as excellent job opportunitiesand competitive salaries.”

Investing in the leaders of tomorrowby Andrea Nichiporuk

La bourse Arthur W. Foley a étédécernée par la Fondation canadiennedes mines et de la métallurgie à IsabelleLeblanc. Elle a l’esprit ouvert, elle estaventurière et est prête à surmonter lesdéfis. Mme Leblanc va bientôt terminersa quatrième année d’un baccalauréat engénie des mines à l’École Polytechniquede Montréal. Elle a récemment partagéses idées sur ses expériences et surl’avenir de l’industrie.

ICM : Qu’est-ce qui a influencé votre choixde poursuivre vos études en génie minier ?IL : J’ai tout de suite été attirée par lesecteur minier : l’environnement de tra-vail très particulier, les défis d’undomaine constamment en changement,l’opportunité de voyager etc. J’ai donccomplété un Diplôme d’ÉtudeCollégiale en technologie minérale auCégep de Thetford. Par la suite, je mesuis inscrite à Polytechnique pour fairemon génie.

ICM: Le baccalauréat en génie des mines estcoopératif. Parle-nous un peu de vos stages. IL : J’ai travaillé à Mont-Wright pourQCM. Et plus récemment à Troilus,pour Inmet Mining, où l’on m’a confiéun projet concernant les excavatricesDemag. J’ai aussi travaillé de façon jour-nalière sur la planification minière. J’aibeaucoup aimé l’ambiance particulièrede la vie au camp minier. Présentement,j’effectue un stage chez Breton Banvilleet Associés, une firme de génie conseil.C’est très différent de ce que l’on faitdans une mine et j’apprends énormé-ment de choses, c’est très stimulant.

ICM : Quels sont les avantages d’être unjeune étudiant dans cette industrie ?IL : Puisque l’industrie profite d’unebonne croissance, les perspectives d’em-ploi pour les étudiants sont excellenteset les salaires compétitifs. Le secteurminier, étant formé d’une communautérestreinte, il permet aux jeunes de se


Isabelle Leblanc

This year’s recipient of the ArthurW. Foley scholarship, awarded by theCanadian Mining and MetallurgicalFoundation, is Isabelle Leblanc. Sheis open-minded, adventurous, andready for a challenge. A fourth-yearmining engineering student at ÉcolePolytechnique, she is encouraged bythe numerous opportunities open tostudents entering this industry.Leblanc shared some of her experi-ences and some thoughts on theindustry’s future.

CIM: What influenced your decision tostudy mining engineering?IL: I was immediately attracted to themining sector with its unique workenvironment, challenges of an ever-changing field, opportunities for travel,etc. After obtaining a college diplomain mineral technology from the Cégepde Thetford, I registered in miningengineering at École Polytechnique.

CIM: As mining engineering is a coop pro-gram, tell us a bit about your internships. IL: I worked at Mont-Wright for QCMand, more recently, at Inmet Mining’sTroilus mine, where I was in charge ofa project involving Demag excavators.I also worked on day-to-day mineplanning. I really enjoyed the miningcamp lifestyle. I am currently doing aninternship at Breton Banville etAssociés, a consulting engineeringfirm. It is very different from working

at a minesite and I am learning manynew and exciting things.

CIM: What are the advantages of being ayoung student in this industry?IL: As the industry is in a growth cycle,there are many advantages to being a newgraduate, such as excellent job opportu-nities and competitive salaries. As themining community is relatively small, itallows young people to rapidly fit in andopens many doors that would otherwisebe shut in other engineering fields.

CIM: What can mining companies do tocounter the lack of human resources? IL: Even though mining companies areoffering very competitive wages, notmany people want to live in remoteregions. A solution might be to makethese regions more attractive byfavouring cultural activities. However,I believe that it is mainly the lack ofinformation on the mining industrythat is the reason so few people choosea career in mining. Informative promo-tional campaigns on the mining indus-try could represent a possible solution.

CIM: What is your career plan?IL: I don’t have a precise career plan asof yet. I am open to several possibili-ties, and I am not ruling out the idea ofpossibly returning to school. I wouldlike to travel a bit during my career,which I hope will be long, with manyinteresting challenges. n

cim news

March/April 2007 63

faire une place rapidement et ouvre desportes qui leur sont souvent ferméesdans d’autre domaine du génie.

ICM : Que peuvent faire les compagniesminières pour contrer le manque deressources humaines au sein de l’indus-trie ? IL : Malgré les salaires très compétitifs,peu de gens sont attiré par la vie en

région éloignée. La solution serait peut-être de rendre les régions plus intéres-santes en favorisant les activités cul-turelles. Mais, je crois surtout que lesjeunes qui choisissent une carrière dansle domaine minier sont peu nombreuxparce qu’ils ne sont pas informés. Peut-être que de faire des campagnes d’infor-mation sur le secteur miniers serait unesolution envisageable.

ICM : Quel est votre plan de carrière ?IL : Je n’ai pas encore de plan de car-rière précis. Je suis ouverte àplusieurs éventualités. D’ailleurs, jene rejette pas la possibilité d’unéventuel retour aux études. Aussi, jeveux me donner la possibilité de voy-ager un peu durant ma carrière qui jel’espère, m’apportera des défisintéressants. n

Appel de communicationsLa 40e Conférence des minéralurgistes du Canadaaura lieu du 22 au 24 janvier 2008 à Ottawa,Ontario. Nous vous invitons à soumettre des présen-tations sur tous les sujets liés au traitement des min-erais, et particulièrement en ce qui a trait à l’amélio-ration des activités d’exploitation, leur conception etleur fonctionnement. D’autres présentations serontaussi au programme.Les résumés doivent être envoyés avant le 20 juin 2007 à l’attention de :

Ian Orford • 1st vice chairman, CMP/1er vice-président Tel./Tél.: 905.829.5400 • Fax/Téléc.: 905.829.3633

Cell.: 647.267.0693 • Email/Courriel: [email protected]

The 40th Annual Canadian Mineral ProcessorsOperators’ Conference will be held in Ottawa,Ontario, on January 22-24, 2008. Papers cov-ering the full spectrum of subjects in mineralprocessing are being called for, specifically thosedealing with improvements in operating plants,and their design and operation. Other presenta-tions will be included. Abstracts (~200 words) must be sent before June 20, 2007, to:

Call for Papers

Notices of acceptance will be granted on orbefore June 30, 2007. Full papers in MicrosoftWord format are required by September 30,2007, for publication in the conference proceedings.

Des avis d’acceptation seront envoyés jusqu’au 30juin 2007. Les présentations techniques enformat Microsoft Word doivent être reçues avant le 30 septembre 2007 pour publication dans lecompte-rendu du symposium.

4040theAnnual Canadian Mineral Processors Operators’ Conference

Conférence des minéralurgistes du Canada

cim news

This year’s CIM DistinguishedLecturers have been very active, withnumerous presentations given acrossthe country. The season ends in June,but already the lecturers are reportingthat it has been a terrific experience.

Wulf Mueller, Université du Québecà Chicoutimi, was a popular lecturerthis year, sharing his presentationArchean subaqueous calderas: First orderhosts of volcanic-hosted massive sulfidedeposits in the Abitibi belt. He said hisCIM Distinguished Lecturer experi-ence has been a good one.

“From my standpoint, the lecturecame across well, as it was a combina-tion of theory, field geology, and min-ing exploration. I found all groups veryinterested and knowledgable. It waswell worth while, and all were pleasantand very informed. The lecture tour isthis far a positive eye opener—keep itup CIM.”

Of ten talks scheduled, Mueller nowhas six under his belt. Starting withLondon, Ontario, last October, he hastraveled to Chicoutimi, Moncton,Saskatoon, Red Lake, and Thompson,with appearances scheduled forQuebec City, Sudbury, Timmins, andAbitibi throughout the spring. Heshared his thoughts on some of the vis-its he has already enjoyed.

“In London, I was well received,with numerous questions concerning

Lecturer Mueller found experience positive

calderas and massive sulfides; it’sa university environment so atheoretical approach is moresolicited.” He echoed that senti-ment for Chicoutimi, where headded he’d had a ‘home courtadvantage.’

At the CIM-AGS 33rd collo-quium in Moncton, he was theprincipal speaker, with 50 peo-ple in attendance. “The groupwas a sound mixture of acad-eme, industry, and the provin-cial survey. Very good feedback,as an invitation from the surveyis pending, and I received excel-

lent support from David Lentz andJarda Dostal.”

In Red Lake, he took pleasure inmeeting up with some students he hadworked with 15 years ago, and learningof their successes. And he foundThompson was the most mining-ori-

ented town he’s visited, “with more of afocus on mining procedures and engi-neering. Most field geologists turnedup. They are very well-informed geolo-gists up there. It was a very pleasanttime, with a cordial nature.”

The Distinguished Lecturers pro-gram is an asset to lecturers and audi-ences alike. Next year’s lineup of lec-turers will be announced on April 30 atthe CIM Awards Gala—get ready tobook them for the fall! n


A look back in time35 YEARS AGO…• Price Waterhouse & Co. reported on the latest news out of the Federal

Court on tax cases involving the mining industry—Inco lost a secondappeal to claim a deduction for its Thompson townsite expenditures;Denison Mines was unsuccessful in claiming expenditures incurred to cre-ate passageways through a high-grade orebody during a tax-exempt period;and Marbridge Mines obtained a three-year tax holiday when a new shaftsunk close to existing mines qualified as a new mine.

• The 74th Annual General Meeting of CIM was held in Ottawa; J.H. Schloenwas sworn in as the CIM president for 1972-1973.

• John L. Mero, president, Ocean Resources Inc., in La Jolla, California, dis-cussed the promising future of mining in the ocean.

• Four Université Laval students received $1,000 scholarships from NorandaMines.

• Monitoring programs to safeguard the marine ecosystem from degradation,due to discharging mine wastes into the sea, were discussed in a technicalpaper by Derek Ellis and Jack Littlepage.

• W. Clarke Gibson was elected president of the Mining Association of BritishColumbia.

The above was taken from the March and April 1972 issues of CIM Bulletin.

CIM Distinguished Lecturers Program sponsored by:

Canadian Mining and Metallurgical Foundation

CIM EVENTSLuncheon of the CIM Calgary Branchwith Gerry Stephenson, independent resource consultant(guest speaker)April 11Calgary, AlbertaContact: Andrew HickinbothamTel.: 403.267.3891Email: [email protected]

33rd International Symposium on Application ofComputers and Operations in the Mineral IndustryApril 24-27Santiago, ChileContact: Olga Cherepanova, APCOM CoordinatorTel.: +56.2.652.1500/1519Fax: +56.2.652.1570Email: [email protected] [email protected]: www.apcom2007.com

Seminar of the CIM Montreal Branchwith Michael E. Karmis, Stonie Barker professor, Departmentof Mining and Mining and Minerals Engineering, and director,Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research, Virginia Tech(guest speaker) April 25Montreal, QuebecContact: Lise ChartrandTel./Fax: 514.425.5553Email: [email protected]

CIM Conference and Exhibition—Montreal 2007April 29-May 2Montreal, QuebecContact: Chantal Murphy, CIMTel.: 514.939.2710, ext. 1309Fax: 514.939.2714Email: [email protected]

Oil Sands Branch Student NightMay 16Fort McMurray, AlbertaContact: Christian WestTel.: 780.790.8860Email: [email protected]

The 46th Conference of Metallurgists (COM 2007)and the 6th International Copper/Cobre Conference(Cu2007) August 26-29Toronto, OntarioContact: Brigitte Farah, MetSoc of CIMTel.: 514.939.2710, ext. 1329Fax: 514.939.9160Email: [email protected]

World Gold 2007In conjunction with AusIMM and SAIMMOctober 22-24Cairns, AustraliaContact: Alison McKenzie, AusIMMTel.: +61.3.9662.3166Fax: +61.3.9662.3662 Email: [email protected]: www.ausimm.com

AROUND THE WORLDBriefing exécutif interne MadagascarApril 16-18Antananarive, MadagascarContact: José AlinoTél. : +27.27.700.3582Fax : +27.21.700.3501 Email: [email protected]: www.insider-briefings.com

16th Annual Mineral Economics and ManagementSociety Conference and WorkshopApril 18-20Golden, ColoradoContact: John Cuddington, co-chairTel.: 303.273.3150Email: [email protected]: www.minecon.com

Pyrometallurgy ‘07May 3-4Cornwall, United KingdomContact: B.A. WIllsTel.: +44.7768.234121Fax: +44.1326.318352Email: [email protected]: www.min-eng.com/conferences

Industry Summit on Mining Performance: ContinuousBusiness Process Improvement (BPI) in the Mining,Energy, and Extractive IndustriesMay 10-11Tucson, ArizonaContact: Kathy PollardTel.: 814.863.1738Email: [email protected]

IV International Copper Hydrometallurgy Workshop(HydroCopper 2007)May 16-18Viña del Mar, ChileContact: Fabiola BustamanteTel.: +56.02.652.1500Fax: +56.02.652.1570 Email: [email protected]: www.hydrocopper.cl

ALTA 2007 Nickel/Cobalt, Copper, and UraniumMay 21-25Perth, AustraliaContact: Alan TaylorTel.: +61.3.5472.4688Fax: +61.3.5472.4588 Email: [email protected]: www.altamet.com.au

1st Canada–US Rock Mechanics SymposiumMay 27-31Vancouver, British ColumbiaContact: Doug Stead, Simon Fraser UniversityTel.: 604.268.6670Fax: 604.291.4198Email: [email protected] CALE

NDA

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cim news

Le 29 janvier, laSection de Québec del’ICM recevait àl’Université Laval l’émi-nent conférencier del’ICM G. Ward Wilsonde University of BritishColumbia. MonsieurWilson nous a parlé dessystèmes de co-déposi-tion pour la gestion desrésidus miniers. Il aillustré le concept, lathéorie et la mise enapplication de systèmesde co-déposition pourla gestion à long termedes résidus miniers.Nous avons appris quela roche stérile et lesrésidus peuvent êtremélangés pour créerdes matériaux ayantd’excellentes propriétésphysiques ethydrauliques pour lafermeture des mines àlong terme.

Vingt-cinq personnes, assistaient à cette présentation suivie d’un buf-fet léger commandité par l’Association minière du Québec, Agnico-Eagle,Carrières Polycor, Corem, Gestion SODEMEX INC, Mines Virginia inc. etInstrumentation GDD. n


L’éminent conférencier G. Ward Wilson et Jean-MarcCharbonneau, président ICM-Section de Québec.

La Section de Québec reçoit un éminent conférencier

CIM Distinguished Lecturer G. Ward Wilson spoke to the QuebecBranch on January 29 about paste rock systems for mine waste manage-ment. His presentation focused on the concept, theory, and application ofpaste rock systems for long-term mine waste management. Participantslearned that waste rock and tailings could be combined to create materi-als with excellent physical and hydraulic properties for long-term mineclosure.

The event was sponsored by the Quebec Mining Association, Agnico-Eagle Mines, Carrières Polycor, Corem, Gestion SODÉMEX inc., MinesVirginia, and Instrumentation GDD. n

Wilson visits Quebec Branch

Awash in Steel?The Hamilton Branch hosted Peter Hall,

vice president and deputy chief economist,Export Development Canada, in earlyFebruary, and were treated to a global outlookon steel and other commodity markets for thecoming year or so.

Hall’s presentation, titled Awash in Steel?The Effect of China on Global Steel Markets,offered an EDC perspective of the steel mar-ket. He set the stage by explaining the inter-national growth context, then discussedglobal growth capacity and the impact of the“supply shock,” and the effects on the steelmarkets to date. Finally, he discussed China’sresponse to global demand and what futureimpacts on the steel markets are to beexpected.

Overall, the global slowdown is already inprocess, Hall explained. Though 2006 wasstill very hot, at 5.1 per cent growth, expecta-tions are for it to slow down to 4.3 per centgrowth for the current year. Corporate profitsand liquidity are still strong, but the risks arerising he said—global synchronization meansthe weakness spreads; however not likebefore. Regional economic and financial bal-ances have improved over the past threeyears, increasing resilience to possibleshocks.

Hall discussed the global oil industry, as itimpacts the steel markets. There are expecta-tions for modest price increases this year, butoverall steadiness should mean little majorimpact on the steel markets. The Canadiandollar, he said, is a petro-currency. Lower oiland base metal prices expected this year willweaken the dollar, to between 82 to 84 centsby year’s end.

Overall, the outlook suggests some futurechallenges for the steel markets. While pro-duction plans at large firms continue to riseaggressively, the quality of Chinese steel is ris-ing and authorities have not been able to reinin production. The world demand growth isslowing and the steel markets are threatenedby a potential over supply in the future.

The bottom line is that downward pricepressure on steel is expected for the next twoyears, and consolidations are likely to con-tinue. However, faster world growth pro-jected for 2008 and beyond would be a posi-tive development for steel. n

cim news

La Section de Québec passe au vote

Le lundi 19 février avaient lieu lesélections de l’exécutif de la Section deQuébec. Après l’Assemblée Généraleannuelle, Serge Lévesque, surinten-dant des services techniques, Agnico-Eagle–Division Goldex, nous aprésenté le projet Goldex. Uninvestissement de $176 million dans larégion de Val d’Or en Abitibi. Lestravaux de pré-production de cettenouvelle mine d’or souterraine ontdébuté à l’été 2005 et la mise en pro-duction est prévue dans la secondemoitié de 2008. Avec plus de 21 mil-lion de tonnes de réserves probables, àune teneur en or de 2.39 g/t, le défi aété de confirmer la teneur et la conti-nuité du gisement et d’établir uneméthode d’exploitation souterraineproductive avec un coût inférieur à$20 par tonne usinée. La productionatteindra un taux de 6900 tonnes parjour pour une production annuelle de160 000 à 185 000 onces d’or.

Vingt-cinq personnes assistaient àcette présentation commanditée parAgnico-Eagle, l’Association minière duQuébec, Carrières Polycor, COREM,Gestion SODÉMEX inc., InstrumentationGDD inc. et Mines Virginia inc. n

The votes are inFollowing the swearing in of the

new Quebec Branch executive at itsannual general meeting on February19, Serge Lévesque, technical servicessuperintendent, Agnico Eagle–GoldexDivision, discussed the Goldex project.Pre-production began in the summer of2005, and full production is expected in2008. Representing a $176 millioninvestment in the Val d’Or region,Goldex has 21 million tonnes of proba-

ble reserves at 2.39 grams per tonne ofgold. Production is expected to reach6,900 tonnes per day and generate160,000 to 185,000 ounces of goldannually.

The event was sponsored byAgnico-Eagle Mines, the QuebecMining Association, Carrières Polycor,Corem, Gestion SODÉMEX inc.,Instrumentation GDD, and MinesVirginia inc. n

René Del Villar, vice-président ICM-Section de Québec, Rock Gagnon, président, Marie Fortin, secré-taire, Sylvie Vachon, trésorière, Jean-Marc Charbonneau, président sortant et Raynald Vézina,directeur. Hors photo, François Huot, directeur.

Le président du Comité de nominations MarcConstantin remet un cadeau à la récipiendairede la “médaille 2007 de la Section deQuébec”, Guylaine Caron qui a été trésorièrede 2001 à 2007.

March/April 2007 67

L’ICM souhaite

le meilleur des succès

à la Semaine minière

au Québecdu 23 au 28 avril 2007

Merci à tous les membres

de l’ICM pour leur contribution.

CIM Conference and ExhibitionEnergy and MinesMontreal, Quebec | April 29 to May 2, 2007

AfricaProcurementSeminarOn Wednesday, an all-day specialevent will help link Canadian sup-pliers with African mine opera-tions. The Africa ProcurementSeminar will be an informativeopportunity to make valuable con-tacts with major operations inAfrica, who currently seek tech-nologies, equipment, andprocesses to improve their per-formance.

Presentations will be given byNRCan, Export DevelopmentCorporation (EDC) Canada,Xstrata Nickel (Kabanga nickelproject), Semafo, and BarrickGold. Following, one-on-onemeetings will be set up to facili-tate contact-building.

Learn from the leadersAlcan vice president to speak atWednesday lunchJacynthe Coté, senior vice president, Alcan Inc., and presidentand CEO, Alcan Bauxite and Alumina, is the keynote speakerfor the Wednesday lunch onsite at the Palais des congrès. Sheis renowned for her role in promoting and actualizing sustain-able practices for Alcan, and will share her insights on success-ful operations.

Wednesday is the last day of the conference, making the lunchthe last chance to network with other delegates and enjoy afinal, relaxing opportunity to share with colleagues. Make sureyou purchase your ticket upon registration, and don’t miss out!

A world of opportunityMining in SocietyThe Mining in Society show is back at Montreal, profiling min-ing through eight pavilions highlighting the major fields of theminerals industry. Open to the public, it’s an interactive experi-ence to improve public understanding of our industry, andattract young people to choose mineral-related careers.

Numerous companies and organizations are participating inMIS, showcasing the best our industry has to offer. Among thehighlights of the show are:

• Test your skills with a geophysical survey and find uranium,iron, and even gold

• Discover one of the oldest collections of minerals in Canadasupplied by the Redpath Museum

• Pick up a seedling grown at the Sudbury CVRD Inco under-ground mine

• Share the passion of the members of the MontrealGemmology Club

• Have a look at the medals the 2010 Vancouver Olympicswinners will proudly wear

• Do the Career Quiz and find the mining career best suitedfor you

Come to MIS and bring your friends and family. It’s guaranteedfun, and you might just learn something.


CIM Annual General MeetingCIM belongs to its members, and all are encouraged to attend the AGM onSunday morning to participate in the decision-making, helping to shapeyour Institute of the future. Meet the new president and learn about hisvision for a revitalized CIM. Discover your representatives on CIM Council,and be on top of new developments in the works for CIM this coming year.

CIM Student Poster

Competition

The wisdom of youthUniversity students are often involved in some of the most ground-breaking research.Top students from around the country will be participating in the CIM Student PosterCompetition, with posters of their work on display in the Exhibition. Stop by and learnfrom their work.

Enrich your conferenceexperience2007 CIM, SME, AusIMM,SAIMM, and McGillProfessional DevelopmentSeminar SeriesEnsure your trip to CIM Conference and Exhibition2007 has mega take-home value, and attend thefirst event in the professional series, MineralProject Evaluation Techniques and Applications:from conventional methods to real options, rightbefore the conference. It’s added value to your tripto Montreal. Go to www.cim.org/mcgill/index.cfmto learn more and register.

A wealth of informationCIM Booth onsite to guide youThe CIM Booth will be located across the lobby from reg-istration. Stop by and meet CIM staff face-to-face, whoare delighted to discuss what’s new with the industry.Hot-off-the-press publications, including the latest editionof Exploration and Mining Geology journal (Volume 15,Numbers 3 and 4); CIM Bulletin Technical Papers,February 2006 to January 2007 transactions volume;and the latest Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly (not tomention a sneak peak at the May issue of CIM Magazine,guaranteed to still be warm from the printing press), willall be on location for you to browse and purchase.

So much to do, so little time—learn about the CIMevents planned for the coming year. Well over 100events are hosted by CIM, its branches, and societiesannually. Stop by the booth to discover which ones willmake it into your calendar.

There’s always more to CIM—while onsite, it’s yourchance to learn about it.

Investigate your optionsat the CIM Career FairOver 30 companies will participate in theCIM Career Fair, eager to meet potentialemployees and discuss workplace issuesand career ambitions. Bring your resumeand get a jump-start on your career path.From students through professionals, theCIM Career Fair is open to you.

Want to learn more about the compa-nies you might join? Presentations bymany of the Career Fair companies willbe held, offering greater understandingof operations and workplace ethics.

CIM Career Fair ParticipantsAgrium Inc.AREVA Resources Canada Inc.BHP Billiton Diamonds Inc.Cameco CorporationCanadian Natural ResourcesCIM - Canadian Institute of Mining,

Metallurgy and PetroleumConstruction Kiewit CieCVRD Inco LimitedDe Beers Canada Inc.Elk Valley Coal CorporationHatch Associates Ltd.Hire Ground CareersIAMGOLD CorporationKinross GoldLafarge North AmericaLevert Personnel Resources Inc.Mines Agnico-EagleNorthgate Minerals Corporation -

Kemess MinesNovaGold Resources Inc.Phelps Dodge Mining CompanyQuebec Cartier Mining -

Compagnie Minière Québec CartierRaymond Chabot Ressources

Humaines inc.RIO Tinto: QIT, IOC, QMP, DiavikSEMAFO Inc.Shell CanadaSNC Lavalin Inc.Suncor Energy Inc.Syncrude Canada Ltd.Teck Cominco LimitedTotal E & P CanadaXstrata NickelXstrata Zinc

March/April 2007 69

Congrès et Salon commercial de l’ICMÉnergie et minesMontréal, Québec | 29 avril au 2 mai 2007

Colloque sur lesapprovisionne mentsen AfriqueDurant toute la journée de mer-credi, un événement spécialaidera à établir des liens entre lesfournisseurs canadiens et lesexploitants de mines africaines.Le Colloque sur les approvision-nements en Afrique représenteune occasion informative d’établirdes contacts avec les grandesexploitations en Afrique; cesexploitations recherchent destechnologies, des équipements etdes procédés pour améliorer leurrendement.

RNCan, Exportation etdéveloppement Canada (EDC),Xstrata Nickel (projet de nickelKabanga), Semafo et la Sociétéaurifère Barrick offriront desprésentations. Il sera possibled’établir des rencontres individu-elles afin de faciliter les contacts.

Apprenez des maîtresUne vice-présidente d’Alcan prononcera une conférence lors du déjeuner de mercrediJacynthe Coté, présidente et chef de la direction, Alcan Bauxiteet Alumine, prononcera le discours lors du déjeuner de mercrediau Palais des Congrès. Elle est reconnue pour son rôle à pro-mouvoir et à mettre en œuvre des pratiques durables chezAlcan; elle partagera ses points de vue pour réussir en exploita-tion minière.

Le mercredi est le dernier jour du congrès; le déjeunerreprésente donc la dernière chance d’échanger avec d’autrescongressistes et de vous détendre en partageant avec des col-lègues. N’oubliez pas d’acheter votre billet lors de l’inscription;ne manquez pas cette occasion unique !

Un monde de possibilitésLes mines dans la sociétéL’événement Les mines dans la société est de retour, àMontréal cette fois-ci, illustrant le monde minier dans huit pavillonsqui soulignent les principaux domaines de l’industrie minérale.Cette expérience interactive ouverte au public a comme objectifd’améliorer la compréhension de notre industrie et d’amener desjeunes à choisir des carrières reliées au domaine minéral.

Plusieurs compagnies et organisations participent à l’événe-ment Les mines dans la société; elles montrent ce que l’indus-trie offre de mieux. Parmi les points saillants, notons :

• Effectuez un levé géophysique et découvrez de l’uranium, dufer et qui sait de l’or

• Admirez l’une des plus vieilles collections de minéraux auCanada fournie par le Musée Redpath

• Recevez un semis provenant des serres souterraines deCVRD-Inco à Sudbury

• Partagez la passion des membres du Club de gemmologiede Montréal

• Voyez les médailles que les gagnants aux Olympiques de2010 à Vancouver porteront avec fierté

• Remplissez le jeu-questionnaire Carrières et découvrezvotre carrière de rêve dans le secteur minier

Venez parcourir l’exposition Les mines dans la société, amenezvotre famille et vos amis. Le plaisir est garanti et, qui sait, vousapprendrez peut-être quelque chose de nouveau.


Réunion générale annuelle de l’ICML’ICM appartient à ses membres et tous sont encouragés à assister àla réunion générale annuelle le dimanche matin afin de participer à laprise de décisions, aidant ainsi à façonner l’avenir de votre Institut.Rencontrez le nouveau Président et découvrez ses perspectives derevitalisation de l’ICM. Venez découvrir et rencontrer vos représen-tants au Conseil d’administration de l’ICM; demeurez à l’avant-gardedes nouveaux développements pour l’année à venir.

Compétitionétudiante de

communicationspar affiche

de l’ICM

La sagesse de la jeunesseLes étudiants universitaires sont souvent impliqués dans des projets de recherchedes plus avant-gardistes. Les meilleurs étudiants au pays participeront à laCompétition étudiante de communications par affiche de l’ICM; les affiches présen-tant leurs travaux seront installées dans le Salon commercial. Venez découvrir lesnouveautés à travers leurs travaux.

Enrichissez votre expériencedu CongrèsICM 2007, SME, AusIMM, SAIMM et la série de Colloques sur ledéveloppement professionnel offerte par l’Université McGillAssurez-vous de retirer le plus possible du Congrès et Saloncommercial de l’ICM 2007 en participant, tout juste avant lecongrès, au premier colloque de la série : « Techniques d’éva -luation de projets minéraux et applications pratiques : desméthodes conventionnelles aux véritables options » (enanglais). Vous retirerez encore plus de votre voyage àMontréal. Visitez le www.cim.org/mcgill/index.cfm pour plus dedétails et pour vous inscrire.

Un monde d’informationsStand de l’ICM sur place pour vous aiderLe stand de l’ICM sera situé face à l’inscription, de l’autre côté du foyer.Venez rencontrer le personnel de l’ICM; nous serons heureux de dis-cuter avec vous des nouveautés de l’industrie. Des publications les plusrécentes vous attendent : les nos 3 et 4 du Volume 15 du Explorationand Mining Geology, le Journal de la Société de la géologie de l’ICM, levolume comprenant février 2006 à janvier 2007 des CIM BulletinTechnical Papers et la plus récente édition du Canadian MetallurgicalQuarterly (sans oublier un coup d’œil sur le numéro de mai du CIMMagazine, encore tout chaud); vous pourrez consulter et vous procurertout cela et plus encore.

Tant à faire en si peu de temps—découvrez les événements que l’ICM pla -nifie pour la prochaine année. L’ICM, ses sections et ses sociétés planifientplus d’une centaine d’événements par année. Arrêtez nous voir pour savoirlesquels inscrire à votre agenda.

Il y a toujours du nouveau à l’ICM—profitez d’être sur place pour décou-vrir ce que nous offrons.

Analyser vos options auSalon de l’emploi ICMPlus de 30 compagnies participeront au Salonde l’emploi ICM; ces entreprises seront des plusheureuses de rencontrer des employés poten-tiels et de discuter avec vous de questions detravail et de vos ambitions de carrière. Apportezvotre CV et prenez une longueur d’avance survotre cheminement de carrière. Étudiants et pro-fessionnels, ce Salon de l’emploi est pour vous.

Vous voulez peut-être en savoir plus sur lacompagnie pour laquelle vous désirez tra-vailler? Les compagnies inscrites au Salon descarrières présenteront des exposés duranttout le congrès afin que vous puissiez mieuxconnaître comment elles fonctionnent et quelssont leurs codes d’éthique.

Participants au Salon de l’emploi ICMAgrium Inc.AREVA Resources Canada Inc.BHP Billiton Diamonds Inc.Cameco CorporationCanadian Natural ResourcesConstruction Kiewit CieCVRD Inco LimitedDe Beers Canada Inc.Elk Valley Coal CorporationHatch Associates Ltd.Hire Ground CareersIAMGOLD CorporationICMKinross GoldLafarge North AmericaLevert Personnel Resources Inc.Mines Agnico-EagleNorthgate Minerals Corporation -

Kemess MinesNovaGold Resources Inc.Phelps Dodge Mining CompanyQuebec Cartier Mining -

Compagnie Minière Québec CartierRaymond Chabot Ressources Humaines inc.RIO Tinto: QIT-Fer et Titane, IOC, QMP, DiavikSEMAFO Inc.Shell CanadaSNC Lavalin Inc.Suncor Energy Inc.Syncrude Canada Ltd.Teck Cominco LimitedTotal E & P CanadaXstrata NickelXstrata Zinc

March/April 2007 71


historyTHE BASALT CONTROVERSY II(Part 16)by R.J. “Bob” Cathro, Chemainus, British Columbia

In addition to the geologists cited within the text, Ashworth (2004), Dean (1998), andan anonymous writer provided valuable background information on Werner.

Abraham Gottlob Werner (1749-1817) had been appointed in 1774, at the age of 25, toteach mining and mineralogy at the Mining Academy (Bergakademie) in Freiberg, where

he remained until his death. Located in the heart of the mainEuropean metal mining district, the academy had been founded

in 1766, after at least 70 years of operation as a trade school.Its main purpose was to train mining engineers, assayers,

metallurgists, and mine managers and, as an additionalbenefit, to expose them to new ideas in the emergingscience of geology.

Born in Wehrau in what is now southern Poland,Werner was a childhood mineral collector who wassent to Freiberg to learn how to be an ironworksmanager like his father. After short stints with theSaxon mining service and law studies at theUniversity of Leipzig, he became interested in geol-ogy, which he called ‘geognosy’ (a comprehensive

theory to explain the temporal deposition and struc-tural relations of the earth’s major rock units). The

academy position afforded Werner the opportunity todevelop into the most influential teacher of mining and

geology of his generation; he was often referred to as the‘father of German geology’ and ‘the father of mineralogy.’ Wernerhimself had given the latter title to Agricola.

In the words of Lyell (1830-33), “In a few years, a small school of mines, beforeunheard of in Europe, was raised to the rank of a great university and men already dis-tinguished in science studied the German language, and came from the most distantcountries to hear the great oracle of geology.” Dibner (1958) wrote “he imbued theschool of mines … with a spirit of investigation and critical analysis of the geologicalworld previously unknown. … His (study) of the rocks of the Harz Mountains estab-lished geological classification. He put mining geology on a scientific basis. … (His min-eral) collection made Freiberg one of the great mining centres of mining engineering.From the academy issued a steady stream of disciples of Werner.”

Mineralogy was Werner’s primary research interest and he developed a superiordescriptive classification system based on mineral composition. He was credited withexpanding the mineral collection, of which he was curator, to more than 10,000 speci-mens and helping create the best library and museum on the subject. In addition, he dis-covered eight new minerals and named 26 others. His lectures on mineralogy were sopopular that he often had to split the class into smaller groups and deliver them severaltimes. Much of his influence was due to his strong personality. Some of his studentswrote of his penetrating mind with a rich store of knowledge, and his charm and elo-quence that attracted and kindled enthusiasm among his students. Some described himas the most outstanding geologist in Europe, and credited him with elevating geology tothe rank of a real science. It is odd that an influential teacher like Werner had a seriousaversion to publication, and that most of what is known about his teaching has comefrom the writings of his students.

“When I returned to Freiberg in1775, I found the system of thevulcanists, and ... the volcanic

origin of basalt, generallyaccepted. The novelty andinteresting features of this

theory along with the superiorart of persuasion of its

defenders and, to a certainextent, the persuasiveness or

glamor of the matter itselfsoon procured for it an

unusual number ofadherents. ... Until I myself

could make observationsconcerning it, I considered

the correctness of the theoryto be established. ... In 1776, I

visited and observed the mostfamous Saxon basalt mountain,the one at Stolpen. Here I found

not even a trace of volcanicaction or the least sign of

volcanic origin. Indeed the entireinterior structure of the

mountain completely proved tothe contrary. Now I first daredto maintain publicly and prove

that not all basalt, at least,could be of volcanic origin andthat the Stolpen basalt, among

others, undoubtedly was not. ...After further mature

investigation and reflection, Iam of the opinion that no basaltis of volcanic origin, but that all

of it is of aqueous origin ...”(Werner, 1786).

Abraham Gottlob Werner

March/April 2007 73

economic geology

In addition to mineralogy, he also gave lectures on min-ing law and finance, and he and his colleague, J.F.W.Charpentier, were the first geologists to develop the conceptof mineral paragenesis. They divided the complex vein min-eralogy in the Freiberg camp into 11 groupings based onmineral associations and strike directions (Baumann, 1994).Werner was elected to 22 international scientific societies.

With such an eminent reputation as a mineralogist andteacher, as well as his strong personality, it would be natu-ral to assume that Werner must be one of the principal fig-ures in the history of economic geology. Unfortunately,nothing could be farther from the truth. Werner’s downfallwas caused by the use of his vast influence to espouse inac-curate theories on the origin of basalt and mineralizedveins. His troubles with basalt began with his 1766 visit tothe Stolpen Castle, described earlier, which rests upon andwas partly constructed from an exposure of columnarbasalt. It is situatedin Saxony, about 35kilometres east ofDresden and 85 kilo-metres northeast ofFreiberg. A subse-quent examinationof the summit of theScheibenberg in theErz Mountains,where basalt is inter-layed withgreywacke, sand-stone, and clay, alsoled to a sedimentaryinterpretation for thebasalt (Sigurdsson,1999, p. 117).

The outcrop hadalso been examined by Agricola,which should qualify it for inclusionon any list of the most historicallyimportant outcrops in the world. Hegave the name basalt to the Stolpenoutcrop because he believed it to bethe same rock that Pliny the Elder hadcalled basalt (Pliny’s rock was actuallya limestone.) Agricola described theangular columns, up to 0.5 metresthick and 4.3 metres long, in ChapterVII (Marbles and Rocks) of his bookDe Natura Fossilium (‘Textbook ofMineralogy’) in 1546. There is someevidence to suggest that Agricola did-n’t understand that basalt was a vol-canic rock, so it is possible that callingthe outcrop by the correct name mayhave been a coincidence.

Incidentally, he dedicated the book to “the illustriousDuke of Saxony and of Thuringia and Misena (a medievalname for Erzgebirge), Prince Maurice.” The prince hadappointed Agricola as Burgomaster (mayor) of Chemnitz,also in 1546. The book contains this classic sentence: “Thephilosopher takes pleasure in the contemplation of the natureof these compounds while the miner takes pleasure in the profitand use he obtains from the metals he extracts from them.”

Werner, who never travelled far from home and didn’tvisit the Auvergne district of France or the Italian volca-noes, arrived at his fateful conclusion about basalt at thesame time that the French geologists Guettard, Desmarest,and Lavoisier were demonstrating the link between basalt,volcanoes, heat, and magma, and by inference, the origin ofmetals (see Part 15). Although his field work at Stolpen hasto rank as one of the poorest field interpretations ever madeby a prominent geologist, the damage was particularly seri-

ous, in this case, because of the numberof prominent disciples he had influ-enced—geologists such as Leopold vonBuch, Alexander von Humboldt, Jeand’Aubuisson de Voisins, Frederick Mohs,and Robert Jameson, all born between1769 and 1774.

Werner’s other serious mistake was inhis vigorous support of the ‘universalformation,’ the theory that the worldwas mantled by rocks that had beendeposited as sediment or precipitatefrom a universal ocean following the‘Great Deluge.’ Because of his immenseprestige, he became the leader of theNeptunists. According to the theory, thecores of the highest mountains, whichhad reached above the floodwaters, werecomposed of the oldest rocks: granite,gneiss, and schist. The sediments werelaid down in the same sequence aroundthe world, first chemical and clastic sed-iments and basalt, followed by alluvialmaterial and, finally, lava derivedthrough the melting of other rocks bythe combustion of subterranean beds ofcoal (Merrill, 1969, p. 3). It was believedthat all rocks had been laid down in theattitudes in which they were found,unless the dips exceeded 30°. The onlypositive thing that can be said for thetheory was that it was an early attemptto construct a stratigraphic column.

As part of the Neptunist theory,Werner taught that veins were formed asopen fissures caused by the compactionof sediments and were then filledthrough infiltration of surface waters

A castle on basalt at Stolpen, by Scipione Breislak (1748-1826).Institutiones géologiques. Milan: Imprimerie impériale et royale,1818. Reproduced with permission of the Linda Hall Library ofScience, Engineering & Technology.

Columnar basalt below the Stolpen Castle(2005). Photo courtesy of Ingersoll.

economic geology


carrying the mineral matter in solution. His principal pub-lication was A New Theory of the Origin of Veins (1791),which was translated into English in 1805. The idea thatminerals had descended from the seafloor led to the con-clusion that all veins would decrease in grade and thicknessand end at a shallow depth (Baumann, 1994). These ideas

gained wide acceptance because of his reputation and thesupport of the church, which believed that they conformedto the book of Genesis. However, Werner was not a biblicalgeologist who used the authority of the church to reach hisconclusions.

From the perspective of economic geology, Werner didnot contribute anything useful to the study of the genesis ofore deposits, and history has not been kind to him. Only hismineralogical research was of original or lasting quality.

The first serious challenge to Werner’s reputation camefrom Lyell (1830-33), who criticized his poor publicationrecord, his lack of travel, his universal formation theory,and his retrograde influence on the science. A summary andcritique of recent efforts by A.M. Ospovat, emeritus profes-sor of the History of Science at the University of Oklahoma,to emphasize Werner’s other contributions and resurrect hisreputation is provided by Sengör (2002).In the words ofGarrison (1913), “It has been assumed for years thatWerner was the father of our modern theories of ore depo-sition. Although Werner had the advantage of writing twohundred and forty years later, Agricola’s observations anddeductions are sounder and more in harmony with modernviews. In fact, it seems that the theories regarding ore dep-osition not only failed to improve in the long interval of thenineteenth century, but they actually retrograded, and thestudent’s mind was filled with rubbish which would havebeen repudiated by Agricola.” Posepny (1893) stated itmore diplomatically: “As for the manner in which fissureshave been filled, Werner’s theory, based upon a compara-tively limited field of observation, has, like many of his nep-tunistic views, failed to maintain itself.” James Kemp(1920) called his ideas “quaint and curious.”

Abraham Werner serves as a classic example of howdangerous an influential but dogmatic scientist can bewithout adequate field testing and peer review. Althoughhe was a great pioneer mineralogist and classifier of data,his reputation as a scientist was gravely damaged by histendency to make the field evidence conform to his pre-conceived theories. n

REFERENCES

Agricola, G. (1546). De Natura Fossilium (Textbook ofMineralogy). Basel: Froben Press. Translated from the firstLatin edition in 1955 by M.C. Bandy and J.A. Bandy asGeological Society of America Special Paper 63. Mineola,New York: Dover Publications, Inc. (2004).

Anonymous. Abraham Gottlob Werner (1750-1817).Retrieved August 8, 2003, from www.nahste.ac.uk/isaar/GB_0237_NAHSTE_P0352.html.

Ashworth, W.B., Jr. (2004). Vulcan’s Forge and Fingal’s Cave:volcanoes, basalt, and the discovery of geological time.Kansas City: Linda Hall Library of Science, Engineeringand Technology. Also available at www.lindahall.org/events_exhib/exhibit/exhibits/vulcan/about.shtml.

Baumann, L. (1994). Ore parageneses of the Erzgebirge—history, results and problems. Monograph Series on MineralDeposits, 31, 25-46.

Dean, D.R. (1998). Plutonists, Neptunists, Vulcanists. InG.A. Good (Ed.), Sciences of the Earth: an encyclopedia ofevents, people, and phenomena (pp. 691-695). New York:Garland Publishing, Inc.

Dibner, B. (1958). Agricola on metals. Norwalk: BurndyLibrary.

Garrison, F.L. (1913). Agricola: an appreciation. Miningand Scientific Press, August 9.

Kemp, J.A. (1920). Reminiscences. In T.A. Rickard (Ed.),Rossiter Wothington Raymond: a Memorial (p. 49). NewYork: The American Institute of Mining and MetallurgicalEngineers.

Lyell, C., Sir (1830-1833). Principles of geology, ChapterIV. Retrieved July 25, 2006, from www.fordham.edu/hal-sall/mod/lyel-geology3-4.html.

Merrill, G.P. (1969). The first one hundred years ofAmerican geology. New York: Hafner Publishing Company.

Posepny, F. (1893). The genesis of ore-deposits. In R.W.Raymond (Ed.), The genesis of ore-deposits, second edition(p. 4). New York: The American Institute of MiningEngineers.

Sengör, A.M.C. (2002). On Sir Charles Lyell’s alleged dis-tortion of Abraham Gottlob Werner in Principles ofGeology and its implications for the nature of the scien-tific enterprise. The Journal of Geology, 110, 355-368.

Sigurdsson, H. (1999). Melting the earth: the history ofideas on volcanic eruptions. New York: Oxford UniversityPress.

Werner, A.G. (1786). Short classification and description ofthe various rocks. Translated by Alexander Ospovat in1971 from the original German text. New York: HafnerPublishing Company.

His lectures on mineralogy were so popular that he often had to split the class into smaller groups and deliverthem several times.

metallurgy

INTRODUCTION

In 711 AD, Muslims from North Africa crossed theStraits of Gibraltar and conquered most of Christian Visig-othic Spain. Confrontations between Muslims and Berbersallowed Abd Al-Rahman I to come to the throne of theOmmiad dynasty in 756 and gain political independence ofAl-Andalus from Baghdad. In 929, religious independencewas also achieved when Abd Al-Rahman III proclaimedhimself the Caliph of Cordova. With this victory, theOmmiads sought to consolidate the commercial routes inthe western Mediterranean, thus securing the gold supplyfrom North Africa. Cordova, the capital city of Caliphate,reached 100,000 inhabitants and became the most impor-tant metropolis at that time. It became a great cultural,industrial, and mining centre, especially when Caliph Al-Hakam II ascended the throne in 961.

Breaking up the Caliphate into small territories called“taifas” (party) took place at the beginning of the 11th century.Their weakness allowed the northern Christian States torecover some territory. In 1085, the Almoravides from NorthAfrica brought about re-unification of the territories; however,in the 12th century, they weredefeated by the Christians in Spainand by the Almohades in NorthAfrica. The Almohades were a reli-gious reformist movement from theAtlas Mountains in Morocco whooccupied Seville in 1147, conqueredthe southeast part of Spain in 1172,and had an important economic andmining development under theirrule. Meanwhile, the Spanish Chris-tian territories joined together in theHoly Alliance and defeated the Mus-lims in the Navas de Tolosa battle in1212. At the end of the 13th century,the territory occupied by the Mus-lims was reduced to the Granadakingdom, which was captured bythe Catholic monarchs Ferdinandand Isabella in 1492.

The Muslims stayed in Spainfor about seven centuries, and

made important contributions to science and culture.Numerous Arabic words and toponyms related to miningare preserved in the Spanish language such as almaden(mine). This is the case of some Spanish towns likeAlmaden and Almadenejos (Ciudad Real), Almaden de laPlata (Seville), Almada (near Lisbon), and the hill of theAlmadenes in Otero de Herreros (Segovia). Some othermetallurgical words are algaraviz (iron tube placed in thenozzle of fan blowers), aljez (gypsum) as in the town LosAlgezares (Murcia), alfoli or alfoz (salt storage) as in thetown Alfaz del Pi (Alicante), almagre (red iron ore) as inSierra Almagrera (Almeria), Almagro (Ciudad Real) orAlmagreira (Portugal), azogue (mercury) as in the Valdea-zogues River (Ciudad Real), atutia (zinc sulfate), azofar(brass), ceni (fine brass), azaque (gold-based legal tax),aludel (ceramic piping in distillation furnaces), etc. Some ofthese words are often incorporated into the Spanish lan-guage as found in an 18th century almagre mill in Olvega(Soria), or in the aludel furnaces found in Almaden fromthe 17th to 20th centuries.

There are also a good deal of bibliographic sources byhistorians, poets, and geographers who introduced mining

Muslim Mining in the IberianPeninsula (Part I)by O. Puche Riart, L.F. Mazadiego Martínez, and P. Kindelán Echevarria, Mining Engineering School, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid

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Map showing Muslim mining locations in Iberia.

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or metallurgical data in Spanish history.Such is the case of Ibn Hawqal in the 10thcentury; Ahmed Ben Isa Al-Arrazi, knownas the Rasis, at the end of the 10th cen-tury; Al Biruni and Ibn Hazim in the 11thcentury; the geographer Az Zuhri fromAlmeria, and the geographer and doctor,Al Idrisi, from Ceuta in the 12th century;Chihab-eddin Ahmed Ben Yahya (died in1348), and the last of the great SpanishMuslim historians, Ibri Al Khatib, born inLoja (Granada) in the 14th century; andmany others. There are also compilationsof works on Spanish Muslim mining,such as those of the French historiansFagan (1924), Levi Provenzal (1950),Abdalla Ibn Ibrahim El Omeir (1991),and Vallvé Bermejo (1995), as well asarcheological studies by mining engineerCarbonell (1929) and by Cressier, Cossin,and others.

MINING

Muslims usually re-worked mines thathad been abandoned by the Romans.Archaeological excavations show themethods of exploitation and the toolsused. Carbonell (1929) mentioned thechamber and pillars in extracting themoulding sand underlying the Miocenelimestone in the Palacios de la Galiana inCordova. Iron tools, such as hammers,picks, pitching tools, chisels, liners,bedes, etc. were common. Lighting wasprovided by the Arabic oil lamp. Some of

these lamps from Rio Tinto mines in Huelva arepreserved at the Madrid School of Mining Engi-neering; others were found by Carbonell in themines of Villaviciosa, Belalcazar, and Cerro Muri-ano in Cordova. Drainage was done by daydrift ifthe orography permitted it or, in some miningsites, through bucket chain elevators made of pot-tery, as they appeared in small earthenware jars inBarranco de Mirabuenos mine (Villaviciosa, Cor-dova).

Gypsum (aljez), together with brick and stone,were often used in building. Around the area ofAlgezares (Murcia), shaft furnaces that were usedto dehydrate gypsum are still known as Moorishfurnaces. Lime was obtained in furnaces of simi-lar structure. White marble from Macael (Alme-ria) or the red marble from Bacares (Almeria)

Muslim oil lamps from the mines of Rio Tinto: a) Almohade oil lamp (about 1170-1190); b) Ommiad oil lamp 11th century; c) Almoravide oil lamp (1120-1130); d) oil lamp from CaliphatePeriod (about 930)

a) b)

c) d)

Mining tools from archaelogical sites in Los Vascos, Toledo, Spain (Cossin, 1996)


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were highly sought after. Talc and magnesium wereexploited in Andalusia. Salt was exploited in the minesaround the area of Remolinos (Zaragoza) and in Espartinas(Madrid), where Arabic pottery was found near the pithead.Salt was also produced in coastal saltworks in the area of LaMata and Torrevieja (Alicante), Ibiza (Baleares), Roquetas(Almeria), Motril (Granada), and the bay of Cadiz, as well

as in some Portuguese estuaries. The salted shafts of Loja(Granada) were exploited in the Nazari territory, those ofthe mountains of Las Salinas near Ronda (Malaga), andthose of Mala (from the Arabic “mallaha,” meaning saltmine), as salt exploitation and sale were a royal monopolyof the dynasty. Salt was a necessity for the food industry(e.g. cheese manufacture and cattle raising).

Al ‘Udri, an 11th century geographer from Almeria,mentioned asphalt exploitation in the outskirts of Sigüenza(Guadalajara). Asphalt was used for caulking (from Arabic“qalfat”) ships and as a weapon in the form of Greek fire. Inthe archaeological museum of Murcia (Spain), there is aMuslim furnace that produces glazed pottery. Copper saltswere employed for green or blue pottery, chromium salts foryellow pottery, and cobalt salts for dark blue pottery. Uten-sils made from this type of pottery are still manufactured inUbeda (Jaen) according to the Spanish-Muslim tradition.Alum (jebe) was extracted in Cabo de Gata (Almeria) andthe area of Niebla (Huelva), and was mostly used as a mor-dant in dyeing. Saltpetre was used to manufacture gunpow-der for military purposes in the battle of Aledo (Murcia).

Thanks to Arabic literature, we know some of the placeswhere semiprecious and other stones were obtained: forexample, the little red rubies from Montemayor (Cordova),the Lapis lazuli from Lorca (Murcia), the garnets from theSulmo mine near Sintra (Portugal) as well as from the Gra-natillas stream in Almeria (Spain), the beryl (Balur, fromwhich the Spanish word “abalario” comes) from Cabra(Cordova) and Evora (Portugal), the jet black from the lig-nite basin in Utrillas (Teruel), the agates from the GataCape (Almeria), and the variscites from Palezuelos(Zamora). The name of this province might come from theArabic Word “zabarah” meaning emerald. Other semi-precious stones were amber-gris from the coast of Cadiz,red coral from Vera (Almeria), pearls (aljofar) from theMediterranean coasts, magnetite (magnet stone) fromCehegin (Murcia), the Jewish stone from Alpuente Castle(Valencia), and marcasites from Ubeda (Jaen). n

Muslim miners: a) 13th century (National Library, Paris); b) 14th century(University of Edinburgh, UK).

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INDUSTRY KNOWLEDGE

Mining engineering education in developing countries: the case of IranH. Memarian

Factors affecting adhesive strength of different thin spray-on linersH. Ozturk and D.D. Tannant

Innovative use of SMART cable bolt data through numerical back analysis for interpretation of post failure rock mass propertiesJ.J. Crowder, W.F. Bawden, and A.L. Coulson

New technlogy for the abatment of SO2 in non-ferrous pyrometallurgicalprocesses by a dry scrubber I. Wilkomirsky, F. Parada, and R. Parra

The Noranda continuous converter at Xstrata Copper, Rouyn-Noranda—optimization of slag chemistryP. Coursol, P.J. Mackey, Y. Prévost, and M. Zamalloa

Peer reviewed by leaders in their fields

YOUR

GUIDETO

Complete papers are posted in the CIM Bulletinsection of the online Technical Paper Library

www.cim.org78 CIM Magazine n Vol. 2, N° 2

Mining engineering education in developing countries: the case of Iran

In the last few decades, many developing countries havetried to expand and improve upon higher education, which isacknowledged to be the leading factor for development. Inthis respect, they significantly increased the number of terti-ary institutions and their students. These rapid expansions,along with all the benefits, have drawbacks as well. An exam-ple is the status of mining engineering education in Iran. Thispaper presents the results of research carried out for the Min-istry of Industries and Mines of Iran in 1999-2000.

Since the revolution of 1979, Iran has been developing acentralized higher education system. In recent years, differentareas of reform have been suggested, providing incentives forpublic institutions to diversify sources of funding and redefinethe role of government in higher education. During this time,there has been expansion of higher education institutes anda significant increase in the number of mining engineeringstudents and graduates.

In Iran, admission to post-secondary institutions requirespassing a national entrance examination; only a portion ofthe huge number of applicants pass this barrier. Although allIranian universities work at full capacity, the demand for post-secondary education far exceeds availability.

Currently, the two main accredited B.Sc. level miningengineering programs in Iran are exploration and extraction.Exploration, extraction, mineral processing, rock mechanics,petroleum exploration, and exploitation are the six accreditedMaster’s programs in mining engineering. A PhD program inmining is relatively recent in Iran, with the first graduateentering the job market after the year 2000. Currently, themining engineering curriculum of Iran is significantly influ-enced by similar programs in Canada, the United States, theUnited Kingdom, and Australia.

For the past few decades, state-operated mines andagencies in Iran have been the main source of jobs for miningengineering graduates. Since 2000, the trend to privatizationof the Iranian mining industry has been accelerated. In 1999,of the 2,436 operating mines, 2,027 were run by the privatesector, excluding sand and gravel, decorative stones, and rub-ble stone mines. So far, most of the private mines are rela-tively small in size, with no full-time mining engineer incharge.

H. Memarian, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

The obstacle for mining engineering education in adeveloping country like Iran is different from those of theindustrialized world. Declines in first-year registration and thelack of funding, especially from government, are the twomajor pitfalls of mining education in most western countries.The consequences of these trends are the closure of somedepartments and layoff of faculty members and support staff.In Iran, in spite of the recent expansion of higher education,the number of applicants still far exceeds the available seats,and mining departments continue to employ new facultymembers.

Currently, the number of active mining engineeringdepartments in Iran (27) is more than the sum of similardepartments in Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, andSouth Africa (23 altogether). Also, the annual number of min-ing graduates in Iran (645) is more than the cumulative grad-uates of the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, andAustralia (613). The country’s motivation for development andthe excessive number of high school graduates, which is theresult of high population growth in the early 1980s, are thetwo prime factors influencing the significant expansion ofmining engineering education in Iran.

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Institutions active in mining engineering education in selected countries in2000

Factors affecting adhesive strength of different thin spray-on liners

Thin spray-on liners, a new form of rock support, arereceiving increasing attention by various mines around theworld. Various liner materials are currently being developedand tested. They can be generically classified as multi-compo-nent polymeric materials and have applications as a replace-ment for either wire mesh or shotcrete. Where adequateadhesive bond to a substrate exists, thin spray-on liners havethe potential to transfer or carry the dead weight of looserock in contact with liners to stable or unfractured rock sur-faces that also maintain liner contact. This paper examinesfactors that can affect the adhesive strength between a linerand rock surface, including choice of liner material and rocksubstrate.

The test method is a slight modification of other meth-ods that have been used for thin spray-on liners and is basedon direct pull-off of a 33 mm diameter elevator bolt that isaffixed to a liner using a strong epoxy. The liner is over-coredusing a 35 mm diameter, thin-wall diamond-coring bit. Theelevator bolt is then glued to the liner using a two-componentepoxy. After the epoxy sets, the test specimen is clamped to atensile loading machine and the elevator bolt is pulled at arate of 2 mm/min., until the specimen fails. This results inspecimen failure within 60 seconds of application of the load.The adhesive strength is calculated by dividing the maximummeasured load by the over-core area.

Adhesion tests were conducted to assess the impact onadhesion of the presence of oil, water, and dust on a sub-strate, and the roughness and grain size of different sub-strates. Other factors, such as curing time, loading rate, andliner thickness, were also considered. Most tests were per-formed using Tekflex as the liner material, although five otherliner products were also tested. Adhesion tests on five otherliner products showed an order of magnitude range in adhe-sive strengths between 0.2 and over 2.4 MPa. Some linerproducts are weak in tension and give low adhesivestrengths. This will likely preclude their use in rock supportapplications.

Adhesive strengths of about 2 MPa can be achievedwith Tekflex under optimal conditions. Other liner productswere either relatively weak in tension and gave lower adhe-sive strengths compared to Tekflex, or had adhesive strengthsthat were similar or higher than Tekflex. A product for use asa thin spray-on liner for rock support applications probablyrequires a tensile strength greater than about 2 to 3 MPa.Good adhesion to a substrate requires even higher liner ten-sile strength. Where the rock surface is contaminated withdust or the rock is weak in tension, it may be difficult to reachadhesion strengths of 1 to 1.5 MPa. Based on the perform-ance of different substrates, it appears that the rock’s tensilestrength probably needs to exceed 2 MPa to ensure goodadhesion.

Long-term creep tests showed that the adhesivestrength could drop by at least 50% when the liner carriesload for about a month. As the thickness of the linerincreases, the adhesive strength to a substrate also decreases.These laboratory test results have implications for liner designin the field, in that design values for adhesion probably needto be significantly reduced from those measured by the vari-ous adhesion tests that have been used to date. This newinsight on lower adhesion associated with long-term sus-tained loading and thicker liners warrants further investiga-tion to assess whether this phenomenon holds true underfield conditions.

Adhesive strengths for Tekflex versus time to failure after application of theload

H. Ozturk, MineFill Services, Inc., Vancouver, British Columbia, andD.D. Tannant, School of Mining and Petroleum Engineering,University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta

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Innovative use of SMART cable bolt data throughnumerical back analysis for interpretation of post-failure rock mass properties

A significant component of underground mining costsstems from ground support in the form of rock bolts, meshand screen, cable bolts, and shotcrete. Should any of this sup-port approach or reach failure (stripped or broken cable bolts,severe bagging of screen, large numbers of broken rock bolts,etc.), the support needs to be rehabilitated. This rehabilitationis often much more expensive than the initial support instal-lation, due not just to the cost of the support, but to loss ofaccess, downtime of that area of the mine, potential forinjuries, and possible lost mining revenues. Many mines useinstrumentation in critical infrastructure, such as haulagedrifts, crusher stations, intersections, etc., to monitor the dis-placement of the backs and/or walls, support loads, etc. Datais generally collected by hand from time to time and enteredinto a database, but is analyzed only if there is a problem (i.e.reactive engineering). Most mines today also utilize numericalmodelling. These models, normally linear-elastic, are often notup to date, and modelling is often done only in reaction to aproblem.

In certain cases, modelling of the underground miningenvironment requires software packages that employ non-lin-ear constitutive models (i.e. models that allow for failure tooccur). Linear-elastic models unrealistically allow for stressesto build up far beyond those at failure and, hence, do notredistribute stresses away from failed zones. The challengewith non-linear models is that they require the input of gen-erally unknown post-peak material properties and behaviour.Models must also be three dimensional in order to capturethe full state of mining-induced stress conditions due to thecomplex mine geometry.

Research at the University of Toronto has developed atechnique to link between the three-dimensional, linear-elas-tic, mining-induced stress problem and two-dimensional,non-linear modelling that accounts for the three-dimensional

J.J. Crowder, W.F. Bawden, and A.L. Coulson, Lassonde Institute,University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario

stresses from mine-wide models, and allows for failure tooccur. This new modelling technique has been used to explorethe rock mass post-peak properties through back analyses ata case study mine. The rock mass ‘post-peak’ parameters havebeen calibrated using SMART cable bolt data of displace-ments in mining haulage drives. The key result from backanalyses demonstrates that for two areas of the case studymine (separated by almost 500 m in depth, but found in thesame rock unit), the post-peak generalized Hoek-Brown valueof mr must be reduced significantly to simulate displacementsobserved in instrumentation data. Failure patterns predictedby the models using the calibrated parameters have also beenverified using the spatial distribution of observed microseis-mic events over the same time spans.

High-quality instrumentation data is the key to post-peak rock mass parameter calibration. The procedures out-lined in the paper highlight the need for a new hybridnumerical modelling package that can use the influence ofthree-dimensional, mining-induced stresses to predict dis-placements in, and potential failure of, rock masses surround-ing mining infrastructure, in order to radically alter strategicand tactical mine design.

With high-quality estimates of field-scale rock masspost-peak characteristics and stress-strain behaviour,improved confidence in explicit forward modelling of groundsupport can be gained. This will ultimately aid in the designand optimization of rock mass support and minimize rehabil-itation, hence significantly reducing mining costs. Reliabledetermination of ‘post-peak’ rock mass properties, usingtechniques described in this paper, will improve reliability inunderground mine design, as well as increase safety for min-ing personnel. Having high-quality and reliable instrumenta-tion that is routinely monitored and analyzed is critical tobeing able to perform the work described here. Research iscurrently heading towards real-time wireless monitoring ofinstruments, which can then also be fed into models in real-time.

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New technlogy for the abatment of SO2in non-ferrous pyrometallurgicalprocesses by a dry limestone scrubber

In most non-ferrous pyrometallurgical processes, thesmelting capacity depends strongly on the gas treatmentfacilities. In the classic pyrometallurgical production of copperfrom sulphide concentrates, the smelting capacity of differentvessels has been increased continuously, both on flash smelt-ing and bath smelting, with a direct increase in the demandfor the neutralization of SO2. In virtually all copper smelters,the conventional technology to process the off-gases is toconvert the SO2 to sulphuric acid. The increase of the smelt-ing capacity is not necessarily aligned with an equivalentincrease in the acid plant’s capacity. The technology for acidproduction from SO2 is a well-proven technology with less ofan optimization window than the smelting technology. In thiscase, the enlargement of the acid plant or building a newplant might not be economically attractive. Another scenariothat could negatively affect increasing the smelting capacityis when the acid markets are far from the smelters. In thiscase, transport costs can offset the overall operation and theacid production could become an economic burden to thesmelter. Additionally, to achieve full capture of SO2, a highervolume of gases with low SO2 content have to be treated.

This situation has led to the creation of a R&D programto analyze the option of reacting CaCO3 with SO2 from gassesof the smelter to form CaSO4:

CaCO3 + SO2(g) + 1/2O2(g) = CaSO4

This reaction is used in the neutralization of the SO2 gen-erated from coal burning plants with a well-established tech-nology and high efficiency, although the SO2 concentration isvery low, normally below 0.1 vol.%, while in copper smeltersgases range from 2 to 25 vol.%. This makes a difference in theequilibrium conditions and the kinetics. It is not possible tomake direct extrapolation of the high efficiency achieved.

This paper presents the results of the steps developed topropose a technology to treat gases with high SO2 content in afluidized bed system. An initial basic laboratory study obtainedthe necessary physical chemistry information for the sulphationof limestone with concentrated SO2 gases. This information wasthe basis for designing and operating a three-stage semi-pilotfluidized bed prototype reactor that was used to develop therequired technology. The unreacted core model, controlled by

the diffusion of SO2 through the anhydrite layer formed, was val-idated in the experimental pilot plant. The fractional conversionof spherical particles of limestone to anhydrite are expressed by:

1-3(1-Xi)2/3 + 2(1-Xi) = t/ti

where Xi is the fractional conversion of limestone to anhydrite;t is the time to achieve the conversion Xi; and ti is the time toachieve the complete conversion for a given particle size i.

The semi-pilot runs give results for the conversion oflimestone to anhydrite and SO2 capture. A compromisebetween these two parameters has to be reached ensuring ahigh efficiency of SO2 capture, which could represent, forsome cases, a low conversion of limestone. The parametersthat control each of them are the mean reaction time which,from the operational side, are the velocity of the gas, whichalso depends on the fluidization regime, and the feed rate forthe limestone. A complete analysis of the pilot plant three-step continuous fluidized bed reactor is presented where thetemperature, SO2 content (2 to 8 vol.%), gas velocity, feedrate, and quality of limestone were tested. The semi-pilot unitwas scaled up to a pilot unit built in Codelco’s Caletonessmelter in order to validate the results. Virtually, a completecapture of SO2 is possible from gases with low or high SO2content. The final product, a blend of unreacted CaCO3 andCaSO4, is a non-hazardous product with potential commercialvalue.

I. Wilkomirsky, F. Parada, and R. Parra, University ofConcepción, Concepción, Chile

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A three-stage fluidized bed pilot plant under construction at Codelco’s ElTeniente Caletones copper smelter

The Noranda continuous converter at Xstrata Copper, Rouyn-Noranda—optimization of slag chemistry

Xstrata Copper’s Horne smelter treats a wide range ofcopper concentrates and other copper-containing recyclablematerials imported from many parts of the world. The recycla-ble materials include metallic alloys, spent slags, and cata-lysts, as well as used electronic components containingcopper and/or precious metals. The plant feed material,totalling some 780 kt/y, is smelted in the Noranda processreactor where a 73% Cu matte is produced (215 kt/y), alongwith reactor slag.

The reactor matte, containing about 3% Fe and 21% Salong with small amounts of impurity elements like Pb, Zn,etc., is tapped and conveniently transferred within the samebuilding to the Noranda converter (NCV) for conversion to ablister copper. As well as handling liquid matte, the NCV,which was commissioned in 1997, was also designed to han-dle a certain amount of solid copper-containing materials,such as crushed matte, or other materials that may be bene-ficially treated in the NCV rather than in the Noranda processreactor.

The NCV blister copper is tapped periodically from thevessel and transferred to the pyro-refining vessels for desul-phurization and impurity control. Finally, the copper is trans-ferred to the anode furnaces for final deoxidation usingnatural gas injection prior to anode casting. The anodes pro-duced at the Horne Smelter are shipped to Xstrata Copper’srefinery in Montreal, where high-grade cathode copper is pro-duced by electro-refining, along with the recovery of preciousmetals.

Thorough knowledge of both the process control param-eters and smelting physico-chemistry of the NCV has beenbeneficial to help meet the required matte capacity whilemaintaining plant flexibility. In this regard, some level of pre-dictive knowledge related to slag chemistry, in particular theliquid and solid phases such as silica, spinels, or olivines, hasbeen found to be beneficial.

P. Coursol, P.J. Mackey, Xstrata—Process Support, Falconbridge,Ontario,Y. Prévost, Xstrata Copper—Fonderie Horne, Rouyn-Noranda,Québec, andM. Zamalloa, Xstrata Nickel—Falcondo Smelter, Bonao, DominicanRepublic

Over the last decade or so, the availability of commercialthermodynamic modelling packages, such as FactSage™,have been utilized with the advantage of helping the plantoptimize slag chemistry and minimize slag handling issuesthat can arise, such as those due to a process upset, for exam-ple, by undue feed variability. This paper illustrates the appli-cation of this software in examining a range of NCV operatingparameters, such as the %Fe/SiO2 ratio in the slag, and thelevel of minor gangue components in the slag, including CaO,Al2O3, ZnO, MgO, and PbO. The conditions influencing theslag liquidus ranges of NCV slags are discussed with respectto the overall process chemistry.

Given that a sufficiently low %Fe/SiO2 ratio is used inNCV slag, most components such as CaO-ZnO-PbO-Al2O3-MgO, in small concentration, help in lowering the NCV slagliquidus. Considering the present level of these minor compo-nents, the NCV can operate consistently at 1200°C if the%Fe/SiO2 is between 0.6 and 0.8 in the slag. Using the typeof phase diagrams presented in this paper, it is possible todevelop different Noranda reactor/Noranda converter operat-ing strategies adapted to the feedstocks available at Xstratamines and plants or from other sources.

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The Noranda continuous converter commissioned in 1997 at Xstrata Copper’sHorne smelter, Rouyn-Noranda, Quebec

Exploration and Mining Geology JournalVolume 15—Numbers 1 and 2

A Method of Appraising Lost Production for Mined-Through Coal-Bed Methane WellsPhilip W. Johnson and Charles D. Haynes, Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, University of Alabama

The coalbed methane industry has become a prominent source of domestic natural gas, with itstechnology having evolved over the past 30 years. Whereas most coalbed methane wells are able toproduce without major interruption over their economic lives, wells operating in an undergroundmining area are subject to being mined-through. If mine-through occurs, the productivity of the wellis at least compromised, and may even be terminated. The economic consequences of mine-throughmay be relatively simple if mineral ownership and extraction rights are common for the coal andcoalbed methane. However, if ownership is not common and a superior coalbed methane lease exists,the coalbed methane ownership must be compensated for lost production caused by mine-through.This paper presents a relatively straightforward method to calculate the value of the lost productioncaused by the mine-through. It uses technology from mining and petroleum engineering, as well assimple economics and financial management techniques.

Genetic Model and Exploration Guidelines for Kaolin Beneath Unconformities in the Lower Cretaceous Fluvial Chaswood Formation, Nova Scotia

T. Hundert, Department of Geology, Saint Mary’s University,D.J. Piper, Geological Survey of Canada (Atlantic), Bedford Institute of Oceanography, andG. Pe-Piper, Department of Geology, Saint Mary’s University

Potentially commercial deposits of kaolin are found in the fluvial Lower Cretaceous ChaswoodFormation, the sedimentologically proximal equivalent of deltaic sediments of the offshore Scotianbasin. The geological setting of the kaolin deposits has been interpreted from high-resolution seis-mic-reflection profiles and boreholes, and mineralogical studies on one reference borehole. The high-est-grade kaolin deposits are found in areas close to river belts, where overbank muds were notsufficiently drained to develop paleosols, but where later uplift created intraformational unconformi-ties. In the sandstone, meteoric water flow altered feldspars to kaolin, thus yielding commercial sil-ica sand deposits. It also altered ilmenite to rutile, which is concentrated as secondary placers inmodern rivers that have eroded the Chaswood Formation and tills derived therefrom.

3-D Integrated Geological Modeling in the Abitibi Subprovince (Québec, Canada): Techniques and Applications

F. Fallara, URSTM-UQAT, Unité de recherche et de service en technologie minérale, Université duQuébec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue,M. Legault, MRNF, Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de la faune, and O. Rabeau, URSTM-UQAT, Unité de recherche et de service en technologie minérale, Université duQuébec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue

The development of robust 3-D geological models involves the integration of large amounts ofpublic geological data, as well as additional accessible proprietary lithological, structural, geochemical,geophysical, and diamond drill hole data. 3-D models and maps have been available, particularly in thepetroleum industry, for more than 10 years. Here, we demonstrate how robust 3-D maps can be usedas interactive tools for mineral deposits exploration. In particular, we show how the interrogation of 3-D data sets can constrain exploration targets at depth. This paper presents two examples of 3-D mod-els used for mineral exploration: the Joutel VMS mining camp and the Duparquet gold camp, Quebec.In both examples, the creation of the model is discussed and queries specific to the relevant explorationmodel are introduced. Eight potential exploration targets are generated at Joutel and seven at Dupar-quet. Although the targets defined are dependent on thedetails of the chosen queries, it is apparent that this tech-nique has the potential to generate promising explorationactivity that can engender new targets.

Excerpts taken from abstracts in EMG, Vol. 15, Nos. 1 and 2.Subscribe—www.cim.org/geosoc/indexEMG.cfm

emg abstracts


Hydrothermal Synthesis and Stability Evaluation ofMansfieldite in Comparison to ScoroditeJ.F. Le Berre, T.C. Cheng, R. Gauvin, and G.P. Demopoulos, McGillUniversity

The hydrothermal synthesis and stability evaluation of mans-fieldite is described. The synthesis involves hydrothermal precipita-tion at 160°C from equimolar nitrate solutions over a period of 24hours. X-ray diffraction characterization showed that synthesizedmansfieldite material has the same structural characteristics asmansfieldite mineral. The product was found to consist of individ-ual crystals of 1 to 4 mm. Long-term leachability studies (up to sixweeks) in the pH range of 5 to 9 at 22°C determined mansfielditeto be more reactive than scorodite and hence not a satisfactorycarrier for the fixation of arsenic in the environment.

In-Flight Thermal Plasma Processing of PrereducedIlmenite to Produce Titania Rich SlagR.K. Galgali, S. Bhattacharjee, S.K. Singh, P.K. Mishra, RegionalResearch Laboratory, andT.K. Mukherjee, Indian Rare Earths Limited

Synthetic rutile is produced all over the world by processingilmenite through conventional chloride and sulphate routes. Inboth processes, considerable amounts of iron chloride/sulphateand spent acids are produced as by-products. Metallic iron is pro-duced as a by-product of carbothermic smelting of ilmenite andenriching titania content of slag to 75% to 85%. Processing oftitania-rich slag reduces the generation of pollutants considerably.In this paper, an alternate method of preparing titania-rich slag byin-flight thermal plasma processing of prereduced ilmenite is pre-sented.

A New Process for the Production of Ferrotitanium fromTitania SlagM. Pourabdoli, S. Raygan, H. Abdizadeh, University of Tehran, andK. Hanaei, Iranian Academic Center for Education, Culture andResearch (ACECR)

In this research, ferrotitanium was produced from titania slagby an aluminothermic process in an Electro Slag Crucible Melting(ESCM) furnace. The effect of Al and flux additions on titaniumrecovery, ferrotitanium yield, and Ti/Al ratio were studied. It wasfound that an increase in Al amount led to a decrease in Ti recov-ery and Ti/Al ratio, in addition to an increase in ferrotitanium yield.X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of the ferrotitanium slag showedthat the titanium recovery declined due to the formation of tita-nium suboxides and tialite in slag.

Depletion of Carbon from Al2O3-C Mixtures into LiquidIron: Rate Controlling MechanismsV. Sahajwalla, R. Khanna, University of New South Wales,E. Kapilashrami, and S. Seetharaman, Royal Institute of Technology

Asessile drop investigation on the kinetics of carbon dissolu-tion from an alumina-carbon composite and a commercial refrac-tory into liquid iron at 1,600°C is reported. Experimental studieswere supplemented with atomistic Monte Carlo simulations toinvestigate the influence of composition, temperature, and meltturbulence. While mass transfer was the dominant rate controllingmechanism for high carbon systems, poor wettability of aluminawith liquid iron and its significant influence on inhibiting the pen-etration of liquid iron in the refractory matrix was found to be thedominant rate controlling factor for low carbon refractories.

The Changing Canadian Nickel Smelting Landscape—Late 19th Century to Early 21st CenturyS.W. Marcuson, CVRD Inco, andC.M. Díaz

This paper discusses the factors that have influenced the evo-lution of nickel smelting processes. In the last few decades, newtechnologies were developed and commercialized to respond tothe raising costs of energy, pressing societal environmental con-cerns, the advent of nickel laterites as an important source of newmetal, the incorporation of new nickel producers to the marketand, therefore, the need to increase productivity. In this paper, theauthors review this history with the objective of highlighting theforces that have triggered the most important changes in Cana-dian nickel smelting.

Constitutive Behaviour of Two High-Mn-Al TWIP Steelsat Hot Rolling TemperaturesA.S. Hamada, L.P. Karjalainen and M.C. Somani, University ofOulu

High-temperature flow behaviour and recrystallization kinet-ics of two high Mn Al-bearing twinning induced plasticity steels,25Mn6Al and 30Mn4.5Al4Cr (in wt%) have been investigatedusing hot compression testing and compared with 25Mn and25Mn3Al steels. Al alloying affected the initial flow stress levels,but, at higher strains, 25Mn6Al and 30Mn4.5Al4Cr showed inter-mediate or even the lowest flow stresses whereas 25Mn3Al pos-sessed the highest flow resistance. The static recrystallization ratewas the fastest while ferrite was present, but otherwise, Al or Crhad only small effects.

cmq abstracts

March/April 2007 85

Canadian Metallurgical QuarterlyVolume 46—Number 1


Comparison of Final Properties between ConventionalTRIP and Tempered Martensite Assisted Steels (TMAS)J. Vikram, A.M. Elwazri, McGill University,E. Essadiqi, Materials Technology Laboratory–CANMET, and S. Yue, McGill University

This paper focuses on the influence of tempered martensitevolume fraction on the final properties of cold-rolled and subcriti-cally annealed Al-containing Transformation Induced Plasticitysteel (TRIP), otherwise called TMAS. In this work, an X-ray diffrac-tion technique was used to measure retained austenite volumefractions of all samples after TRIP annealing. Shear punch testingwas used to evaluate the mechanical properties. The properties ofthe conventional TRIP steel and TMAS are compared and theresults are discussed.

Effect of Prestraining on the Natural Ageing and Artifi-cial Ageing of an Al-Mg-Si Alloy AA6022C.H. Shen and B.L. Ou, National Central University

The effect of prestraining on the natural ageing and artificialageing of an aluminum alloy 6022 (Al-0.6 Mg-1.0 Si) has beeninvestigated in this study. Tensile tests and microhardness meas-urements were performed to determine the mechanical propertiesof the samples. The results indicate that the dislocations would notonly suppress clustering during natural ageing, but would also pro-vide heterogeneous nucleation sites. Two per cent prestrainingleads to a significant reduction in the detrimental effects of 30days of natural ageing on the artificial ageing at 170°C for 30 min-utes.

A Study of Oxidation of Ductile Iron Alloyed with Molyb-denum, Silicon and AluminumC.R. Cvetnic, C. Ravindran, Ryerson University, and A. McLean, University of Toronto

Ductile iron alloys containing molybdenum and different com-binations of aluminum and silicon were cast at 1,350°C, 1,400°C,and 1,450°C into step blocks. Specimens obtained from eachexperimental group were oxidized at 700°C, 800°C, 900°C,1,000°C, and 1,100°C. The effects of alloy chemistry, pouring tem-perature, and casting thickness on the oxidation of each specimenwere investigated. Of the different alloys investigated, thestrongest resistance to oxidation was exhibited by iron samplesalloyed with 4.5Si and 3.0Al.

Thermal Degradation and Fire Performance of Water-Based Intumescent Coatings with Flake Fillers in HumidTropical ConditionsZhenyu Wang, Enhou Han, and Wei Ke, Chinese Academy of Sci-ences

The study reports on the preparation and characterization ofwater-based intumescent coatings modified by flake fillers. Theeffects of humid tropical conditions on mechanical properties, ther-mal degradation, and fire performance of ammonium polyphos-phate-dipentaerythritol-melamine (APP-DPER-MEL) coating,without and with flake fillers, were investigated. These tests indi-cated that corrosive media in humid tropical conditions damagedthe chemical action of ammonium polyphosphate, dipentaerythri-tol, and melamine in conventional APPPER-MEL coatings, whereasflame retardant additives in flame retardant coatings modified byflake fillers could still maintain very good chemical interaction andthermal degradation characteristics even after a 600-hour humidtropical test.

Impact-Corrosion Abrasion Characteristics and Mecha-nisms Lining Board SteelsD.U. Xiao-Dong, Hefei University of Technology

The impact corrosion-abrasion characteristics of low-carbonhigh-alloy steels, high-manganese steels, and medium-carbonsteels have been investigated using different impact energies in anacid-ironstone slurry. It was shown that the mass loss from theimpact corrosion-abrasion of the three steels increased with theimpact energy. When the impact energy were increased up to 3.5J, the mechanism was found to be changed into fatigue spalling ofwork-hardened layers and corrosion for low-carbon high-alloysteels, deep fatigue spalling and heavy corrosion for high-man-ganese steels, and deep brittle spalling and heavy corrosion formedium-carbon alloy steels.

cmq abstracts

Excerpts taken from abstracts in CMQ, Vol. 46, No. 1. Subscribe—www.cmq-online.ca

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voices from industry


Sustainable mining for a growing world by David Rodier, senior consultant, Hatch Associates

We are certainly living in interestingtimes! One of the strong current trends isthe new traction for sustainability, thanksin some measure to Al Gore and his pushfor awareness on climate change, the bet-ter understanding of society’s impact onthe global environment, and the newfocus of mainstream politicians on thetopic. The good news is that this newemphasis makes imminent sense. It is notabout doing good or tree hugging, butabout improved economics with lowercosts and reduced risks, with the added

bonus of leaving a more sustainable future to our grandchildren.After 30 plus years in non-ferrous operations (copper and

zinc), I was given the opportunity to lead my corporation in itssustainability activites, something that I frankly didn’t think, atthe time, would lead to anything. But with understanding comescommitment and excitement. I have spent the last nine yearslearning about sustainable development, measuring our impacts,and lending a hand to its promotion internally at my originalemployer (Noranda Inc.), externally in our industry through theGlobal Mining Initiative, the International Council for Mining andMetals (ICMM), and the Mining Association of Canada (MAC), andcurrently with Hatch engineering consultants. At Hatch, the sus-tainable development activity breaks into two groupings; inter-gated risk management and design for sustainability.

Let’s concentrate on two hot topical issues, namely energyand climate change, and population growth and urbanization.

Energy and climate changeThere is a growing consensus that climate change is happen-

ing. There is also no denying that carbon dioxide (CO2) is increas-ing in the atmosphere. Our fundamental problem is that the halflife of CO2 is over 200 years so that the current increase will bewith us for several generations, even if we were to cut our emis-sions immediately. A major reduction will not happen overnightand the cost of energy will continually increase. This gives us twoimmediate priorities—preparing for a carbon-constrained futureand adapting to the forecast impacts of climate change.Simultaneously, we must find ways to reduce the emissions ofgreenhouse gases so that the overall CO2 increase can be stemmed.

Making a concerted effort on energy conservation in all areas willachieve both lower emissions and energy cost reductions. This needs tobe complemented by a prolonged progam to develop renewable, non-emitting energy supplies and carbon sequestration technologies.

At Hatch, we have been promoting the use of design toimprove life cycle operating costs for new plants, with a focus onlowering the ecological footprint of processes and plants, by

reducing energy and water consumption, emissions, and improvingmetal recoveries. Reduced operating costs, for energy and water, is“a gift that keeps on giving” throughout the life of the plant.

In every conservation effort, we start with the easily identi-fied low-hanging fruit, followed by organizational change in thebusiness and processing practices, and then finally instituting fun-damental changes in the design and technology of processes.

The overiding thought that we promote is that challenges,when properly understood, can provide opportunities. Our evolv-ing design approach is to start with a charrette-type discussionwith our clients to effectively position the project to be morecompetitive for its useful life. Using the client’s sustainabilityobjectives, the key steps are: identify the strategic risks andopportunities; generate a roster of alternative processes anddesign alternatives; rank the alternatives on potential risks againstthe client’s sustainability objectives; and subsequently evaluatethem on technical feasability and costs.

The most appropriate time to do this, is at the conceptualphase. Success in using this approach will provide the client with anoperation that will be cost competitive for its normal capital life,often without increasing capital cost over a conventional design.

Population growth and urbanizationThe most critical factor facing society today is population

growth. If we refer to current statistics, one billion people of oursix billion total do not have access to safe water. An additional 1.5billion have no sewage treatment. Both factors contribute to seri-ous health issues. An equal number of the population have accessto only the most rudimentary energy source, biofuels, which con-tribute to local deforestration and domestic internal air pollution.This situation will be exacerbated by the population increase tonine billion between 2030 and 2050.

Most of the increase will be in urban areas where expecta-tions for improved living standards attract the influx. This willraise the need for all commodities, to enable society to supply thebasic needs for housing, transportation, and utilities—a good storyfor our industry. The urban population density can lead to oppor-tunities for efficiencies in providing utilities with such examples ascombined heat and power and high-rise housing, which lowersthe surface footprint per capita.

The downside of urbanization is the concentration of the neg-ative effects on the local biosphere. Recently, expanded cities inChina and Latin America demonstrate the impacts on air quality,and the lack of adequate water, sewage, and energy infrastructure.

Secure metal supply will be essential to making the new megacities more inhabitable. Metals also have the advantage of beingdurable and recyclable, resulting in returning to their original prop-erties. If we continue on the right path, our industry will continue tobe an essential cog in the development of a better life for society. n

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