LEARNING: Principles

& Applications

Classical ConditioningOperant Conditioning

Social Learning

LEARNING

A relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience

CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING

Learning… is a change in mental

state. cannot be seen directly involves a change in

behavior results from experience

CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING Cont.

is relatively permanent can be applied from one

situation to another (transfer)

need not involve direct experience

Learning: Principles and Applications

Classical Conditioning **

Operant Conditioning

Social Learning

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Ivan Pavlov Russian

biologist/physiologist Nobel Prize Serendipity

Pavlov: Experiment

UCS (meat)===> UCR (salivation) NS (tone) ===> No response****************************UCS (meat) + CS (tone) ===>

UCR ****************************CS ===> CR

1.) Time - Simultaneous Conditioning

A.Simultaneous conditioning B.Interstimulus interval

1. Contiguitya)Simultaneous b)Forward c)Trace d)Backwarde)Temporal

2) GeneralizationOccurs when a subject responds to a second stimulus similar to the CS, without being trained with the second CS

3) Discrimination

Occurs when a subject is taught to tell the difference between 2 stimuli.

*Opposite of generalization**Has great value because…???

4) Extinction

Occurs over time when the experimenter stops pairing a CS together with a UCS. the response gradually fades

away, although not entirely forgotten or unlearned

used as a measurement… resistance to extinction

* Partial reinforcement effect

5) Spontaneous Recovery

Occurs when , after extinction, a CS is once again presented with a USC, the CR appears again.

*Not as strong *Harmful experiences/

example

How the Body Remembers…

When the Mind Forgets…

Dog Chase example

Schizokinesis Schizo means divided/split Kinesis means action

WWII Vets example

6) Spatial Learning

Occurs in much the same way classical conditioning does, but involves the learning the location of objects in the subject’s environment.

*Cognitive Mapping

The Case of Little Albert - Watson (1920_

Subject - 9 month old Albert Desired Response - Fear USC = loud noise UCR = fear Criticism Ethics / Deconditioning

Watson’s Higher Order Conditioning

Using a previously established CS-CR relationship to create a new CS-CR relationship.

Taking Albert’s fear of rats and conditioning a new fear of dogs

Dog (NS) No response

White Rat (CS) Fear (CR)

Dog + White Rat Fear

Dog Fear

Other Classical Conditioning Paradigms Jones (1924)

Counter conditioning Used ice cream

Mower (1938) Used applied science Bed wetting Bell and pad conditioning apparatus

Garcia & Koelling(1966) Taste aversion Electric shock

Gustavson (1974) Taste aversion Coyotes/sheep CTA (conditioning taste aversion)

Learning: Principles and

Applications Classical

Conditioning Operant

Conditioning ** Social Learning

II. Operant Conditioning LEARNING FROM THE

CONSEQUENCES OF BEHAVIOR OF OTHERS

Differences Between Classical and Operant Conditioning

Way psychologists view learners

Concept of reinforcement

Three Laws of Conditioning

1. The law of association

2. Repetition is a part of conditioning

3. The law of effect

A. Reinforcement1) B.F. Skinner2) S-R psychology3) Positive reinforces

a) Approvalb) Moneyc) Privileges

Schedules of ReinforcementDictate the frequency with which the behavior

is rewarded1. Continuous schedule of reinforcement2. Partial schedule of reinforcement3. Ratio schedules

Fixed ratio schedules Variable ratio schedules

4. Interval schedules Fixed interval schedules Variable interval schedules

B. Stimulus Control

Signals are stimuli that are associated with reward or punishment Skinner & the Pigeons Response(the pecking) -----

> reinforcement (food)

Stimulus Control cont.

1. Secondary reinforcers (conditioned reinforcers)

Wolfe (1936) chimp study

2. Primary reinforcers Satisfy a basic need (hunger…) Examples: food, sex, avoidance of

pain, feeling of belonging… Jeans example

C. Aversive Control

1. Negative reinforcement - painful or unpleasant stimulus is either removed as a result of appropriate behavior or not applied at all

Escape conditioning (ex. Electric shock to Skinner rat)

Avoidance conditioning (ex. Flashing lights & electric shock, lever)

C. Aversive Control

2. Punishment - unpleasant stimulus applied as a result of undesirable behavior (after the fact)

Often effective for stopping a specific behavior

Less effective for stopping a general behavior

Negative Reinforcement vs Punishment

Negative reinforcement is opposite of punishment

Negative reinforcement increases a behavior

Punishment decreases a behavior

6 effects of punishment:

1. May slow down learning instead of speeding it up

2. May suppress good behavior as well as bad

3. Behavior may resurface when punisher is not around

4. May create an expectation of failure; punishment becomes self-defeating

5. May be negatively associated with power

6. May have negative effects on the punisher

Summary of Aversion Control

If punishment is used, it should be clear that certain behavior will be rewarded

Punishment really suppresses, rather than eliminates undesirable behavior

Example that fits all 3 categories (Running)

Learning: Principles and Applications

Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Social Learning **

3 Factors That Affect Learning

1. Feedback2. Transfer3. Practice

1. Feedback

Finding out the results of an action or performance

Increases the speed of learning

2. Transfer

Using a skill that you have already learned to help you learn another skilla. Positive Transferb. Negative Transfer

a. Positive Transfer

A previously learned response helps in learning a new response

Ex. Moving from tricycle to bicycle

b. Negative Transfer

A previously learned response hinders in learning a new response

Ex. Moving from 4 wheel Skating to inline skating

3. Practice

The repetition of a task How & when you practice is

most important Psychologists have found

that practice is most effective if it takes place regularly over time, rather than all at once

Ex. Mental Practice

Learning Strategies

1. Learning to learn

2. Learned helplessness

3. Learned laziness

1. Learning To Learn

Harry Harlow monkey study (1949) Find the raisin

Started with only under one color/ locations changed

Harry Harlow monkey study Phase Two

Shapes changed, as did location

Monkeys finally learned that location did not matter, only the difference between the 2 lids

HOW CAN YOU APPLY THIS TO YOUR OWN LEARNING?

2. Learned Helplessness

A general learning strategy in which subjects believe that they are powerless to affect the outcome of a situation, so it is useless to try to change it

Learned Helplessness cont. Hiroto (1974)

2 groups of college students / loud noises

Illustrates concept of learned helplessness

Seligman (1982) Proposed that learned helplessness

is one of the major causes of depression

Initial study with dogs/applied to humans

Learned Helplessness and Depression

less motivation poor self-concept may cause depression

Learned Helplessness & Depression cont. Stability (temporary vs stable)

Globality (specific vs global)

Internality (internal vs external cause)

3. Learned Laziness

Failure to overcome a problem because the subject knows that he won’t be punished as a result, or because he knows that someone will do it for him

…Learning Complicated Skills

Shaping Chaining

1. Shaping

Sculpting new responses out of old ones

Rats raising a flag Skinner’s bowling

pigeons Lovaas (1967)

2. Combining Responses: Chaining

a. Response chains

b. Response patterns

a. Response Chains

A group of responses that follow each other in a sequenceEx. Babies drinking bottles…

b. Response Patterns A cluster of chained responses

that operate together to produce a complex behavior

Ex. Swimming (arm stroke chain, breathing chain, and leg kicking chain… all performed @ the same time)

Modeling

a. Cuingb. Observational

Learningc. Social Learning Theory

a. Cuing

The behavior of others acts as a cue for the appropriate way to behave

b. Observational Learning

Coined by Albert Bandura Imitation The ability to reproduce a

behavior that you have watched someone else perform

4 Processes of Observational Learning

1. Attention 2. Retention3. Reproduction of Action4. Motivation

C. Social Learning Theory

Learning of social skills is done by observational learning

Albert Bandura

Bandura: The Bobo Doll Experiment

Bobo doll video Frustrating experience Playing experience Variations…

The Bobo Doll Experiment - Conclusion

BOTH classical and operant conditioning can take place through observational learning by observing another’s conditioning

Behavior Modification

Applying principles of learning to change people’s actions and feelings

Computer assisted Instruction (CAI)

Concept invented by SL Presser Teaching machine invented by

BF Skinner (my boyfriend)

Token Economies

Systematically paying people to behave appropriately

Cohen and Filipczak - National training School experiment

Miller and Schneider preschool experiment

Head Start