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Zheng He: Peaceful ambassador or imperial aggressor?This four-period lesson features an investigation of the expeditions of Chinese admiral Zheng He in the early 1400s. The lesson guides students through an analysis of four primary source documents that describe Zheng He’s encounters with people in the kingdoms he visited and asks students to decide whether Zheng He was a peaceful ambassador or an imperial aggressor. Students then read two interpretations of the four primary source documents, one written by a historian who argues that Zheng He was a peaceful ambassador and the other written by a historian who argues that Zheng He was an imperial aggressor. This lesson helps students understand that history is an interpretation of the past based on limited resources, not a fixed or absolute narrative.

CONTENTS OF THIS FILEPages

Lesson plan 1 – 6Documents A through I 7 – 25Worksheets and answer keys 26 – 33Background notes for teachers 34 – 42

STANDARDS

California History/Social Science Content Standards7.3: Students analyze the geographic, political, economic, religious, and social structures of the civilizations of China in the Middle Ages.

7.3.4: Understand the importance of both overland trade and maritime expeditions between China and other civilizations in the Mongol Ascendancy and Ming Dynasty.

California Historical and Social Sciences Analytical SkillsResearch, Evidence and Point of View: 4. Students assess the credibility of primary and secondary sources and draw sound conclusions from them.

Historical Thinking Standards from the National Center for History in the SchoolsStandard 2: Historical Comprehension

A. Identify the author or source of the historical document or narrative and assess its credibility.

B. Reconstruct the literal meaning of a historical passage.

Standard 3: Historical Analysis and Interpretation A. Compare and contrast differing sets of ideas. B. Consider multiple perspectives.

CHINESE HISTORY THROUGH CHINESE EYES — Zheng He 1

LEARNING GOALS OR OUTCOMES

1. To deepen students’ understanding of Zheng He’s expeditions.2. To practice reading and interpreting primary sources.3. To see how two historians interpret the same documents differently.

ASSESSMENTS

Formative assessments1. Check each student’s Document Analysis Worksheet to assess understanding of the

primary sources.2. Check Part 1 of the Document Comparison Worksheet to assess students’

understanding of the secondary sources.

Summative assessmentRead Part 2 of the Document Comparison Worksheet to see if the reasons students list constitute appropriate evidence to support their opinion or if the questions they ask would help them establish an opinion.

STUDENT ACTIVITIESNote that “Zheng He” is pronounced “jeng huh.” It is sometimes written Cheng Ho.

Into activities (1 class period)

1. To connect the lesson to students’ previous study of Ming dynasty history, explain that you are going to dig deeper into the story of Zheng He’s expeditions from China to Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean in the early 1400s. Conduct a think-share-pair exercise based on the question “How do you think the people in the places that Zheng He visited felt about his visits? Do you think they were happy to see the large fleet of Chinese ships showing up with presents, or do you think they were frightened by such a large display of Chinese naval power?” After students have shared their opinions, explain that in this lesson they will study some historical documents that will help them answer that question like a historian would.

2. Present the Introductory Slide Show, directing students to take notes with whatever note-taking strategy you generally use.

When you reach Slide 16, which mentions Documents A and B, distribute those documents to students. Direct students to take turns reading paragraphs from Document A out loud while other students use the map in Document B (Slide 4 in the Introductory Slide Show) to show the class the places mentioned. Direct students to keep Documents A and B available for reference when they read Documents D, E, F and G.


http://www.facinghistory.org/resources/strategies/think-pair-share

http://www.facinghistory.org/resources/strategies/think-pair-share

When you reach Slide 18, play the video at least once. When it is finished, ask students whether the video portrays the Chinese fleet as peaceful or aggressive.

When you reach Slide 20, click on the link to access a list of illustrations and brief descriptions of the ships in Zheng He’s fleet. (Once you are at the Web site, you can select the FLASH EXPERIENCE link to access the same information in a flashier format. After you reach the Flash page, select the IMPERIAL FLEET link just to the right of the COURTYARD heading. Also notice that the link called THE VOYAGES GALLERY features illustrations and brief descriptions of some of the items that were traded and offered as tribute.)

Through activities (2 class periods)

1. Picking up on the “historians’ debate” presented at the end of the Introductory Slide Show, explain to students that they are going to analyze short accounts of four encounters between Zheng He’s fleet and people who the Chinese met on the expeditions. They will use these accounts to help form their own opinions of whether Zheng He was a peaceful ambassador or an imperial aggressor.

2. To provide additional historical context to help students evaluate the accounts, first distribute Document C, which explains the tributary system of international relations that prevailed in East and Southeast Asia at the time of Zheng He’s expeditions. Direct students to read the document and check their understanding through a brief discussion.

Note: If you are teaching this lesson in the United States, it is likely that a majority of students will analyze the primary sources with a perspective that is similar to Geoff Wade’s, which derives largely from the same Eurocentric historical and cultural experience that students in the United States are usually exposed to. Document C tries to explain how people raised with Confucian historical and cultural traditions might agree with Tan’s analysis of the documents. It is not necessary for students to agree with Tan’s perspective, but the lesson reaches its goals better if students understand a perspective that may be different from their own.

3. Organize students into pairs and give each pair one copy of Documents D, E, F and G, four copies of the Document Analysis Worksheet, and one copy of the Document Comparison Worksheet. Lead the class in a reading and analyzing Document D to model how students should think about the document, complete the Document Analysis Worksheet, and complete the corresponding row in Part 1 of the Document Comparison Worksheet.

Notice that the Document Analysis Worksheet asks students to practice “sourcing,” “close reading,” and “contextualizing.” These are three skills central to the Reading Like a Historian pedagogy on which this lesson is based. For more


information on sourcing, close reading, and contextualizing, please see the introduction to this collection of lessons and/or the Web site of the Stanford History Education Group. Take particular note of the link “Unit 1: Introduction.”

As is the practice with Reading Like a Historian curriculum, the primary sources have been re-written (modified) to make them accessible to contemporary 7th grade students. The original versions are also provided with the lesson, (1) so that teachers can evaluate the modification process and (2) to provide the option of using the original versions with students who are able to read them.

4. Once you have modeled for the whole class how to source, close read, and contextualize Document D, set the pairs to work at their own pace analyzing Documents E, F and G. As they complete their analysis of each document, direct them to complete the corresponding section of Part 1 of the Document Comparison Worksheet. (Once students have mastered the process, they could continue analyzing the documents as homework; this requires providing each student with copies of the documents and worksheets.)

5. When all pairs have completed the chart on Part 1 of the Document Comparison Worksheet, debrief the analyses with the whole class. Hopefully some pairs have interpreted documents differently from other pairs. If all pairs have reached the same conclusion on any document, the teacher should explain the other viewpoint to help students understand both perspectives.

6. Direct the students to complete the last section of Part 1 of the Document Comparison Worksheet. Allow pairs of students to discuss their responses, but require each student to write his or her own individual response. Notice that an option is offered for students who do not think they have enough information to reach an opinion.

Beyond activities (1 class period)

1. After students have completed Part 1 of the Document Comparison Worksheet, distribute Documents H and I. Explain to students that they will now see how two historians analyzed the same documents that the students have analyzed. Read the documents as a whole class or in student pairs. Direct students to complete Part 2 of the Document Comparison Worksheet as they read. Encourage them to read each document more than once.

2. The last items on Part 2 constitute the outlines of a short essay on the topic. If practice of essay writing is appropriate at this point in the class schedule, you can direct students to compose an essay.


http://sheg.stanford.edu/?q=node/21



SourcesHsü, Immanuel C. Y. (2000). The Rise of Modern China (6th ed.). New York: Oxford

University Press.Document C: Pages 130-131.

Ma, Huan. (1970). Ying-ya Sheng-lan. (The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores). (J. V. G. Mills, Trans.). Cambridge, UK: Hakluyt Society. (Original work published 1451.)

Document D: Pages 99-100Document F: Pages 116=117Document G: Pages 108-109, 113-114

Su, Ming-Yang. (2005). Seven Epic Voyages of Zheng He in Ming China (1405-1433): Facts, Fiction and Fabrication. Torrance, CA: Author.

Document A: Pages 35-39Document E: Pages 150-151

Tan, Ta Sen. (2009). Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asia Studies.

Document I: Pages 166-168.

Wade, Geoff. (2009). Ming Colonial Armies in Southeast Asia. In Geoff Wade (Ed.). China and Southeast Asia. (Vol. 2: Southeast Asia and Ming China from the Fourteenth to the Sixteenth Century). (p. 212-244). London: Routledge.

Document H: Pages 218-221.

Visuals used in Introductory Slide Show (in order of appearance)Document B (map of Zheng He’s 7th voyage)Menkov, Vladimir. (2010). File:Zheng-He-7th-expedition-map.sav. Wikimedia Commons.

Retrieved April 6, 2011, from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zheng-He-7th-expedition-map.svg

Based on Dreyer, Edward L. (2006). Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433. New York: Pearson Longman.

Woodblock print of Chinese shipDejvik. (2005). File:ZhengHeShips.gif. Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved April 6, 2011,

from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ZhengHeShips.gif

Illustration of Zheng HeInternational Zheng He Society. (n.d.). Retrieved April 6, 2011, from

http://www.chengho.org/index.php

Photograph of models of Zheng He’s fleetTaken by the author at the Cheng Ho Cultural Museum, Melaka, Malaysia, on March 18,

2011.


http://www.chengho.org/index.php

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ZhengHeShips.gif

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zheng-He-7th-expedition-map.svg

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zheng-He-7th-expedition-map.svg

Video animation of Zheng He’s shipsNational Library Board, Singapore. (2005-2006). Video. Zheng He Exhibition. Retrieved

April 6, 2011, from http://exhibitions.nlb.gov.sg/zhenghe/video.html

Photograph of models of Zheng He’s and Columbus’s shipsPlougmann, Lars. (2006). File:Zheng He's ship compared to Columbus's.jpg. Wikimedia

Commons. Retrieved April 6, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zheng_He%27s_ship_compared_to_Columbus%27s.jpg


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zheng_He's_ship_compared_to_Columbus's.jpg

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zheng_He's_ship_compared_to_Columbus's.jpg

http://exhibitions.nlb.gov.sg/zhenghe/video.html

Document A: List of Zheng He’s Expeditions (Modified)From a stone marker erected March 31, 1431, at a temple near the port where Zheng He’s fleets set off on their expeditions.

Since we, Zheng He and his companions, received the Emperor’s orders to visit foreign countries, we have conducted seven voyages. Each time we have commanded tens of thousands of soldiers and more than 100 ships. We have visited Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia, India, Iran, and other countries of the western regions, totaling more than 30 in all. We have traveled more than 30,000 miles.

When we found foreign kings who were obstructing the influence of Chinese culture and were disrespectful, we captured them alive. Pirates who were plundering other people were exterminated. We made the sea routes peaceful so that the foreign people could quietly pursue their business. This is the list of our voyages.

1. 1405-1407 we went to India and other countries. At that time the pirate Chen Zuyi and his followers were plundering the native merchants in Palembang [now part of Indonesia]. We captured him alive.

2. 1407-1409 we went to Indonesia, India, Vietnam and Thailand. The kings of those countries all presented as tribute local products, precious birds, and rare animals.

3. 1409-1411 we went by way of Sri Lanka. Its king was guilty of gross lack of respect and plotted against our fleet. The plot was discovered and the king was captured alive. On our return to China he was presented to the Emperor, who allowed him to return to his own country.

4. 1414-1415 we went to Iran and other countries. In Semudera [now part of Indonesia] the false king Sekandar was marauding and invading his country. We captured him alive, brought him back to China, and presented him to the Emperor.

5. 1417-1419 the country of Hormuz [now part of Iran] presented lions, leopards, and horses as tribute. The country of Aden presented a giraffe and oryx. The country of Mogadishu [now part of Somalia] presented zebras and lions.


6. 1421-1422 we returned ambassadors from Hormuz and other countries to their homes.

7. 1431 we start once more on a journey to the western regions.

Source: Based on an English translation of the stone marker provided in the book Seven Epic Voyages of Zheng He in Ming China (1405-1433): Facts, Fiction and Fabrication. The book was written by Chinese historian Su Ming-Yang and published in 2005 in Torrance, California. The translation is on pages 35-39.

Document B: Map of Zheng He’s 7th Expedition

Palembang is discussed in Document D. Sri Lanka, discussed in Document E, is the island off the southern tip of India,

where Beruwala and Galle are marked with red dots. Semudera is discussed in Document F. Malacca (also spelled “Melaka”) is discussed in Document G. Nanjing was the capital of China at the time of Zheng He’s first five expeditions. Beijing became the capital about the time of the sixth expedition.

Source: Drawn by Wikipedia contributor Vladimir Menkov, based on information from a book by historian Edward Dreyer titled Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433.


Document A: List of Zheng He’s Expeditions (Original)From a stone marker erected March 31, 1431, at a temple near the port where Zheng He’s fleets set off on their expeditions.

… From the time when we, Zheng He and his companions, at the beginning of the Yongle period [1402-1424] received the Imperial commission as envoys to the barbarians up till now seven voyages have taken place and each time we have commanded several tens of thousand government soldiers and more than a hundred ocean-going vessels. Starting from Tai Chang and taking the sea we have by way of the countries of Champa [Vietnam], Siam [Thailand] Java [Indonesia], Cochin [India] and Calicut [India] reached Hormuz [Iran] and other countries of the western regions, more than 30 countries in all, traversing more than one hundred thousand li of immense water spaces …

On arriving in the outlying countries, those among the foreign kings who were obstructing the “transforming influence” (of Chinese culture) and were disrespectful were captured alive, and brigands who gave themselves over to violence and plunder were exterminated.

Consequently, the sea route was purified and tranquillized and the natives, owing to this, were enabled quietly to pursue their avocations. All this is due to the aid of the goddess [to whom this marker is dedicated]. … we have written an inscription on stone and have moreover recorded the years and months of our voyages both going and returning in order to make these known forever.

I. In the third year of Yongle (1405) commanding the fleet we have gone to Calicut [India] and other countries. At that time the pirate Chen Zuyi and his followers were assembled at Palembang [Indonesia], where they plundered the native merchants. We captured that leader alive and returned in the fifth year (1407).

II. In the fifth year of Yongle (1407) commanding the fleet we went to Java [Indonesia], Calicut [India], Cochin [India], and Siam [Thailand]. The kings of these countries all presented as tribute local products, and precious birds and rare animals. We returned in the seventh year (1409).

III. In the seventh year of Yongle (1409), commanding the fleet we went to the countries (visited) before and took our route by the country of Ceylon [Sri Lanka]. Its king Alagakkonara was guilty of a gross lack of respect and plotted against the fleet. Owing to the manifest answer to prayer of the divine power, the plot was discovered and thereupon that king was captured alive. In the ninth year (1411) on our return he was presented to the throne as a prisoner; subsequently he received the Imperial favor of returning to his own country.


IV. In the twelfth year of Yongle (1414), commanding the fleet, we went to Hormuz and other countries. In the country of Semudera [Indonesia] the false king Sekandar was marauding and invading his country. Its king had sent an envoy to the Palace Gates in order to lodge a complaint and to request assistance. Approaching with the official troops under our command we have exterminated and arrested (the rebels), and silently aided by the divine power we thereupon captured the false king alive. In the thirteenth year (1415), on our return he was presented (to the Emperor as a prisoner). In that year the king of the country of Melaka came in person with his wife and sons to present tribute.

V. In the fifteenth year of Yongle (1417) commanding the fleet we visited the western regions. The country of Hormuz [Iran] presented lions, leopards with gold spots and western horses. The country of Aden [Yemen] presented a kirin of which the native name is tsu-la-fa (giraffe), as well as the long horned animal (oryx). The country of Mogadishu [Somalia] presented zebras as well as lions. The country of Brawa [Somalia] presented camels which run one thousand li as well as camel-birds (ostriches). The countries of Java [Indonesia] and Calicut [India] presented the animal mi-li-kao (?). All presented local products the like of which had never been heard of before and sent the maternal uncle or the younger brother (of the king) to present a letter of homage written on gold leaf as well as tribute.

VI. In the nineteenth years of Yongle (1421) commanding the fleet we conducted the ambassadors from Hormuz [Iran] and the other countries, who had been in attendance at the capital for a long time, back to their counties. The kings of all these countries presented local products as tributes even more abundantly than previously.

VII. In the fifth year of Xuande (1430), starting once more for the foreign countries in order to make known the imperial commands, the fleet has anchored at the foot of the temple and recalling how previously we have on several occasions received the benefits of the protection of the divine intelligence we have hereupon inscribed a text on stone.

Source: Excerpts from an English translation of the stone marker provided in the book Seven Epic Voyages of Zheng He in Ming China (1405-1433): Facts, Fiction and Fabrication. The book was written by Chinese historian Su Ming-Yang and published in 2005 in Torrance, California. The translation is on pages 35-39.


Document C: The Tributary System (Modified)

Because of her cultural excellence, economic affluence, military power, and vast territorial expanse, China was the dominant country in East Asia for two thousand years. Since early Ming times (1368-1643) there was a hierarchical system of international relations in East and Southeast Asia. China occupied the position of leadership and Korea, Liu-ch’iu (Ryukyu) Annam (Vietnam), Siam, Burma, and a host of other countries in Southeast and Central Asia accepted the status of junior members.

… international relations were based on an extension of the Confucian idea of proper relations between individuals. Just as every person in a domestic society had his specific status, so every country in an international society had its proper station. Two Korean terms illustrate the idea well: relations with China were described as sadae, serving the great, whereas relations with Japan were termed kyorin, neighborly intercourse. Thus … relations between countries were not governed by international law but by what is known as the tributary system. …

During Ming and Qing times, the tributary system had been refined into a highly ritualistic performance, with clearly defined rights and duties on the part of each participant. To China fell the duty of keeping proper order in the East and Southeast Asian family of nations. China recognized the legitimacy of rulers of the tributary countries by sending envoys to officiate when they took office and by giving them documents to confirm their authority. China went to their aid in times of foreign invasion, and sent relief missions and condolences in times of disaster. On their part, the tributary countries honored China as the superior country by sending periodic tribute, by requesting the approval of their kings, and by adopting the Chinese calendar, i.e. recording events of their countries by the day, month, and year of the reign of the Chinese emperor.

Source: Historian Immanuel C. Y. Hsü, writing in the 1970s. Hsü was born in China in 1923 and moved to the United States as a university student. He received his Ph.D. from Harvard University and spent most of his career at the University of California-Santa Barbara.


Document C: The Tributary System (Original)

By virtue of her cultural excellence, economic affluence, military power, and vast territorial expanse, China stood pre-eminent in East Asia for two millennia. Since early Ming times (1368-1643) there had been instituted a hierarchical system of “international relations” in East and Southeast Asia, with China occupying the position of leadership and Korea, Liu-ch’iu (Ryukyu), Annam (Vietnam), Siam, Burma, and a host of other peripheral states in Southeast and Central Asia accepting the status of junior members. … “international relations” were based on an extension of the Confucian idea of proper relations between individuals: just as every person in a domestic society had his specific status, so every state in an “international society” had its proper station. Two Korean terms illustrate the idea well: relations with China were described as sadae, serving the great, whereas relations with Japan were termed kyorin, neighborly intercourse. Thus … relations between the members were not governed by international law but by what is known as the tributary system. …

During Ming and Qing times, tributary relations had been refined into a highly ritualistic performance, with clearly defined rights and duties on the part of each participant. To China fell the duty of keeping proper order in the East and Southeast Asian family of nations. She recognized the legitimacy of tributary kings by sending envoys to officiate at their investitures and by conferring on them the imperial patents of appointment. She went to their aid in times of foreign invasion, and sent relief missions and commiserative messages in times of disaster. On their part, the tributary states honored China as the superior state by sending periodic tribute, by requesting the investiture of their kings, and by adopting the Chinese calendar, i.e. recording events of their countries by the day, month, and year of the reign of the Chinese emperor.

Source: Hsü, Immanuel C. Y. (2000). The Rise of Modern China (6th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Pages 130-131. Hsü was born in China in 1923 and moved to the United States as a university student. He received his Ph.D. from Harvard University and spent most of his career at the University of California-Santa Barbara.


Document D: Ma Huan’s account of Palembang (Modified)

In the late 1300s, some men from Guangdong province in China, including one named Chen Zu-yi, fled to Palembang with their families. Chen Zu-yi set himself up as their leader. He was very wealthy and behaved like a tyrant. Whenever a ship belonging to strangers passed by, he robbed them of their valuables.

In 1407, the Chinese emperor sent the Grand Eunuch Zheng He and others commanding the great fleet to the Indian Ocean. They stopped at Palembang on their way. A man named Shi Jin-qing, who was also from Guangdong, told Zheng He about the savage acts committed by Chen Zu-yi. Zheng He captured Chen Zu-yi and sent him back to the emperor in China, who had him executed.

The emperor gave a royal hat and a belt to Shi Jin-qing and made him the principal chief of Palembang to rule over the area. When Shi Jin-qing died, his authority did not pass to his son but to his daughter, Shi Er-jie. Rewards, punishments, degradations, and promotions all depended on her decisions.

Source: Based on an excerpt from a book written by Ma Huan, who traveled as an interpreter on three of Zheng He’s expeditions. The title of the book is The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores, and it was written about 1435. It was translated from Chinese into English in 1970.

Document E: Sri Lanka (Modified)

In 1409 Zheng He’s fleet arrived in Sri Lanka. The king invited Zheng He to his court and then demanded excessive gold coins. While Zheng He was at the king’s court, the king sent soldiers to attack Zheng He’s ships. Zheng He realized that with most of the king’s army out of the capital, it was undefended. So Zheng He ordered 2,000 of his soldiers to make a surprise attack on the capital. They captured the king, his wife, and other officials. When the king’s soldiers learned about the surprise attack and attempted to fight back, they were completely defeated by Zheng He’s forces.

Zheng He took the king, his wife, and other captured officials back to China with him. He presented the captives to the Chinese emperor. The emperor


pardoned the king and sent him and the captives back to Sri Lanka.

Source: Based on an excerpt from a book called Ming History, which was first published in 1793. Ming History was written by official historians of the Qing dynasty based on records from the Ming dynasty. This excerpt was recently translated from Chinese to English.

Document F: Ma Huan’s account of Semudera (Modified)Note: Semudera is an old name for the region on the north end of Sumatra, the western-most large island of Indonesia. In Zheng He’s time, Semudera was a major trading center.

The king of Semudera had been attacked by the “tattooed-face king” of nearby Nagur, who killed him with a poisoned arrow. The king of Semudera had one son, but he was too young to avenge his father’s death. So the king’s wife told the people, “If there is anyone who can avenge my husband’s death and recover his land, I am willing to marry him and to share the rule of our country.”

An old fisherman was inspired to help. He took command of an army and at once defeated the “tattooed-face king” in battle. The wife of the dead king of Semudera honored her pledge and married the old fisherman. People called him “the old king,” and in such affairs as running the royal household and establishing taxes, everyone accepted the decisions of “the old king.” In 1409 he traveled to China to pay tribute to the Chinese emperor, returning to Semudera in 1412.

When the son of the original king grew up, he plotted against “the old king,” killing him and taking control of the kingdom. Of course, this angered the son of “the old king,” who went into the mountains with many relatives and friends and set up a settlement of their own. Periodically they raided Semudera.

In 1415, Zheng He arrived in Semudera with his fleet. He sent Chinese soldiers into the mountains to capture the son of “the old king.” They took him to the capital of Semudera, where he was executed. The son of the original king was grateful to Zheng He and presented tribute of local products to be taken back to China.



Document G: Ma Huan’s account of Melaka (Modified)Note: “Melaka” is also spelled “Malacca”

When Zheng He first arrived in Melaka, there was no king. It was controlled by a chief and it was under the jurisdiction of Thailand. Melaka paid an annual tribute of 48 ounces of gold, and if it didn’t pay Thailand would send men to attack it.

In 1409 the emperor of China sent Zheng He to make the chief a king by giving him two silver seals, a hat, a belt, and a robe. Zheng He erected a stone tablet that declared Melaka to be a kingdom. After that Thailand did not dare to invade Melaka.

The king of Melaka selected local products and went with his wife, his son, and some of his chiefs on Chinese ships to the capital of China. He met the emperor of China and presented him the products of Melaka as tribute.

After that, when the Chinese fleet arrived at Melaka, they erected a stockade, like a city wall, and set up towers at four gates. At night they had patrols of police. Inside the stockade they erected a second stockade, like a smaller city wall. Inside they constructed warehouses and granaries, and all the money and provisions from the Chinese fleet were stored there. The Chinese ships that had gone to various countries returned to Melaka and stored the foreign goods they had gathered until the winds were blowing in the right direction so the ships could return home to China with all their foreign goods.



Document D: Ma Huan’s account of Palembang (Original)

Some time ago, during the Hung-wu period [late 1300s], some men from Guangdong province, Chen Zu-yi and others, fled to this place [Palembang] with their whole households; Chen Zu-yi set himself up as a chief; he was very wealthy and tyrannical, and whenever a ship belonging to strangers passed by, he immediately robbed them of their valuables.

In the fifth year of the Yongle period [1407], the court dispatched the Grand Eunuch Zheng He and others commanding the treasure-ships of the great fleet going to the Western Ocean [Indian Ocean], and they arrived at this place. There was a person named Shi Jin-qing who was also a man from Guangdong province, and he came and reported the acts of savagery and other such acts committed by Chen Zu-yi. Chen Zu-yi and others were captured alive by the Grand Eunuch Zheng He and taken back to the court, and they were put to death.

Subsequently, the emperor bestowed a hat and a girdle upon Shi Jin-qing and returned him to Palembang as principal chief, to rule over the territory. When this man died, his position did not descend to his son; it was his daughter Shi Er-jie who became ruler, and in every case rewards, punishments, degradations, and promotions all depended on her decision.

Source: An excerpt from a book written by Ma Huan, who traveled as an interpreter on three of Zheng He’s expeditions. The title of the book is The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores, and it was written about 1435. It was translated from Chinese into English in 1970.

Document E: Sri Lanka (Original)

In the 9th month of the sixth year of Emperor Yongle’s reign (1409), the fleet went to Ceylon [Sri Lanka]. King Alagakkonara invited Zheng He to his court and then demanded excessive gold coins. Meanwhile, the Ceylonese king sent soldiers to attack Zheng He’s ships. Zheng He found that the majority of the enemy had left their state capitol, leaving it undefended. Thus, he commanded 2,000 soldiers to mount a surprise attack against the king’s capitol and captured Alagakkonara, his wife, and other officials. The king’s soldiers learned about the surprise attack and attempted to fight back, but they were completely defeated by the Ming forces.


In the 6th month of the 9th year of Emperor Yongle’s reign (1411), Zheng He presented the captured people to the royal Ming Court. The emperor pardoned the king’s crime and returned the Ceylon people to their country.

Source: An excerpt from a book called Ming History, which was first published in 1793. Ming History was written by official historians of the Qing dynasty based on records from the Ming dynasty. This excerpt was recently translated from Chinese to English.

Document F: Ma Huan’s account of Semudera (Original)

The king of the country of Semudera had previously been raided by the “tattooed-face king” of Nagur and in the fighting he received a poisoned arrow in the body and died. He had one son, who was young and unable to avenge his father’s death. The king’s wife made a vow before the people, saying “If there is anyone who can avenge my husband’s death and recover his land, I am willing to marry him and to share with him the management of the country’s affairs.” When she finished speaking, a fisherman belonging to the place was fired with determination, and said, “I can avenge him.”

Thereupon, he took command of an army and at once put the “tattooed-face king” to flight in battle; and later he avenged the former king’s death when the “tattooed-face king” was killed. …

Whereupon the wife of the former king, failing not to carry out her previous vow, forthwith married the fisherman. He was styled “the old king,” and in such things as the affairs of the royal household and the taxation of the land, everybody accepted the old king’s decisions. In the seventh year of the Yongle period [1409] the old king, in fulfillment of his duty, brought tribute of local products, and was enriched by the kindness of Heaven; and in the tenth year of the Yongle period [1412] he returned to his country.

When the son of the former king had grown up, he secretly plotted with the chiefs, murdered his adoptive father the fisherman, usurped his position, and ruled the kingdom.

The fisherman had a son by his principal wife; his name of Sekandar; he took command of his people, and they fled away, taking their families; and,


after erecting a stockade in the neighboring mountains, from time to time he led his men in incursions to take revenge on his father’s enemies. In the thirteenth year of the Yongle period [1415] the principal envoy the Grand Eunuch Cheng Ho and others, commanding a large fleet of treasure-ships, arrived there; they dispatched soldiers who captured Sekandar, and he went to the capital and was publicly executed. The king’s son was grateful for the imperial kindness, and constantly presented tribute of local products to the court.

Source: An excerpt from a book written by Ma Huan, who traveled as an interpreter on three of Zheng He’s expeditions. The title of the book is The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores, and it was first written about 1435. It was translated from Chinese into English in 1970.

Document G: Ma Huan’s account of Melaka (Original)Note: “Melaka” is also spelled “Malacca”

There was no king of the country; and it was controlled only by a chief. This territory was subordinate to the jurisdiction of Thailand. It paid an annual tribute of forty-eight ounces of gold; and if it were not to pay, then Thailand would send men to attack it.

In the seventh year of the Yongle period [1409] … the emperor ordered the principal envoy the Grand Eunuch Zheng He and others to assume command of the treasure-ships, and to take the imperial edicts and to bestow upon this chief two silver seals, a hat, a girdle and a robe. Zheng He set up a stone tablet and raised the place to a city; and it was subsequently called the country of Melaka. Thereafter Thailand did not dare to invade it.

The chief, having received the favor of being made king, conducted his wife and son, and went to the court at the capital [of China] to return thanks and to present tribute of local products. The [Chinese] court also granted him a sea-going ship so that he might return to his country and protect his land. …

Whenever the treasure-ships of the Central Country [China] arrived there, they at once erected a line of stockading, like a city-wall, and set up towers for the watch-drums at four gates; at night they had patrols of police carrying bells; inside, again, they erected a second stockade, like a small


city-wall, within which they constructed warehouses and granaries; and all the money and provisions were stored in them. The ships which had gone to various countries returned to this place and assembled; they marshaled the foreign goods and loaded them in the ships; then waited till the south wind was perfectly favorable. In the middle decade of the fifth moon they put to sea and returned home.

Source: An excerpt from a book written by Ma Huan, who traveled as an interpreter on three of Zheng He’s expeditions. The title of the book is The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores, and it was written about 1435. It was translated from Chinese into English in 1970.


Document H: Zheng He was trying to dominate other countries for China’s benefit (Modified)

When Zheng He attacked the pirate Chen Zu-yi at Palembang, he reported 5,000 people killed, ten ships burned, and seven ships captured. Zheng He appointed a new ruler for the area who served as an agent of the Chinese state. In Sri Lanka, Zheng He invaded the capital, captured the king, destroyed his military, and took the king and his family back to China. The Chinese appointed a puppet ruler to replace the king, presumably to act in ways beneficial to the Chinese.

In Semudera, it is likely that Zheng He and his forces inserted themselves in a civil war, supported the side that was not hostile to the Chinese, and engaged in warfare against the other side. In Melaka, the Chinese established a military garrison that also served as a treasury.

These examples suggest that Zheng He’s expeditions were intended to achieve the recognition of Ming dominance over all the states and kingdoms in the regions visited. To achieve this they used force, or the threat of force. The number of Southeast Asian rulers traveling to China with the Zheng He expeditions suggests that coercion must have been an important element of the voyages. It was almost unheard of for Southeast Asian rulers to travel to other countries because of security concerns at home. That such a large number of rulers did travel to the Ming court in this period suggests coercion of some form.

These missions also intended to obtain control of ports and shipping lanes. By controlling ports and trade routes, the Chinese controlled trade, an essential element for the expeditions’ treasure-collecting tasks. The armies that manned these ships ensured that the control was maintained.

“Gunboat diplomacy” is not a term that is usually applied to the voyages of Zheng He. However, since these voyages were involved in diplomacy and the ships were indeed gunboats, with perhaps 26,000 out of 28,000 members of some missions being military men, “gunboat diplomacy” seems the appropriate term to apply to the duties of these fleets.

Source: Based on an article first published in 2005 and written by the historian Geoff Wade who works at the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies at the National University of Singapore.


Document H: Zheng He was trying to dominate other countries for China’s benefit (Original)

To enable these great fleets to maintain the Pax Ming in the immediate region and sail through the Indian Ocean to Africa, it was necessary to create staging posts in what is today Southeast Asia. These depots (“guan-chang”), which comprised military garrisons-cum-treasuries, were established at Melaka, and at the northern end of the Melaka Strait near the polity of Samudera on Sumatra. …

Below, five major military actions are sketched out for the reader.

The first example is of an attack on the polity of “Old Port” (Palembang) in Sumatra in 1407. In that year, Zheng He returned from his first major mission abroad, bringing with him a “pirate” Chen Zu-yi captured at Old Port, for reportedly having “feigned surrender but secretly plotted to attack the Imperial army.” The Ming fleet reported 5000 persons killed, with ten ships burnt and seven captured in the fracas at Old Port. Later in the same year, the Ming recognized the polity of Old Port, and appointed a Chinese person, Shi Jin-qing, as ruler. He was probably appointed by Zheng He to represent the Ming state and this polity was in effect a Ming Chinese client state in Southeast Asia. …

A fourth attack was on Sri Lanka in 1411. This was perhaps the event most revealing about the nature of the eunuch-led maritime voyages. It involved a military invasion, the capture of Alagakkonara, the ruler of the Rayigama kingdom, and the carrying back of him and his family members to the Ming court in 1411. As was the case in similar scenarios in Yunnan, the Ming appointed a puppet ruler to replace the king, presumably to act in ways beneficial to the Ming. …

Fifth, there was the attack and capture of Su-gan-la of Samudera. In 1415 Su-gan-la, the reported “leader of the Samuderan bandits,” was captured and taken to China from Sumatra by Zheng He. While full details of the events that occurred in 1414 and 1415 remain obscure it is likely that Zheng He and his forces inserted themselves in a civil war in northern Sumatra, supported the side that was not hostile to the Ming and engaged in warfare with the other. …

The examples above suggest that the maritime forces sent abroad in the


first third of the fifteenth century were intended to achieve the recognition of Ming pre-eminence among all the polities of the known maritime world. To achieve this they used force, or the threat thereof. The number of Southeast Asian rulers travelling to China with the Zheng He missions suggests that coercion must have been an important element. It was almost unheard of for Southeast Asian rulers to travel to other polities, both for ritual and security reasons. That such a large number of rulers did travel to the Ming court in this period suggests coercion of some form. “Gunboat diplomacy” is not a term that is usually applied to the voyages of Zheng He. However, given that these missions were nominally involved in diplomacy and as it appears that the ships were indeed gunboats, with perhaps 26,000 out of 28,000 members of some missions being military men, this seems an eminently suitable term to apply to the duties of these armadas.

As such, they were missions intended to coerce and obtain control of ports and shipping lanes. It was not control of territory, which came with later imperialism, but was political and economic control across space — control of economic lifelines, nodal points and networks. By controlling ports and trade routes, one controlled trade, an essential element for the missions’ treasure-collecting tasks. The colonial armies that manned these ships were the tools necessary to ensure that the control was maintained. …

Source: Wade, Geoff. (2009). Ming Colonial Armies in Southeast Asia. In Geoff Wade (Ed.). China and Southeast Asia. (Vol. 2: Southeast Asia and Ming China from the Fourteenth to the Sixteenth Century). (p. 218-221). London: Routledge.


Document I: Zheng He was a peacemaker (Modified)

As soon as Zhu Yuanzhang established the Ming dynasty, he spelled out his government’s policy of not intervening in foreign states. His imperial decree stated, “The rulers of China and foreign states, far and near, should be kind to each other equally, adopt a friendly policy towards neighbors, and all will live in harmony as well as enjoy peace and happiness.” His son, the Yongle emperor, who sent Zheng He on his first six expeditions, continued this policy. Ming China’s foreign relations with Southeast Asian states were based on trade and diplomacy.

Historian Geoff Wade says that Zheng He mounted military attacks in Palembang, Sri Lanka, and Semudera. But all these actions were taken either for a good cause or for self-defense. Zheng He’s capture of Chen Zu-yi in Palembang helped clamp down on rampant piracy in the Straits of Melaka, and this was good for the east-west maritime trade. The military action in Sri Lanka was in self-defense as Zheng He’s fleet was under attack by the king Alagakkonara. In the Sekandar case in Semudera, Zheng He quelled the rebellion to restore peace and order at the request of the native ruler.

Dr. Wade also argued that the base set up by Zheng He’s fleet in Melaka was a military base or a Chinese colony. In fact, the base in Melaka as described by Ma Huan was clearly simply a warehouse. In all these cases, Zheng He acted as a peacekeeper and guardian of native states to maintain law and order and the safety of trade routes. Throughout his seven voyages Zheng He did not occupy or colonize an inch of foreign land.

The benefits of sending tributary missions to China far exceeded those of not sending. For prestige reasons, China gave far greater tributary gifts than it received. Besides getting gifts of gold, silver, and other valuables, the other states received the protection of China.

Source: The writings of historian Ta Sen Tan, primarily his book Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia, which was published in 2009 in Singapore by the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Ta Sen Tan is also president of the International Zheng He Society, which is based in Singapore, and a director of the Cheng Ho Cultural Museum in Melaka.


Document I: Zheng He was a peacemaker (Original)

… As soon as Zhu Yuanzhang [the Hongwu emperor] established the Ming dynasty, he clearly spelt out the Ming court’s non-intervention foreign policy in an imperial decree which states, “The rulers of China and barbarian states, far and near, should be kind to each other equally, adopt a friendly policy towards neighbors, and all will live in harmony as well as enjoy peace and happiness.” … Emperor Hongwu’s proclamation on neighboring states in Southeast Asia not to be invaded was also observed by Emperor Yongle [his son]. Thus, Ming China’s foreign relations with Southeast Asian states were fundamentally based on trade and diplomacy. This had been the guiding policy and tone of Cheng Ho’s mission from 1405 to 1433.

Wade cited that Cheng Ho mounted attacks in Sumatra, Java, Sri Lanka and Su-gan-la of Samudera to prove Cheng Ho’s militaristic and intimidating nature of the maritime voyages. Based on this author’s research, however all these actions were taken either for a good cause or self-defense. For instance, Cheng Ho’s capture of Chen Zu-yi in Palembang, Sumatra, helped clamp down on rampant piracy in the Straits of Malacca and thus was good for the East-West maritime trade. … In the Su-gan-la (Sekandar) case in Samudera, Cheng Ho quelled the rebellion to restore peace and order of the state at the request of the native ruler. His men left the state once the rebellion was over. The military action in Sri Lanka was in self-defense as Cheng Ho’s fleet was under attack by the native ruler Alagakkonara.

Wade also argued that depots (“guan-chang”) set up by Cheng Ho’s fleet in strategic port cities like Malacca and so on were military bases or colonies. In fact, the depot in Malacca as described by Ma Huan was clearly simply a warehouse.

In the above cases, Cheng Ho acted as a peacekeeper and guardian of native states to maintain law and order of the region and the safety of trade routes. Throughout his seven voyages, Cheng Ho did not occupy or colonize an inch of foreign land. Wade’s expansionist theory is not supported by valid arguments and therefore not plausible at all. …

Source: Tan, Ta Sen. (2009). Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asia Studies. (pp. 166-168).


The vassal states were obligated to pay tributes but nothing would happen to them if they failed to send tributary missions. The benefits of sending tributary missions far exceeded that of not sending. Besides getting gifts of gold, silver and other valuables, they had the Ming empire as patron to protect them. Therefore, numerous native states, big or small, came to pay tributes to the throne. So the Ming throne maintained peace with them and treated them well. …

Source: Tan, Ta Sen. (2005). Did Zheng He set out to colonize Southeast Asia? In Leo Suryadinata (Ed.). Admiral Zheng He and Southeast Asia. (p. 53). Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.


Document Analysis WorksheetName(s):

Title of the document you are analyzing:

STEP 1: SOURCING (“Sourcing” = Understanding where the document came from.)Before you read the document, read the “source” note at the bottom and answer these questions.

1. Who wrote the document?

2. When was it written?

3. Is this a primary source or a secondary source?Primary source = Document written at the time of the events it describesSecondary source = Document written later, usually a summary or analysis of primary sources.

4. Does this writer see the events from a Chinese perspective?

5. Is this writer a reliable source for these events? That is, should we believe what this writer says? Why or why not?

STEP 2: CLOSE READING (“Close reading” = Reading the document carefully and thinking about it as you read it.)

As you read the document, list the questions that come to your mind. Write at least five questions.

STEP 3: CONTEXTUALIZING (“Contextualizing” = Thinking about what else was going on when the events happened, information that isn’t in the document.)

1. Using Document A as your guide, figure out on which of Zheng He’s seven voyages did the events you read about happen?


2. Can you find any answers to your questions in Step 2 above by looking in your textbook, at the information your teacher presented, or in Documents A or B? If so, write the answers here.

3. Who were the participants in the events besides the Chinese? For each participant, answer the question in the chart below.

Other participants Do you think they saw Zheng He as a peaceful ambassador or an imperial aggressor? Explain your answer.

4. Complete the boxes in the chart “Part 1: Primary sources: Was Zheng He a peaceful ambassador or an imperial aggressor?”


Document Analysis Worksheet Answer Key

(D) Palembang (E) Sri Lanka (F) Semudera (G) MelakaStep 1: Sourcing1. Who wrote the document?

Ma Huan, a translator who traveled with Zheng He

Historians in the Qing dynasty



2. When was it written?

about 1435 published in 1793

about 1435 about 1435

3. Primary or secondary source?

primary source

secondary source

primary source

primary source

4. Does this writer see the events from a Chinese perspective?

Yes, he is Chinese.

Yes, he is Chinese.

Yes, he is Chinese.

Yes, he is Chinese.

5. Is this writer a reliable source?

He traveled with Zheng He, so he probably witnessed the events he writes about or talked with people who witnessed them. But he probably only writes about the Chinese perspective.

Not as reliable as Ma Huan, since the writer didn’t travel with Zheng He and lived about 300 years later.

He traveled with Zheng He, so he probably witnessed the events he writes about or talked with people who witnessed them. But he probably only writes about the Chinese perspective.

STEP 3: ContextualizingOn which voyage did the incident occur?

The first voyage; it says so explicitly in Document A.

The third voyage; it says so explicitly in Document A.

The fourth voyage; it says so explicitly in Document A.

Seems Zheng He stopped in Melaka on several voyages.

(Continued on next page.)


3. Who were the participants in the events besides the Chinese? For each participant, answer the question in the chart below.

(D) PALEMBANGOther participants Do you think they saw Zheng He as a peaceful ambassador

or an imperial aggressor? Explain your answer.The Chinese pirates

Probably saw Zheng He as a policeman, which is an aggressive role.

Shi Jin-qing, who the Chinese appointed chief

Probably saw Zheng He as restoring the peace.

(E) SRI LANKAOther participants Do you think they saw Zheng He as a peaceful ambassador

or an imperial aggressor? Explain your answer.King Alagakkonara The king and other Sri Lankans may have seen Zheng He as

an aggressor they had to defend themselves against OR they may have thought he was peaceful but they wanted to steal some of the goods Zheng He had in his ships.

(F) SEMUDERAOther participants Do you think they saw Zheng He as a peaceful ambassador

or an imperial aggressor? Explain your answer.“The old king” He traveled to China to pay tribute, so he must not have

been too intimidated by the Chinese.The son of king who “the old king” replaced

Zheng He eliminated his rival, the son of “the old king,” so he may have thought Zheng He was a peacemaker.

The son of “the old king”

Zheng He captured and executed him, so he and his supporters must have thought the Chinese were aggressors.

(G) MELAKAOther participants Do you think they saw Zheng He as a peaceful ambassador

or an imperial aggressor? Explain your answer.The local chief He must have seen Zheng He as a peacemaker, since Zheng

He made him king and got the Thais off his back. There isn’t any indication whether the king liked the fact that the Chinese built a fortified warehouse in Melaka.

Thailand The Thais must have seen Zheng He as an aggressor since he interfered in their relationship with the chief of Melaka.


Document Comparison Worksheet Name:

Part 1: Primary sources: Was Zheng He a peaceful ambassador or an imperial aggressor?

DocumentDo you think the

document suggests peaceful intentions or

aggression?Provide evidence (information) from the document to support your opinion.

(D)Palembang

(E)Sri Lanka

(F)Semudera

(G)Melaka

Taking all four documents into account, what is your overall opinion of whether Zheng He was a peaceful ambassador or an imperial aggressor? Explain your opinion. If you cannot decide, list at least three questions in your mind that could help you decide if you had the answers.


Part 2: Historians debate Zheng He: Peaceful ambassador or imperial aggressor?

Wade’s best 3 reasons Do you … (circle one) Explain why you agree or disagree with Wade.

Agree strongly Agree Not

sure Disagree Disagree strongly





Tan’s best 3 reasons Do you … (circle one) Explain why you agree or disagree with Tan.







What is your opinion on this debate? (a) I support Dr. Wade’s position; (b) I support Dr. Tan’s position; (c) I can’t decide

If you chose (a) or (b), list the three best reasons that support your opinion. If you chose (c), list three questions in your mind that could help you decide if you had the answers.

1.

2.


3.


Document Comparison Worksheet Name:

Part 1: Primary sources: Was Zheng He a peaceful ambassador or an imperial aggressor?

DocumentDo you think the

document suggests peaceful intentions or

aggression?Provide evidence (information) from the document to support your opinion.

(D)Palembang

Peaceful intentions: Zheng He restored the peace that the pirates had disrupted.Aggression: Zheng He engaged in military action, captured the pirate leader, and took him back to China, where he was executed. What if he wasn’t really a pirate, but a rebel who didn’t want Zheng He controlling his territory?

(E)Sri Lanka

Peaceful intentions: Zheng He and the Chinese were only defending themselves against the aggression of the Sri Lankan king.Aggression: Zheng He was a guest in the country, so he shouldn’t have attacked the king of Sri Lanka and taken him and his family back to China. If Zheng He was strong enough to defeat the king, he could have just gotten on his ships and left.

(F)Semudera

Peaceful intentions: Zheng He restored the peace, so the people who supported the son of the original king would think of him as a peacemaker.Aggression: Zheng He captured and executed the son of “the old king,” so his supporters must have thought the Chinese were aggressors.

(G)Melaka

Peaceful intentions: Zheng He saved the king of Melaka from having to pay tribute to the king of Thailand.Aggression: Zheng He hurt Thailand by interfering in Thailand’s affairs in Melaka.

Taking all four documents into account, what is your overall opinion of whether Zheng He was a peaceful ambassador or an imperial aggressor? Explain your opinion. If you cannot decide, list at least three questions in your mind that could help you decide if you had the answers.


Part 2: Historians debate Zheng He: Peaceful ambassador or imperial aggressor?

Wade’s best 3 reasons Do you … (circle one) Explain why you agree or disagree with Wade.Four examples of when the Chinese chose sides in a local dispute to make sure that people who would be friendly to the Chinese would be in charge of the local government.



So many local rulers made the long trip to China only because they felt like they had to; they were coerced.



The Chinese fleets included thousands of soldiers; the only purpose for that was to intimate the local people and governments.



Tan’s best 3 reasons Do you … (circle one) Explain why you agree or disagree with Tan.The Ming policy was that “all will live in harmony as well as enjoy peace and happiness.”



The Chinese only got involved in other countries’ affairs for a good cause or in self-defense.



The Chinese base in Melaka was a warehouse, not a colony or a military establishment.



Foreign rulers wanted to go to China to pay tribute because they received much richer gifts from the Chinese than they gave.




Background notes for teachersEven with my focus on recent research from the perspectives of Chinese historians of

China, I find that the account of Zheng He’s expeditions in the Teachers’ Curriculum

Institute’s 7th grade textbook History Alive! The Medieval World and Beyond is quite

accurate. The focus on tributary relationships, the acknowledgement that “These

exchanges benefited the foreigners even more than the Chinese” (p. 210), the

description of the fleets, and the reasons for stopping the expeditions all agree with the

research findings I summarize below. The textbook account is brief, of course, and the

following notes are intended to provide a deeper understanding of the historical context.

Following a discussion of the sources used for Document D, E, F and G, the notes are

organized in the same order as the topics in the Introductory Slide Show.

1. Sources for Documents D, E, F and G

2. The reasons the Yongle emperor sponsored the expeditions

3. The dates and routes of the voyages

4. Biographical information on Zheng He

5. The size of the Chinese fleet

6. The reasons the expeditions ended

7. The contemporary historical debate over whether the expeditions were peaceful

or aggressive

1. Sources for Documents D, E, F and GThe most accessible book on the Zheng He voyages available to most teachers in the

United States is Louise Levathes’s When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of

the Dragon Throne (1994), which Taiwanese-born historian Ming-Yang Su says “is still a

good introductory book” (p. 13). Also easily available is Edward Dryer’s more recent and

more scholarly account, Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty,

1405-1433 (2006). However, since a primary goal of this series of lessons is to see

“Chinese history through Chinese eyes,” I have relied on Su’s Seven Epic Voyages of

Zheng He in Ming China (1405-1433): Facts, Fiction and Fabrication (2005).

Su has written extensively on the Zheng He voyages in Chinese for Chinese

publications. Seven Epic Voyages “is specifically written for English-speaking readers


who do not read Chinese, but are interested in learning the up-to-date research results

of the Zheng He voyages” (p. 14). Seven Epic Voyages is not a conventional historical

narrative but rather an extensive description and analysis of the historical sources

relating to the Zheng He voyages, including English translations of some important

shorter documents. Su first reviews the limited extant primary sources, then a 1597

novel that he argues has distorted contemporary understanding of some key issues (in

particular the size of Zheng He’s largest ships), and then the recent “wholly and

intentionally fabricated” 1421: The Year China Discovered the World by Gavin Menzies

(2002).

For my purposes, Su’s focus on primary sources is especially valuable. He notes

that most official records of the voyages “were lost” (p. 25), either deliberately or

accidently, about 30 years after the voyages ended, leaving an “extremely limited” (p.

33) number of documents for such a major topic in Chinese history. He makes it clear

that Ma Huan’s The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores, written about 1435 at the

conclusion of Zheng He’s last voyage, is the most significant original source still in

existence. Ma Huan traveled as a translator on the fourth, sixth, and seventh of Zheng

He’s voyages. His narrative wasn’t published until 1451, and, given that foreign

expeditions had fallen into disfavor by then, it was never widely read in China. Su calls

J. V. G. Mills’ 1970 English translation of The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores

“excellent” (p. 50). Two accounts of Zheng He’s voyages written by two other

participants also exist, one of which contains practically the same text as Ma Huan’s

and the other of which is substantially based on hearsay. Therefore Ma Huan is the

most appropriate primary source for Documents D, F, and G included in this lesson.

Ma Huan does not write about the incident in Sri Lanka included as Document E.

This incident occurred on Zheng He’s second voyage, before Ma Huan was involved.

The incident is mentioned in the 1431 stone marker that commemorates the beginning

of the seventh voyage (see below) and is recounted in Ming History, an official history of

the Ming dynasty written during the subsequent Qing dynasty, as was the tradition in

writing Chinese dynastic histories. Ming History is based on official records, not all of

which survive today, and wasn’t completed until the 1700s, making it a secondary

source. Su considers its account of the incident in Sri Lanka reliable and provides an


English translation (p. 150-151).

2. The reasons the Yongle emperor sponsored the expeditionsMa Huan does not comment directly on the reasons that the Yongle emperor sponsored

Zheng He’s expeditions. However, a forward to his book written in 1444 by Ma Ching

provides some indications:

But [surely] in their hearts their two Majesties [the Yongle emperor who

sponsored the first six expeditions and the Xuande emperor who sponsored the

seventh expedition] did not really desire boastfully to provoke numerous conflicts

far and wide in distant regions? Because their fame [already] extended to the

barbarians of the south and north, causing every person with a soul throughout

the world, whether stupid or alert, to be imbued with their virtue and civilizing

influence, so that all would know their Emperor and respect their parents (Ma

Huan, p. 71-72).

The first sentence appears to reject the concept that the expeditions had military goals.

There is no indication why it was necessary to address this issue. The second sentence

appears to refer to the tributary system, which the Chinese saw within the Confucian

system of relationships. Tributary countries should respect the Chinese emperor as

children respect their parents, with the implication that setting that relationship in order

was a principal goal of the expeditions.

Su and most other contemporary historians accept the tributary system as a

starting point in their explanations of the motives for the expeditions:

Ming China dispatched these massive fleets every few years to the South China

Sea and the Indian Ocean in order to showcase China’s great military powers

overseas. The Ming Court wanted to encourage these foreign city-states to come

pay tribute (Su, p. 23).

Furthermore, Su sees a political goal in the emperor’s desire to revitalize the tributary

relationships. Since the Yongle emperor had recently usurped the throne from his

nephew, Su says the emperor saw tributary relationships as a way to legitimize his rule:

The Emperor was much more interested in enhancing his prestige at home than


promoting international relations and trade abroad, so that he would be regarded

by his subjects as truly the “Son of Heaven,” not as someone who stole the

throne from his own nephew (p. 91).

Historian Geoff Wade, who provides one of the viewpoints in the “historians’

debate” featured in this lesson, sees the Zheng He voyages as one of the Yongle

emperor’s three expansionist campaigns on China’s southern borders. The other two

involved re-establishing control over Yunnan, the Chinese province in the southwest

(which succeeded), and trying to conquer Annan in northern Vietnam (which failed

despite twenty years of warfare) (Wade, p. 222-235). In this context, Wade sees that

Zheng He’s voyages were

… intended to create legitimacy for the usurping emperor, display the might of

the Ming, bring the known polities to demonstrated submission to the Ming and

thereby achieve a Pax Ming and collect treasures for the Court (p. 216).

These explanations align closely with Su except for the final phrase, to “collect

treasures for the Court.” According to Su, “Many expensive royal gifts were given to the

foreign rulers while the foreign tributes were comparatively lacking in riches and

merchandise” (p. 128).

Historian Tan Ta Sen, who presents the other viewpoint in the “historians’

debate,” agrees that the Yongle emperor launched the Zheng He expeditions to promote

tributary relationships and thus enhance his stature at home. Contrary to Su, however,

Tan finds promoting trade was also an important economic objective of the expeditions.

He also thinks the emperor wanted to disseminate Chinese culture abroad and “conduct

scientific maritime exploration to the unchartered frontiers” (p. 163). However, the

evidence Tan offers for the last three reasons suggests that they were outcomes of the

expeditions rather than objectives envisioned beforehand.

3. The dates and routes of the voyagesDocument A, which lists the dates and major events of the first six voyages, is based on

a stone marker erected in 1431 in a Chinese temple in Nanjing to commemorate the

beginning of the seventh voyage. Given the later destruction of most of the official


records from the voyages, it is very fortunate that the basic information was preserved

in this format. Su reprints an English translation of this document originally made by the

Dutch scholar J. J. L. Duyvendak (Su, p. 35-39).

This stone marker (and a similar one erected in 1432 at a port in the province of

Fujian that was also involved in the Zheng He expeditions) is one of the many

arguments against Gavin Menzies’ assertions in 1421: The Year China Discovered the

World that a contingent of the sixth expedition continued south along Africa’s east coast,

sailed around the Cape of Good Hope, explored the Americas, and then returned to

China across the Pacific. Given the details of the expeditions provided on the two stone

markers, it seems unlikely that mention of a global circumnavigation the previous

decade would have been omitted had it occurred.

The map provided in Document B was drawn by Wikipedia contributor Vladimir

Menkov, based on information from Dreyer's Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the

Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433. I have corroborated its content with a 1526 document

provided by Su that lists the dates and places of the seventh voyage (p. 53-54). Menkov

has placed his map in the public domain and authorized its use in this lesson.

4. Biographical information on Zheng HeFollowing Su’s lead, I have not included any biographical information on Zheng He in

the Introductory Slide Show that is not directly supported by reliable historical sources,

which seem to be limited to two. Zheng He erected a stone marker at his father’s grave

in 1405 that provides information on his grandfather, his father, and himself. In addition,

the Ming History described above includes a biography of Zheng He that Su translates

(p. 149-153). The slide explaining how Zheng He became a eunuch is deliberately

placed at the end of the Zheng He biographical information because it is based on

historians’ assumptions. The assumptions are widely accepted given the documentation

on the death of Zheng He’s father, our knowledge of the Ming invasion of Yunnan, our

knowledge of the common practice of castrating boy prisoners, and Zheng He’s

appearance several years later as a eunuch in the service of the emperor’s son, Zhu Di,

who later became the Yongle emperor and the sponsor of Zheng He’s voyages.


5. The size of the Chinese fleetAccording to Duyvendak’s translation of the stone marker erected in 1431 to

commemorate the beginning of the seventh voyage, “… each time we have

commanded several tens of thousand government soldiers and more than a hundred

ocean-going vessels” (Su, p. 36). The biography of Zheng He in Ming History uses the

figure 27,800 to describe the size of the expedition crews (Su, p. 150).

The biography also gives the dimensions of Zheng He’s largest ships as 440 feet

long and 180 feet wide. Su devotes considerable attention to these figures and

concludes that they are exaggerations that first appeared in a 1597 fictional re-telling of

Zheng He’s expeditions and then worked their way into the Ming History, which wasn’t

completed until the 1700s, as well as some versions of Ma Huan’s account that were

published after 1597. The novel, titled Western Ocean Travels and written by Luo

Mondeng, was intended to remind readers during the declining years of the Ming

dynasty of the dynasty’s earlier achievements. To that end, Luo seems to have

systematically exaggerated numbers such as the size of the crew by a measure of ten

(Su, p. 211-219).

Su suggests that the largest ships in Zheng He’s fleet were probably about 220

feet long. He arrives at this estimate based on an archeological find, an 11-meter rudder

dug up in the Nanjing shipyard where many of Zheng He’s ships were built. Scaling up

the largest comparable, contemporary ship for which sufficient data exists, Su estimates

that an 11-meter rudder would accommodate a 220-foot-long ship (p. 219-223).

Piecing together fragments from various sources concerning ship and crew sizes,

Su suggests that a typical expedition fleet probably comprised about 250 ships, about

half of them larger and half of them smaller, and perhaps only one of the 220-foot-long

ships. A crew of about 27,000 could man a fleet of this size (p. 224-225).

6. The reasons the expeditions endedSu, Wade, and Tan agree that the expeditions ended primarily because they were too

expensive and because conflicts on China’s northern border were a more important use

of government resources than maintaining tributary relationships with kingdoms in

Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean. After the Yongle emperor’s death in 1424, the


new Hongxi emperor, his son, ended the expeditions. The Hongxi emperor died in 1425,

and his son, the Xuande emperor, sent the seventh expedition (1431-1433), during

which Zheng He died. Su writes:

The main reason why the naval expeditions were discontinued after 1433 was

due to the great national expenditures for carrying out these seven expeditions.

… Many expensive royal gifts were given to the foreign rulers while the foreign

tributes were comparatively lacking in riches and merchandise (p. 128).

Tan cites the Ming History when giving the same reason for the end of the expeditions:

Excessive expenditures and extravagance incurred by the expeditions were

hurting the national economy and became financial burdens to the treasury (p.

207).

Wade comes to a similar conclusion:

The factors contributing to the ending of the voyages were numerous. The death

of the Yongle emperor in 1424 was a factor, as was the huge expense of the

missions. Senior civil ministers had been arguing against the missions for

decades, as they were seen as wasteful and an essentially eunuch-driven

adventure. After the death of the voyages’ patron, it was not long before the

missions were finally wound down (p. 222).

7. The contemporary historical debate over whether the expeditions were peaceful or aggressiveThe uptick in interest in the Zheng He expeditions that accompanied the 600th

anniversary of the first voyage in 2005 generated the debate between Geoff Wade and

Tan Ta Sen that is featured in this lesson. There is a general sentiment, however, that

the debate has also arisen at this point, especially in Southeast Asia, because of the

emergence of the People’s Republic of China as a potentially dominant player in the

region and the world. Although this lesson does not attempt to project the historical

debate into the contemporary arena, it would be good for teachers to make the

connection explicit for their students. The issues are similar in many ways.


As indicated above, most contemporary historians, including Wade and Tan,

agree that the principal goal of the Chinese expeditions into the South China Sea and

the Indian Ocean in the early 1400s was to establish tributary relationships with the

kingdoms in those areas. The difference comes with interpretations of the tributary

relationship. Historians like Tan, who accepts as reasonable the Confucian relationship

of submission by one party and responsibility by the other party to protect and support

the submissive party, do not see the expeditions as aggressive. Historians like Wade,

who focuses on the hierarchical aspect in Confucian relationships and assumes that

most parties only submit to others as a result of force or the threat of force, interpret the

expeditions as aggressive.

This is an importance difference that arises from worldviews that originate in

substantially different historical and cultural traditions. It is likely that students in

California schools, being more closely connected with the Western tradition, will tend to

side with Wade in this debate. The success of this lesson can be measured by whether

such students understand that Tan’s view is not simply “wrong” but makes sense in the

context of the Chinese historical and cultural traditions described in Document C.

Given the lack of a direct explanation of Chinese intentions in the primary

sources, Wade seeks evidence for his position in the scanty record of what actually

happened during the expeditions. In addition to the four situations described in

Documents D, E, F and G, Wade also cites a skirmish in Java in 1407 (p. 218-221).

Tan’s rebuttals for the first four situations are included in Document I. In addition, it

should be kept in mind that these five incidents represent a small percentage of the total

number of interactions between the Chinese fleets and the many countries they visited

on seven voyages over nearly 30 years. The lack of documentation does not mean that

no other incidents occurred, of course, but documentation for only a few incidents

suggests that most of the encounters were relatively peaceful.

Wade also argues that the mere size of the fleet indicates an attempt to

intimidate anyone whose path it crossed (p. 218). The excerpt from the video prepared

for an exhibit at the National Library in Singapore that is included in the Introductory

Slide Show may be motivated by this same point. Showing the Chinese ships from the

perspective of a fisherman in a small boat dramatizes the “shock and awe” (Wade, p.


218) that the fleet must have evoked in many who saw it.

Tan’s position, as stated in Document I (a position that Su agrees with), that the

tributary relationships cost the Chinese more than they received materially in return

undermines Wade’s assumption that the goal of the aggression he sees was economic.

On the other hand, Tan’s view of tributary relationships does not depend on economic

motivation, which suggests that the Chinese might have been willing to impose such

relationships with force even if there were no economic goal for doing so.

I am happy to let Su have the last word on this debate, as I find that his careful

reading of the historical record and his apparent lack of an ax to grind make him a

trustworthy guide. On this point Su concludes:

… compared to Portugal’s later maritime expeditions to the Indian Ocean and the

South China Sea, the early Ming expeditions appeared to be much more

peaceful. However, it is notable that the political, economic, cultural and

geographical background of early Ming China was quite different compared to

that of Portugal. Therefore, simplistic comparisons … are not very meaningful (p.

23).

SourcesMa, Huan. (1970). Ying-ya Sheng-lan. (The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores). (J.

V. G. Mills, Trans.). Cambridge, UK: Hakluyt Society. (Original work published 1451.)

Su, Ming-Yang. (2005). Seven Epic Voyages of Zheng He in Ming China (1405-1433): Facts, Fiction and Fabrication. Torrance, CA: Author.

Tan, Ta Sen. (2009). Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asia Studies.

Wade, Geoff. (2009). Ming Colonial Armies in Southeast Asia. In Geoff Wade (Ed.). China and Southeast Asia. (Vol. 2: Southeast Asia and Ming China from the Fourteenth to the Sixteenth Century). (pp. 212-244). London: Routledge.
