child development theories - eduhk

Child

Development

Theories Berk, L.E. (2005/2008). Infants,

children, and adolescents. Boston :

Allyn & Bacon.

AW_Child development theories_2015

Periods of Development

Berk, 2005 (p.5)

• The prenatal period – from conception to birth(產前期)

• Infancy and toddlerhood – from birth to 2 years(嬰兒期)

• Early childhood – from 2 to 6 years(幼兒期)

• Middle childhood – from 6 to 11 years(兒童期)

• Adolescence: from 11 to 18 years(青年期)

• Emerging adulthood: from 18 to 25 years(成年).


Domains of Development

Berk, 2005 (p.6)

• Physical Development

身體 / 生理發展

• Cognitive Development

認知發展

• Emotional and Social Development

社群及情緒發展


身體各方面的變化: • Body size 身體尺寸 • Proportions 比例 • Appearance 外觀 • Functioning of body systems 身體系統的運作 • Perceptual and motor capacities 感知和運動能力 • Physical health 身體健康

Physical Development 身體發展


Emotional and Social

Development

Changes in : • emotional communications

表達情緒、分享感受

• Self-understanding 自我認識

• Knowledge about other people

了解其他人

• Interpersonal skills 人際交往能力

• Friendships 友誼發展

• Intimate relationships 親密關係

• Moral reasoning and behavior

道德推理和道德行為


Cognitive Development 認知發展

Changes in Intellectual

abilities including :

• Attention 注意力，

• Memory 記憶力,

• Academic and everyday

knowledge學術和日常知識,

• Problem solving 解決問題,

• Imagination 想像力,

• Creativity 創造力, and

• Language 語言發展


Basic Issues

發展的基本性質

Berk, 2005 (p.6-7)

• Theories describe, explain and predict behaviour

理論描述，解釋和預測行為。

(e.g. “A researcher will see the simple act of a child’s helping

his or her father, for example, very differently depending on whether the researcher views the behavior through the filtering lens of a psychoanalytic, behavorial, or ecological theory).

• A theory’s continued existence depends on scientific verification.

一個理論的繼續存在依賴於科學的驗證


Why is Childhood Crucial?

• Research has shown that early childhood may

be the most important life stage for brain

development.

• A baby’s brain is about one quarter the size of

an adults’.

• Scientists have found that babies’ brains

develop in response to stimulation.

– Arouses senses such as sight, sound, touch,

taste, and smell.

• Babies who are stimulated develop more quickly

and have a more secure self-image. AW_Child development theories_2015

What is a theory?

• A theory should allow us to predict

and explain human behavior

• It should be stated in such a way

that it can be shown to be false

• It must be open to scientific

investigation


Child Development

Theorists

• Although researches don’t always agree,

scientific researchers have agreed upon the

five following general rules.

– Development is similar for each individual

– Development builds upon earlier learning.

– Development proceeds at an individual

rate.

– The different areas of development are

interrelated.

– Development is a lifelong process.


Psychoanalytic Theories:

• Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

• Emphasizes how parents manage their child’s

sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years

of life is crucial for healthy personality

development

– Personality has 3 parts

– There are 5 stages of psychosexual

development

– Oedipus complex allows child to identify with

same-sex parentOedipus conflicts for boy戀母

情結

– Electra conflict for girls戀父情結

– Fixation is an unresolved conflict during a

stage of development


Three Parts of Personality

• Id

• ego

• And superego


本我(id)：

• Id Focuses on biological needs and desires

» The new born consists of a single operating component called the id (Thomas, 2005, p.57).

» The new born baby is seeking only to satisfy its needs for food, for drink, for warmth, for elimination of bodily wastes, for freedom from skin irritants, and for affection (Thomas, 2005, p.57).

– References: Thomas, R. M. (2005). Comparing theories of child development (6th ed.). Australia: Thomson Wadsworth.

本我(id)：

1. 只求滿足生理需要(餓、渴、泠、暖、倦….)

2. 受享樂原則的支配 (包括本能衝動與滿足)。

3. 沒有價值觀、倫理和邏輯。


自我(ego)：

• The conscious, rational part of personality

• Emerges in early infancy to redirect the id’s impulses

(管制原始衝動), so that they are discharged in

acceptable ways (Berk, 2005). • The ego serves as a decision maker that tries to negotiate a satisfactory solution to the

conflicting demands that come on the side from the id (which says, “I want”) and on the

other side from the environment or “real world” (which says, “You’ll get it with a

minimum of cost or pain only under these conditions” (Thomas, 2005, p. 58).

• The ego operates on the reality principle, which can be stated as follows: “Recognize

the conditions and demands of the real world and then seek methods of fulfilling the id’s

needs that are acceptable in such a world.” (Thomas, 2005, p. 58).

1. 學習社會化，使本我(id)適應外界的要求。

2. 一方面管制原始衝動，一方面滿足本我的需要。

3. 能實際的、合理的、真正的滿足自己的需要。


Examples

• For example, aided by the ego, the

hungry baby of a few months of age

stops crying when he sees his

mother warm a bottle or unfasten

her clothing for breast feeding.

• And the more competent

preschooler goes into the kitchen

and gets a snack on her own.


超我(superego)：

– Between 3 and 6 years of age

– The superego, or conscience(良心、良知) develops from interactions with parents, who insist that children conform to the values of the society.

– Parents produce babies’ good and bad feelings by manipulating the system of rewards and punishments she will experience.

– Superego has two aspects, the conscience (represents the “should nots”)and ego ideal (represents the “shoulds”)

• 人格中的道德成份。

• 代表理想。

• 對本我或自我有檢察的功能。

• 不符合良知，會有罪疚感。


Superego

• The ego need to reconcile the demands of

the id, the external world, and conscience

(Freud, 1923/1974) • Example:

– Id: hitting a playmate to get an attractive toy

– Superego: Such behavior is wrong (conscience

punishes children with guilt, shame and fear when they

violate the rules; the ideal ego rewards children with

feelings of self-righteousness, self praise and pride

when they conform to the moral rules). (Thomas, 2005,

p.59-60)

– Ego: must decide which of the two forces will win this

inner struggle.


Preschool years

• Freud

• The relations established between id,

ego, and superego during the

preschool years determine the

individual’s basic personality (人格發展).

• The ego has to negotiate a settlement among three conflicting sources of demands;

• 1) the id, which insists on immediate fulfillment of wishes;

• 2) the environment which sets conditions under which wishes can be satisfied

without punishments;

• and 3) the superego, which presses youths to live up to a set of moral values they

incorporated from their parents and from other significant people in their world.

(Thomas, 2005, p.60).


Freud’s Psychosexual

stages

• Oral stage (Birth -2 year)口腔期

• Anal stage (1-3 years)肛門期

• Phallic (3-6 years)性器期

• Latency (6-11 years)性潛期

• Genital (adolescence)生殖期


Phallic

Stage

Child’s

pleasure focuses on

genitals

Latency

Stage

Child

represses sexual interest

and develops social and intellectual

skills

Anal Stage

Child’s

pleasure focuses on

anus

Genital

Stage

A time of

sexual reawakening;

source of sexual

pleasure becomes someone

outside of the family

Oral Stage

Infant’s pleasure

centers on mouth

Freudian Stages

6 yrs to puberty

Birth to 1½ yrs

1½ to 3 yrs

Puberty onward

3 to 6 years


佛洛依德Freud

Berk, 2005, p.16

• Highlighted the importance of family

relationships and early experiences for

children development

• Freud overemphasized the influence of

sexual feelings

• Had not studied children directly!!!


Erikson’s theory (艾力克森)

• Psychosocial theory心理社會學說

• Ego does not just mediate between id impulses and superego demands.

• It is also a positive force in development.

• A t each stage, it acquires attitudes and skills that make the individual an active continuity member of society (Berk, 2005, p.16-17).


• Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory:

– There are 8 stages of psychosocial

development

– Each has a unique developmental task

– Developmental change occurs throughout

life span

• Key points of psychoanalytic theories:

– Early experiences and family relationships

are very important to development

– Unconscious aspects of the mind are

considered

– Personality is best seen as a developmental

process AW_Child development theories_2015

• 8 stages of development from birth to old age

• A basic psychological conflict (危機),

• which is resolved along a continuum from positive to negative,

• Determines whether healthy or maladaptive outcomes occur at each stage.

• 處理危機的方式乃人格發展之轉折點。

• 積極的解決危機健全的人格發展

• 社會環境決定危機是否得到積極解決。



Erikson’s Stages Developmental Period Trust vs Mistrust Infancy (first year)

Autonomy vs shame & doubt

Infancy (1 to 3 years)

Initiative vs guilt Early childhood (3 to 5 years)

Industry vs inferiority Middle and late childhood

Identity vs identity confusion

Adolescence (10 to 20 years)

Intimacy vs isolation Early adulthood (20s, 30s)

Generativity vs stagnation

Middle adulthood (40s, 50s)

Integrity vs despair Late adulthood (60s onward)

Figure 2.2

Erikson’s Eight Life-Span Stages



• Psychosocial theory心理社會學說

• Ego does not just mediate between id impulses and superego demands.

• It is also a positive force in development.

• A t each stage, it acquires attitudes and skills that make the individual an active continuity member of society (Berk, 2005, p.16-17).


• 8 stages of development from birth to old age

• A basic psychological conflict (危機),

• which is resolved along a continuum from positive to negative,

• Determines whether healthy or maladaptive outcomes occur at each stage.

• 處理危機的方式乃人格發展之轉折點。

• 積極的解決危機健全的人格發展

• 社會環境決定危機是否得到積極解決。



艾力克森: 八個階段

Berk, 2005, p.17

1.Basic trust versus mistrust (Oral)

信任對不信任期。

• Birth – 1 year: Warm, responsive care, infants gain a sense of trust that the world is good.

• 零至一歲：父母、照顧者的育兒質素是重要因素。 • Trust = being able to predict and depend upon one’s own behavior

and the behavior of others.

• Id’s needs for food, exercising lips and gums and the sucking mechanism .

• Attachment figures: mother, father, caregiver quality of affectional relationships)

• An unsatisfactory infant-mother relationship during the first year of life can be repaired somewhat in later years by the child’s enjoying a particularly trustworthy social environment.

• An infant who establishes a secure attitude of trust during the first year may have this attitude shaken in later years by experience with undependable people who are significant to him (Thomas, 2005).


2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt (Anal) 自主對害羞、懷疑期。

• 2 -3 years

• Autonomy(自主權)is fostered when parents permit reasonable free choice and do not force or shame the child.

二至三歲：自我意願與父母意願會有相互衝突。自主權？過度控制？

• Evacuating the bowels and bladder not only causes children to feel good but gives them a growing sense of power through control over the evacuation system.

• Developing a sense of autonomy, of being able to do things for themselves.

• Erikson proposed that parents who impose strict bowel training on the two-year-old may influence the child to develop basic sense of shame in self and doubt about his/her abilities. They may seek satisfaction by regressing to oral activities – thumb-sucking, whining and demanding attention (Thomas, 2005; Cook & Cook, 2005).

• In contrast, firm but gradual and kindly bowel training can aid the child in developing a sense of self-control without loss of self –esteem.

References: Cook, J. L., & Cook, G. (2005). Child development: Principles and perspectives. Allyn & Bacon.


3. Initiative versus guilt 3-6 (Phallic) 自發對罪疚期 • 3-6 years • Through make-believe play, • Children develop a sense of ambition and responsibility

when parents support their child’s new sense of purpose. • Children need the guidance of parents and teachers who

understand the trials the child is facing (Thomas, 2005; Berk, 2005). Adults need to permit the “peaceful cultivation of initiative, a truly free sense of enterprise” (Erikson, 1959, p.82). (Allow children to initiate activities to meet larger goals, learn to take initiative and to set own goals, design projects, and interact with peers. If parents / teachers stop children from taking initiatives, children can learn guilt that own desires, conflict with those of parents (Cook and Cook, 2005).

• 三至六歲：幼兒開始有獨創的行為和想像力。會自發的活動。成人的態度很重要。


4. Industry versus inferiority (Latency)

勤奮對自卑。

• 6-11 years

• At school, children develop the capacity to work and

cooperate with others

• Negative experiences at home/school/with peers may

lead to feelings of incompetence

六至十一歲：若無法從工作、學業中得到快樂，會失去信心和價值感。


5. Identity versus identity confusion (Genital)

自我認同與角色混淆期。

• Adolescence

• Who am I?

• What is my place in society?

• Self-chosen values goals lead to a lasting personal identity

• The negative outcome is confusion about future adult roles.

• 十二至二十歲：

思考自己和社會各種信息，找尋自己的生活策略。


• 6.Intimacy versus isolation (Emerging Adulthood) 親密對孤立。二十至二十四歲：

• Quest for identity continues

• Young people work on establishing intimate ties to others

• Earlier disappointments may influence individual’s ability to form close relationships


• 7. Gererativity versus stagnation 繁殖對停滯期。

• Feelings of accomplishment through child rearing, caring for other people or productive work.

• 二十五至六十五：

生兒育女？父母的角色？


8. Integrity versus despair (Old age)

• Final stage

• Integrity results from feeling that life was worth living as it happened

• Fear of death results from being dissatisfied with their lives

• 六十五歲開始：自我統整對絕望。

人生感到美滿？不怕死亡？感到絕望？


• A special strength of the

psychoanalytic

perspective is its

emphasis on the

individual’s unique life

history as worthy of study

and understanding (Emde,

1992)


Psycholanalytic theory inspired

a wealth of research

• Emotional and social development

• Infant-caregiver attachment

• Aggression

• Sibling relationships

• Child-rearing practices

• Morality

• Gender roles

• Adolescent identity


Piaget’s cognitive-

developmental theory

Discontinuous:

Cognitive development takes place in stages.

One course: Stages are assumed to be universal.

Both nature and nurture: Development occurs as

the brain matures and children exercise their

innate drive to discover really in a generally

stimulating environment.

Both early and later experiences are important.


Cognitive theories:

• Piaget’s cognitive developmental

theory

– Stresses conscious mental processes

– Cognitive processes are influenced by

biological maturation

– Four stages of cognitive development

in children

– Assimilation and accommodation underlie

how children understand the world, adapt

to it, and organize their experiences


• Children actively construct

knowledge as they manipulating

and explore their world

• Piaget proposed that children

represent what they understand

about the world in cognitive

structures that he called mental

schemes.


Example

• An infant has an grasping scheme

• He understands how to grasp a small ball.

• What would happen, for example if he tried to grasp a

larger ball?

• Most likely, he would first try to grasp the larger ball

with one hand, as he had grasped the smaller ball

before (assimilation).

• But the one-hand-grasp scheme would not work.


Cook, J. L. & Cookm G. (2009). Child Development:

Principles and perspectives (2nd

ed.). Boston, New York, San

Fransciso: Pearson Education, Inc. (p. 13).

Assimilation

• Assimilation is the process of bring new objects or

information into a scheme that already exists in the mind

– An infant has an grasping scheme

– He understands how to grasp a small ball .

– What would happen, for example if he tried to grasp a larger ball?

– Most likely, he would first try to grasp the larger ball with one

hand, as he had grasped the smaller ball before (assimilation).

– But the one-hand-grasp scheme would not work.

– To hold the larger ball successfully, the infant would need to use

trial-and error practice to learn to use two hands.


Accomodation

• Accommodation is the process of adjusting or adapting a scheme so it better fits the new experience.

• Through accommodation the infant would learn that grasping sometimes requires two hands.

• Now the infant has a more powerful and flexible grasping scheme.

• He understands how to grasp smaller objects with one hand and larger ones with two hands

Reference: Cook, J. L. & Cook G. (2009). Child Development: Principles and perspectives (2nd ed.). Boston, New York, San

Fransciso: Pearson Education, Inc. (p. 13).


• As children continue to gain new

experiences, they adapt their

cognitive structures, or schemes,

through a continual cycle of

assimilation and accommodation.


Piaget believed that children’s cognitive structures develop through 4 major stages or phases of development:

•Sensorimotor, •Preoperational, •Concrete operational, and •Formal operational thought.

We will look more closely at these stages, and the rest of Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory, in later lessons.


Preoperational Stage:

The child begins to represent the world with words and images. These words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action.

Formal Operational Stage

The adolescent reasons in more abstract idealistic and logical ways.

Sensorimotor Stage:

The infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions: progressing from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward end of the stage.

Concrete Operational Stage:

The child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets.

Figure 2.3

11–15 years of age

through adulthood

Birth to 2 years of age

2 to 7 years of age

7 to 11 years of age

Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development


Vygotsky’s socio-cultural

theory

• Both continuous and discontinuous:

Language acquisition and

schooling lead to stagewise

changes.

• Dialogues with more expert

members of society also lead to

continuous changes that vary from

culture to culture.


• Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive

theory

– Children actively construct their knowledge

– Social interaction and culture guide

cognitive development

– Learning is based upon inventions of

society

– Knowledge is created through interactions

with other people and objects in the culture

– Less skilled persons learn from the more

skilled


Vygotsky’s socio-

cultural theory

• Both nature and nurture:

• Heredity, brain growth, and

dialogues with more expert

members of society jointly

contributed to development. Both

early and later experiences are

important.


Vygotsky:

Zone of Proximal

Development (ZPD)

• Refers to the gap between what a given child

can achieve alone, their potential development as determined by independent problem solving, and what they can achieve ‘through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers’ (Wood, & Wood, 1966)

• Vygotsky refers to what children can do on their own as the ‘level of actual development’



Level of potential development

Zone of Proximal

Development (with help of adult or more competent peer)

Level of Actual Development

實際發展水準

發展水準之間的距離(由成人指導或與較有能力的同儕共同解決問題)

發展潛能

Contexts

• Unique combinations of

personal and environmental

circumstances that result in

different paths of change.


Contexts

1. Personal characteristics:

2. Parental Relationship:

3. Social Support Outside the Immediate family (e.g. Grandfather, Aunt, teacher, peer)

4. Community life :Opportunities to participate in community life increase the chances that older children and adolescents will overcome adversity.


A balanced point of View

• Some theories believe that both

continuous and discontinuous

changes occur.

• Development can have both

universal features and features

unique to the individual and his or her

contexts.


Ask Yourself

1. Cite an aspect of your

development that differs from a

parent’s or a grandparent’s when

he or she was your age. How might

contexts explain this difference?

(Berk. 2005,p.11)


Information-processing theory

Compares computers to the human mind

Thinking is information processing


Information is taken into brain

Information gets processed, analyzed, and stored until use

OUTPUT INPUT

Information is used as basis of behaviors and interactions

Information-Processing Theory

math

history religion

geography

science

literature


Environment Person

(cognitive)

Behavior

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model

Figure 2.4 AW_Child development theories_2015

Social learning theory社會學習論

The most influential, devised by Albert

Bandura, emphasized modeling,

otherwise known as imitation or

observational learning, as a powerful

source of development.

班杜拉的社會學習論

指出個體在社會情境中，透過觀察別人的行為模式及其行為後果，從而獲得不同技能與能力。

Bobo doll experiment:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHHdovKHDNU

PGDE_AW

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHHdovKHDNU

Bandura’s Modeling/Imitation

Child observes someone admired

Child imitates behavior

that seems rewarded


• Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological

theory:

– Environmental factors influence

development

– 5 environmental systems affect life-span

development

• Eclectic theoretical orientation:

– Selects features from other theories

– No one theory has all the answers

– Each theory can make a contribution to

understanding life-span development


Exosystem Mesosystems

Macrosystem

Family School & classroom

Religion & groups

Peer group

Chronosystem

School system

Political philosophy

Figure 2.5

Bronfenbrenner’s

Ecological Theory

of Development


Other factors, such as genetic

tendencies, poverty, and sociohistorical

circumstances Children’s lack of self-control

Permissive parenting

Children’s lack of self-control



Children’s lack of self-control

and

causes

both

cause

causes

Observed correlation: as permissive parenting increases, children’s self-control decreases

Figure 2.9

Possible Explanations for Correlational Data


Group 2 Time playing video

games: 6 hours

each day

More aggressive

and antisocial

More playful

and sociable

Time playing video

games: 2 hours

each day

Group 1


Other Influences on

Development

• Heredity

– Blood type, eye color, and hair color

• Environment

– Children also learn attitudes and

beliefs from their environments


child development theories - eduhk

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