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CHEPTER-l

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Communication

l.l Human communication advertisement

1.1.1 Types of advertising

1.1.2 Advertisement and Social Impact

1.1.3 Criticism of advel1ising

1.2.4 Signilicance of advertising

1.2 Food

1.2.1 Food sources

1.2.2 Taste perception

1.3.3 Types of food

1.3.3.1 Traditional

1.3.3.2 Non-Traditional

1.3.4 Theoretical perspective of food choice and other food-related

behavior

1.3.4.1 Biological

1.3.4.2 Psychological

1.3.4.3 Sociological

1.3.4.4 Ecological

1.3.4.5 Cultural

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'" 1.4 Nutrition !

1.4.1 Nutritional Awareness or knowledge

1.4.2 Nutrients

1.4.3 Carbohydrates

1.4.4 Fiber

1.4.5 Fat

1.4.6 Protein

1.4.7 Minerals

1.4.8 Vitamins

1.4.9 Water t

• 1.4.10 Other nutrients

, 1.4.11 Intestinal bacterial flora

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• 1.0 Introduction

Technology's impact on the 21 st century life and causing a disintegration of core

values. Individuals now rely heavily on communication, information and transportation

technology to make their lives fastcr and more efficient. Entertainment technology (TV,

• internet, videogames, and iPods) has advanced so rapidly, that persons have scarcely

noticed the significant impact and changes to lifestyles. A national survey by the Kaiser

Family Foundation 2010 found that with technology allowing nearly 24-hour media

access as children and teens go about their daily lives, the amount of time young people

spend with entertainment media has risen dramatically. The impact of rapidly advancing

tccimology on person has seen an increase of physical, psychological and behaviour

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• Simultaneously the signilicance of advertising has increased in the modern era of

large scale and affect persons' food style in a way that we shape our social values,

behaviours, tastes and preferences based on what we see in advertisement on TV,

magazines, newspapers, online and in movies. Advertising helps in spreading information

about the food by the advertising finn, its products, qualities and place of availability of

its products, and so on. It helps to create a non-personal link between the advel1iser and

the receiver of the message.

In context of aforementioned the present study explored the advertisement impact

• on persons' food style, Awareness of nutritional component and consumption of

preferred food in relation to their age, gender and locality and described the considered

term as follows-

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• • I.l Communication

Communication is the activity of conveying information. Communication has , becn derivcd from the Latin word "communis", mcanlllg to sharc. Communication

requires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient, although the receiver need not be

prcsent or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication;

thus communication can occur across vast distances in time and space. Communication

requires that the communicating partics share an area of communicative commonality.

The communication proces~ is complete once the receiver has understood the mcssage of

the sender. Feedback is critical to effective communication bctween partics.

1.1.1 Human communication

Human spoken and pictorial languages can be dcscribed as a system of symbols 1

• (sometimcs known as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are

manipulated. The word "language" also refers to common properties of languages.

,,' Language learning normally occurs most intensively during human childhood. Most of

the thousands of human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which

enable communication with others around them. Languages seem to share certain

properties although many of these include exceptions. There is no defined line between a

, language and a dialect. Construct cd languages such as Espcranto, programming

languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restricted to the

propertics shared by human languages.

A varicty of vcrbal and non-verbal means of communicating exists such as body

• language, eye contact, sign language, para language, haptic communication, chronemics,

and media such as pictures, graphics, sound, and writing.

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.. 1.2 Advertisement

Advertising is a fonn of communication uscd to encourage or persuade an

audience (viewers, readers or listencrs) to continue or take some new action. Advertising

messages are usually paid for by sponsors and viewed via various traditional media;

including mass media such as newspaper, magazines, television commercial, radio

advertisement, outdoor advertising or direct mail; or new media such as blogs and

.t" websites and text messages. Commercial advertisers often seek to generate increased

consumption of their products or servjces through "branding," which involves the

repetition of an image or product name in an effort to associate certain qualities with the

brand in the minds of consumers. Non-commercial advertisers who spend money to

advertise items other than a consumer product or service include political parties, interest J

• groups, religious organizations and governmental agencies. Nonprofit organizations may

rely on free modes of persuasion, such as a public service announcement (PSA). Modem

... advertising developed with the rise of mass production in the late 19th and early 20th

centuries.

1.2.1 Types of advertising

, Virtually any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial advertising media

can include wall paintings, billboards, street furniture components, printed flyers and rack

• cards, radio, cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone screens,

shopping carts, web popups, skywriting, bus stop benches, human billboards, magazines,

newspapers, town criers, sides of buses, banners attached to or sides of airplanes

("logojets"), in-flight advertisements on seatback tray tablcs or overhead storage bins,

taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger screens, musical stage shows, subway

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platfonns and trains, elastic bands on disposable diapers, doors of bathroom stalls,

stickers on apples in supemlarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the opening

section of streaming audio and video, posters, and the backs of event tickets and

supcnnarkct rcccipts. Any place an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message

• through a medium is advertising.

Television advertising / Music in advertising

The TV commercial is generally considered. the most effective mass-market

advertising fonnat, as is reflected by the high prices TV networks charge for commercial

airtime during popular TV events. The majorities of television commercials feature a

song or jingle that listeners soon relate to the product. Virtual advertisements may be

• inserted into regular television programming through computcr graphics.

Infomercials

An infomercial is a long-format television commercial, typically five

minutes or longer. The word "infomercial" is a portmanteau of the words "information"

& "commercial". The main objective in an infomercial is to create an impulsc purchase,

so that the consumer sees the presentation and then immediately buys the product through

• the advertised toll-free telephone number or website. Infomercials describe, display, and

often demonstrate products and their features, and commonly have testimonials from

• consumers and industry professionals.

Radio advertising

Radio advertising is a fonn of adveltising VIa the medium of radio. Radio

advertisements are broadcast as radio waves to the air from a transmitter to an antenna

and a thus to a receiving device. Airtime is purchased from a station or network in

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exchange for airing the commercials. While radio has the limitation of being restricted to

sound, proponents of radio advertising often cite this as an advantage. Radio is an

expanding medium that can be found not only on air, but also online.

Online advertising

Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the Internet and World Wide

Web for the expressed purpose of delivering marketing messages to attract customers.

Online ads are delivered by an ad server. Examples of online advertising include

contextual ads that appear on search engine results pages, banner a9s, in text ads, Rich

Media Ads, Social network advertising, online classified advertising, advcrtising

networks and e-mail marketing, including e-mail spam.

Product placements I

• Covert advertising, also known as guerrilla advertising, is when a product or

brand is embedded in entertainment and media. For example, in a film, the main

character can use an item or other of a definite brand.

Press advertising

Press advertising describes advet1ising in a printed medium such as a newspaper,

magazine, or trade journal. This encompasses everything from media with a very broad

• readership base, such as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more narrowly

targeted media such as local newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics. A

• form of press advet1ising is classified advertising, which allows private individuals or

companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad for a low fee advertising a product

or service. Another form of press advertising is the Display Ad, which is a larger ad (can

include art) that typically run in an article section of a newspaper.

Billboard advertising

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Billboards arc large structures located in public places which display

advcliisements to passing pcdestrians and motorists. Most oftcn, they are located on main

roads with a large amount of passing motor and pedestrian traffic; however, they can be

placed in any location with large amounts of viewers, such as on mass transit vehicles

and in stations, in shopping malls or office buildings, and in stadiums.

Mobile billboard advertising

Mobile billboards are generally vehicle mounted billboards or digital screens.

These can be on dedicatcd vehicles built solely for carrying adveliisements along.routes

preselected by clients, they can also be specially equipped cargo trucks or, in some cases,

large banners strewn from planes. The billboards are often lighted; some being backlit,

and others employing spotlights. Some billboard displays are static, while others change;

for example, continuously or periodically rotating among a set of advertisements. Mobile

displays are used for various situations in metropolitan areas throughout the world,

including: Target advertising, One-day, and long-term campaigns, Conventions, Sporting

events, Store openings and similar promotional events, and Big advertisements from

smaller companies.

In-store advertising

In-store advertising IS any advertisement placed in a retail store. It includes

placement of a product in visible locations in a store, such as at eye level, at the ends of

aisles and near checkout counters (aka POP-Point Of Purchase display), eye-catching

displays promoting a specific product, and advertisements in such places as shopping

carts and in-store video displays.

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• Coffee cup advertising

Coffee cup advertising is any advertisement placcd upon a coffec cup that is

distributed out of an office, cafe, or drive-through coffee shop. This foml of advertising

was first popularized in Australia, and has begun growing in popularity in the United

Slates, India, and parts of the Middle East.[citation needed]

Street advertising

This type of advertising first camc to prominence in the UK by Street Advertising

Services to create outdoor advertising on street fumiture and pavements. Working with

products such as Reverse Graffiti, air dancer's and 3D pavement advertising, the media

became an affordable and effcctive tool for getting brand messages out into public

• spaces .

Celebrity branding

This type of advertising focuses upon USIng celebrity power, fame, money,

popularity to gain recognition for their products and promote specific stores or products.

Advertisers often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their

• favorite products or wear clothes by specific brands or designers. Celcbritics are often

involved in advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific

• or general products .

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1.2.2 Advertisement and Social Impact

Advertising is the promotion of product or services. This gives companies a way

to expose their products to people and hence maximize their sales. Without advertisement

not a single farm or company can grow in this world of competition.

Adveliising is the mostly debated topic as it has also some positive as well some

negative points. It has some positive aspect of social and economical impact on society

and simultaneously it do have some negative impact also. Advertising a public welfare

program has positive social impact whereas exposing woman in an adveliisement has

negative impact on society.

Adveliising is a mass marketing technique. Assorted techniques are used for

advertising which persuades the consumers that why they need the product which is

being advertised. They focus more on the benefits, which consumer will get from that

product, rather than the product itself. Through advertising, products can be known to

public easily. They can decide which product they need and why. Thus increasing the

consumption and as a result also increasing the dcmand of the product. Advertising can

also be used to generate awareness among public that which product they use and to

which product they can say no. It can also be used to educate people about certain

diseases or danger (example: - AIDS, TB, viral diseases, etc.). Even the backward people

are now aware of many diseases and their problems. And all these credits goes to proper

advertising. Diseases like Polio could never been controlled if the timings for polio drops

aren't advertised regularly. Further advertising also used to infonn public about social

events like concerts and performances. Charities can use media to advertise about the

illnesses and encourage people for donations. Social organizations and NGOs can use the

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advertisement during epidemics or natural calamities can help a lot.

There are also various blames that advertising is causing negative social impact

on lives. Even if advertising has a vast good impacts on society, it can be ruled out that is

has bad impact also. It plays with the emotions of general public and encourages them to

think that buying and depleting are the activities of life. Advertising posters of modem

films, where sexuality is shown much than the actual theme of the movie, can divert the

society a lot. Materialism is being much glorified through advertisements, which can

again have dangerous consequences Society is becoming ignorant towards social or

world issues because we are too obsessed to satisfy our newly created needs. We want to

earn more and more money so that we can buy happiness in forms of products, being

• advertised as they can bring all the happiness in our lives. We are starving for material

goals, because we always just want to have more. Products which are heavily advertised

are expensive due to the cost spent on advertising. It is true that advertising increases

consumption, but its also true that the more we consume, the more we destroy the

environment, because if demand increases production also increases. Thus the need of

raw materials also increases.

Overall advertising has positive as well as negative impact on society. The

balance, of what is necessary and what really not needed should be focused more.

Advertisement can create contentment but can also simultaneously create discontentment.

Our society and the marketing of products depend so badly on advertisement that even its

• negative impact on society can't outweigh the many positive social and economical

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1.2.3 Criticisms of advertising

While auvertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth, it is not without

social costs. Unsoliciteu commercial e-mail anu other forms of spam have become so

prevalent as to have become a major nuisance to users of these services, as well as bcing

a financial burden on internet service providers. Advertising is increasingly invading

public spaces, such as schools, which some critics argue is a form of child exploitation. In

addition, advertising frequently uses psychological pressure (for example, appealing to

fcelings of inadequacy) on the intended consumer, whieh may be harmful. Many even

feel that often, advertisements exploit the desires of a consumer, by making a pal1icular

product more appealing, by manipulating the consumers needs and want.

1.2.4 Significance of advertising

In every walk of business and industrial activities, thcre is a throughout

competition, therefore no business can survive without advel1isement. Advertisement is

useful not only for the business enterprises but for the community as a whole. the

significance of advel1isement can broadly described as helps in Creation of demand for

new products , Helpful in establishing a direct contact bctween manufacturers and

consumers, Increase in sales and goodwill, Provides knowledge of new products ,

Convenient in purchasing, i.e., where and when to buy , Provides oppol1unities to

compare the merits and demerits of various substitute products, Modem advertisements

are highly informative , Increase in the standard of living , Provides knowledge of

alternative uses of products, Reduces sales efforts, . Encourages healthy competition.

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• • 1.3 Food

• Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for the body. It is , usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates,

fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and

assimilated by the organism's cells in an effort to produce energy, maintain life, or

stimulate growth.

• 1.3.1 Food sources

Almost all foods are of plant or animal origin. Cereal grain is a staple food that

provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Maize, wheat, and rice

- in all of their varieties - account for 87% of all grain production worldwide.

Other foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, especially

• mushrooms. Fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and

, pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and

" yOglilt. Another example is blue-green algae such as Spirulina.[3] Inorganic substances

such as baking soda and cream of tartar are also used to chemically alter an ingredient.

Plants

Many plants or plant parts are eaten as food. There are around 2,000 plant species

which are cultivated for food, and many have several distinct cultivars. Seeds of plants

are a good source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the

• nutrients necessary for the plant's initial growth, including many healthful fats, such as

Omega fats. In fact, the majority offood consumed by human beings is seed-based foods.

• Edible seeds include cereals (maize, wheat, rice, et cetera), legumes (beans, peas, lentils,

et cetera), and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed,

rapeseed (including canol a oil), sesame, et cetera.

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• • Seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health

• food, although not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a , choking hazard, while seeds from apples and cherries contain a poison (cyanide). Fruits

are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants have evolved

fruits that are attractive as a food source to animals, so that animals will eat the fruits and

excrete the seeds some distance away. Fruits, thercfore, make up a significant part of the

diets of most cultures. Some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants,

are eaten as vegetables. (For more infOlmation, see list of fruits.) Vegetables are a

second type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root

vegetables (potatoes and carrots), leaf vegetables (spinach and lettuce), stem vegetables

(bamboo shoots and asparagus), and inflorescence vegetables (globe m1ichokes and

• broccoli and other vegctables such as cabbage or caulif1ower. .

, Animals

• Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they

produce. Meat is an example of a direct product taken from an animal, which comes from

muscle systems or from organs. Food products produced by animals include milk

produced by mammary glands, which in many cultures is drunk or processed into dairy

• products (cheese, butter, et cetera). In addition, birds and other animals lay eggs, which

are often eaten, and bees produce honey, reduced nectar from f1owers, which is a popular

• sweetener in many cultures. Some cultures consume blood, sometimes in the form of

blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, or in a cured, salted 1'01111 for times of food

• scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as civet.

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.. Some cultures and people do not consume meat or animal food products for cultural,

• dietary, health, ethical, or ideological reasons. Vegetarians do not consume meat. Vegans

do not consume any foods that are or contain ingredients from an animal source.

1.3.2 Taste perception

J Animals, specifically humans, have five difTerent types of tastes: sweet, sour,

salty, bitter, and umami or delicious. As animals have evolved, the tastes that provide the

most energy (sugar and fats) are the most pleasant to eat while others, such as bitter, are

not enjoyable. Water, while important for survival, has no taste. Fats, on the other hand,

especially saturated fats, are thicker and rich and are thus considered more enjoyable to

eat.

• 1.3.3 Types of food

1.3.3.1 Traditional Food

.. Traditional food is food prepared traditionally, that may have a nostalgic or

sentimental appeal or rich in calories, nutrients, or both.

The traditional food of India has been widely appreciated for its fabulous use of

herbs and spices. Indian cuisine is known for its large assortment of dishes. The cooking

style varies from region to region. India is quite famous for its diverse multi cuisine,

which is reminiscent of unity in diversity. The staple food in India includes wheat, rice

• and pulses with chana (Bengal Gram) being the most important one. The Indian

traditional food includes Bengali, Gujarati, Kashmiri, Mughlai, Rajasthani and South

• Indian.

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• 1.3.3.2 Non- Traditional Food

Globalization has affected almost eveIY aspect of life in almost every

nation. From economic to social to culture, this widespread exchange of goods, services

and ideas have influenced changes around the world. Even though the cultural influence

in globalization is of slight significance to policy makers, its power has tremendous

consequences to the nations involved and its people.

• Food is an important element in defining culture. Britannica (2007) "Food is the

oldest global carrier of culture:' Nontraditional food can be defined as any changes in the

foods that we eat, in its preparation; the way it is served and consumed diminishes the

traditional beliefs of the people.

There has been a loss of traditional values with the introduction of nontraditional

• food which including mostly junk and fast foods into the culture of foreign countries.

, Fast food is the term given to food that can be prepared and served very quickly. While

.. any meal with low preparation time can be considered to be fast food, typically the term

refers to food sold in a restaurant or store with preheated or precooked ingredients, and

served to the customer in a packaged fonu for take-outltake-away. The term "fast food"

was recognized in a dictionary by Merriam-Webster in 1951.

• Junk food is an informal tenu for food that is of little nutritional value and often

high in fat, sugar, andlor calories. It is widely believed that the term was coined by

• Michael Jacobson, director of the Center for Science in the Public Interest, in 1972.

Junk foods typically contain high levels of calories from sugar or fat with little

• protein, vitamins or minerals. Common junk foods include salted snack foods, gum,

candy, sweet desserts, fricd fast food, and carbonated beverages.

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• 1.3.4 Theoretical perspective of food choice and other food-related behavior , Food choice involves the sclcction and consumption of foods and heverages,

Food choices play an important role in social, economic and cultural aspects of human

lives by expressing preferences, identities and cultural meanings. From the public health

perspective, studying of food choice processes is also essential, because they determine

• which nutrients and other substances enter the body and subsequently influence health,

morbidity and mortality. Many previous studies have explored selected aspects of food

choice from a wide range of disciplines and perspectives: biological, sociological,

psychological, cultural etc. as follows-

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• 1.3.4.1 Biological Approach

, Biological approaches to food choice take two forms. One focuses on

• physiological mechanisms, and its focus is explaining, at the moment, what is going on in

the body and the brain when a food choice occurs. Most of this research is carried out

with animals, particularly the domestic rat. The focus has been on the regulation of

energy intake, but there is impOliant information on food choice as well. The

physiological approach has two aspects, metabolic and neural. That is, oneaspect has to

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do with the processing of nutrients, and the metabolic events that become the stimuli for

action, via communication of nutritional states to the nervous system. The second aspect

focuses on the brain, and how and where information about metabolic state is integrated

• with information about the environment, other motives, etc., to lead to choice. This is

very important area, growing in relevance to human food choice with the recent

development of non-invasive brain scanning techniques.

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One more approach is the adaptive/evolutionary theory, which places an animal in its

ecological niche and in the context of its evolutionary history attempts to understand food

choice, feeding strategies and the like (Rozin, 2006).

1.3.4.2 Psychological approach

Social-Psychological Theories described following thcories-Expectancy-value

(EY) theory is a general model of human decision making that has been widely applied to

understanding (ood choice. It is based on the assumption that individuals are motivated to

maximize the chances of desirable outcomes occurring and minimize the chances of

undesirable ones. When choosing between two objects, individuals select those, which he

or she associates with the most positive and desirable result. This global evaluation

(attitude) is developed from the perceived probability that the object possesses a number

of some features (e.g. outcomes associated with purchasing a product), weighted by the

evaluation of those outcomes. The studies by Towler and Shepherd (1992) and Armitage

and Conner (2001) have demonstrated the utility of the EY model for predicting food

choice attitudes. Moreover, this approach is not only useful in studying the

decisionmaking processes basing on attitudes towards food, but also is predicting actual

food choice (Conner and Armitage, 2006).

Within the Theory of Reasoned Actions (TBA), the predictor of behavior is a

conscious intcntion to perform the action, and this intention is predicted by attitude and

subjective norms (perceived social pressure). These components are influenced in tum by

beliefs, beliefs about the outcome of the behavior in the case of attitudes, and beliefs

about the wishes of specific other groups in the case of subjective norm (Shepherd,

2008).

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The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) extends the TBA model by bringing in a

• component of perceived behavioral control that predicts intention and also can have a

• direct impact on behavior. Along with attitudes and sUbjective norms, perceived

behavioural control also is predicted by beliefs. In general, there is relatively good

prediction of intention by the components of attitudes, subjcctive noml, and perceived

behavioral control, but there are some critical issues on TBA and TBP.

Social cognitive thepry (SeT) provides a particularly useful theoretical

framework for understanding and describing the multiple influences that have an impact

on food behaviors (Baranowski et aI., 2002). In SeT, behavior is explained in tCfl11S of a

3-way, dynamic, and reciprocal interaction between personal factors, environmental

• • influences, and behavior. Key concepts of SeT are self-efficacy (self-confidence to

change behavior), observational learning (modeling), reciprocal determinism

• (bidirectional influences), behavioral capability (knowledge and skills to change

behavior), expectations (beliefs about likely results of action), functional meanings

(personal meaning attached to behavior) and reinforcement (responses to a person's

behavior that increase or decrease the chances of its recurrence) (Glanz and Rimer, 2005,

.. Baranowski et aI., 2002).

Among the constraints of socio-cognitive theories is their accent on the rational

• influences on behavior and little attention to emotional component of many behaviors,

whereas food choice and consumption have quite affective nature.

• Moreover, although cognitivelrational models can predict the perfofl11ancc of a behavior,

in many cases very ollen perfonned actions (including those related to food choice)

become more habitual and even automatic, because, the original reasons for adopting the

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behavior may have becn forgotten (Verplanken and Amis, 1999). A further problem

associated with the application of social-psychological models is that for many health

behaviors, people do not hold simple attitudes that perfollning the behavior is either good

or bad but rather have a more complex set of beliefs and attitudes, which reflect a degree

of ambivalence (Shepherd, 2002; Maio et aI., 2007). Ambivalence refers to holding both

strong positive and strong negative beliefs simultaneously and this is likely to be

common in many food contexts. For instance, people both like the sholi-term sensory

pleasure from consuming cCliain foods while simultaneously having negative beliefs

regarding their impact on health.

1.3.4.3 Sociological Approach

Sociologists have a particular interest in demographic variables as within culture

determinants of food choice. There are modest effects of age and gender on food

references (for example, meat avoidance is more common in women and, on account of

greater weight Concerns in women, preferences for low-calorie foods are higher in

women) (Rozin, 2006).

Sociological concerns also deal with important influences on food choice and

intake at the institutional level, such as in institutions (schools, universities and worksites

etc) and restaurants. The whole food system, including the social organization of the

growing of foods, delivery to markets and distribution of foods, has major influences on

what is chosen (Beardsworth and Keil, 1995; Maurer and Sobal, 1995). So, the

sociological perspective is also necessary in understanding food choice.

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" 1.3.4.4 Ecological approach

• Another relevant model for understanding factors influencing eating behaviour is J

an ecological perspective. Ecological models consider the connections between people

and their environments. In this model, behavior is viewed as affecting and being affected

by multiple levels of influence.

Brofenbrenner's ecological model divides environmental influences on behavior

into 4 interacting levels: microsystems, mesosystcms, exosystems, and macrosystems.

Microsystems refer to the most proximal contexts iI1 which an individual participates

directly, such as family, peers, and school. The linkages among the microsystems form

the next level, known as mesosystems. These are the interrelationships among the various

settings in which the individual is involved, such as family, school, peer groups, or

• • church. The exosystem refers to forces within the larger social system in which the

individual exists, such as the media and community influences. The most distal system is

the acrosystem, which consists of culturally based belief systems, economic systems, and

political systems (Brofenbrenner, 1979).

A more recent ecological model of food-related behavior is presented by M. Story

et al. In this model, eating behavior is viewed as being a function of multiple levels of

.. influence. The framework also emphasizes the interaction and integration of factors

within and across levels of influence. The four large levels of influence are individual,

• social environmental, physical environmental, and macrosystem.

Individual (intrapersonal) characteristics that influence eating behaviour include

• psychosocial factors, such as attitudes, beliefs, knowledge, self-efficacy, taste, and food

preferences-as well as biological factors such as hunger. Behavioral factors such as meal

and snack pattems and weight-control behaviors and lifestyle factors such as perceived

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barriers (for instance, cost, time demands, and convenience) are also considered to be

kind of intrapersonal factors that have an effect on eating behaviors.

• Social environmental influences (interpersonal) with include environments, which

include family, friends, and peer social networks are also strongly influence on food

choices and eating behaviors. Interpersonal influences can affect eating behaviors

through mechanisms such as modeling, reinforcement, social supp0l1, and subjective

• norms.

The physical environment (community settings) influenc,es accessibility and

availability of foods. Community settings most proximal to adolescents and influential in

affecting restaurants, shopping malls, vending machines, and convenience stores.

Macrosystem factors (societal) play indirect role in determining food behaviors.

• • They include mass media and advertising; social and cultural norms around eating; food

production and distribution systems, which influence food availability; and local, state,

• and federal policies and laws that regulate or support food-related issues, such as

availability and pricing (Story et aI., 2002).

The main limitation in using ecological perspective is a phenomenon of so called

reciprocal determinism (Glanz and Rimer, 2005, McLeroy et aI., 1988). This means that

• behavior and environment arc reciprocal systems and that influence occurs in both

directions. That is, the environment shapes, maintains, and constrains behavior, but

• people can create and change their environment (Story et aI., 2002).

• 1.3.4.5 Cultural (Anthropological) Approaches

In people's food-related behavior, culture is almost certainly the predominant

• influence. The anthropologists describe the complex of cultural traditions that bear

22 •

" directly on food as cuisine. Some of these traditions are about the particular foods people

.. eat, the kinds of things that appear on the table from day to day, and are described in

• ethnically faithful cookbooks. Elisabeth Rozin (1982) has provided a framework within

which to describe cuisine in this narrower sense, dividing into staple foods, flavouring

ingredients and methods of preparation.

So, the cuisine is very complex concept. The notion of CUISll1e includes

• appropriate meals, order of serving, and the like. And then there are table manners, the

social organization of the meal, food and ritual, and the meaning offood in lif~ and social

intercourse. Moreover, food often assumes symbolic roles. Because it involves shared

substance, it is closely connected with the social world, functioning frequently as a

homogenizing agent through sharing of food with individuals with whom one is close,

• • and as a heterogenizing agent, as a way of distinguishing oneself from most others by not

sharing food with them (Rozin, 2006). So, anthropology is the discipline that pays most

• attention to the role of food in daily life and the meaning offood.

1.4 Nutritioll

Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision, to cells and

organisms, of the materials necessary (in the form of food) to support life. Many common

health problems can be prevented or alleviated with a healthy diet. The diet of an

organism is what it eats, which is largely determined by the perceived palatability of

• foods. Dietitians are health professionals who specialize in human nutrition, meal

planning, economics, and preparation. They are trained to provide safe, evidence-based

• dietary advice and management to individuals (in health and disease), as well as to

.. institutions. Clinical nutritionists are health professionals who focus more specifically on

• the role of nutrition in chronic disease, including possible prevention or remediation by

23 •

..

•

• • , •

•

•

1

addressing nutritional deficiencies bcfore resorting to drugs. While government

regulation of the use of this professional title is less universal than for "dietician", the

field is supported by many high-level academic programs, up to and including the

Doctoral level, and has its own voluntary certification board, professional associations,

and peer-reviewed journals, e.g. the American Society for Nutrition and the American

Journal of Clinical Nutrition.

A poor diet can have an injurious impact on health, causing deficiency diseases

such as scurvy and kwashiorkor; health-threatening conditions like obesity and metabolic

syndrome; and such common chronic systemic diseases as cardiovascular disease,

diabetes and osteoporosis.

1.4.1 Nutritional Awareness or knowledge

Nutrition knowledge is defined as knowledge of nutrients. This knowledge IS

applicable when a consumer learns how to benefit from the knowledge of nutrients.

Psychologists have described two different types of knowledge: declarative and

procedural. Declarative knowledge is knowledge of what is knowledge of things and

processes (Worsley, 2002). One can know that vitamins are essential in one's diet; that

too much fat is not good in one's diet. Procedural knowledge is knowledge involving

how to do something. This type of knowledge involves application of declarative

knowledge. Knowing how to cook well is an example of procedural knowledge. One

takes the declarative knowledge and converts it to procedural knowledge. Choosing the

healthier snack is another example of procedural knowledge. Many people may realize

that they need to reduce their energy intakes, but how do they go about doing so?

Nutrition behaviour obviously involves both types of knowledge.

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r

" 1.4.2 Nlltrients

• There are six major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, minerals, protein,

• vitamins, and water. These nutrient classes can be categorized as either macronutrients

(needed in relatively large amounts) or micronutrients (needed in smaller quantities). The

macronutrients include carbohydrates (including fiber), fats, protein, and water. The

micronutrients are minerals and vitamins.

• The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino

acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some

signaling molecules are built) and energy. Some of the structural material can be used to

generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in Joules or kilocalories

(often called "Calories" and written with a capital C to distinguish them from little 'c'

• calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy pcr

gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram.,[17) though the net energy from either

• depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from

instance to instance. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are

required for other reasons. A third class of dietary material, fiber (i.e., non-digestible

material such as cellulose), is also requircd,[citation needed) for both mechanical and

biochemical reasons, although the exact reasons remain unclear.

Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

atoms. Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose)

to complex polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglyceridcs, made of assorted fatty acid

• monomers bound to glycerol backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are essential in the

diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in

addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental components of protein are

25 • •

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nitrogen-containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the scnse that humans

cannot make them internally. Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the

• expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for energy production just as ordinary

glucose in a process known as gluconeogenesis. By breaking down existing protein, some

glucose can be produced internally; the remaining amino acids arc discarded, primarily as

urea in urine. This occurs normally only during prolonged starvation.

• Other micronutrients include antioxidants and phytochcmicals, which arc said to

influence (or protect) some body systems. Their necessity is not as well established as in

the case of, for instance, vitamins.

Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient classes, together with other

substances, such as toxins of various sorts. Some nutrients can be stored internally (e.g.,

• the fat soluble vitamins), while others are required more or less continuously. Poor health

can be caused by a lack of required nutrients or, in extreme cases, too much of a required

nutrient. For example, both salt and water (both absolutely requircd) will cause illness or

even death in excessive amounts.

1.4.3 Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or

polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They

• constitute a large part of foods such as rice, noodles, bread, and other grain-based

products. Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides contain one, two, and

• three or more sugar units, respectively. Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex

carbohydrates because they are typically long, multiple branched chains of sugar units.

•

26 • •

•

•

,

•

•

Traditionally, simple carbohydrates were believed to be absorbed quickly, and therefore

raise blood-glucose levels more rapidly than complex carbohydrates. This, however, is

not accurate. Some simple carbohydrates (e.g. fructose) follow different metabolic

pathways (e.g. fructolysis) which result in only a partial catabolism to glucose, while

many complex carbohydrates may be digested at essentially the same rate as simple.

1.4.4 Fiber

Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate (or a polysaccharide) that is incompletely absorbed

in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized it can

produce four Calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram. However, in most circumstances

it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility. Dietary

fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer that is indigestible

because humans do not have the required enzymes to disassemble it. There are two

subcategories: soluble and insoluble fiber. Whole grains, fruits (especially plums, prunes,

and figs), and vegetables are good sources of dietary fibcr. There are many health

benefits of a high-fiber diet. Dietary fibcr helps reduce the chance of gastrointestinal

problems such as constipation and diarrhea by increasing the weight and size of stool and

softening it. Insoluble fiber, found in whole wheat flour, nuts and vegetables, especially

stimulates peristalsis - the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines which move

digest along the digestive tract. Soluble fiber, found in oats, peas, beans, and many fruits,

dissolves in water in the intestinal tract to produce a gel which slows the movement of

food through the intestines. This may help lower blood glucose levels because it can slow

the absorption of sugar. Additionally, fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, is

thought to possibly help lessen insulin spikes, and therefore reduce the risk of type 2

27

• f diabetes. The link between increased fiber consumption and a decreased risk of colorectal

• cancer is still uncertain.

•

l.4.S Fat

A molecule of dietary fat typically consists of several fatty acids (containing long

chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms), bonded to a glycerol. They are typically found as

• triglycerides (three fatty acids attached to one glycerol backbone). Fats may be classified

as saturated or unsaturated depending on the detailed structure of the fatty acids involved.

Saturated fats have all of the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains bonded to hydrogen

atoms, whereas unsaturated fats have some of these carbon atoms double-bonded, so their

molecules have relatively fewer hydrogen atoms than a saturated fatty acid of the same , length. Unsaturated fats may be further classified as monounsaturated (one double-bond)

or polyunsaturated (many double-bonds). Furthermore, depending on the location of the

double-bond in the fatty acid chain, unsaturated fatty acids are classified as omega-3 or

omega-6 fatty acids. Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat with trans-isomer bonds;

these are rare in nature and in foods from natural sources; they are typically created in an

industrial process called (partial) hydrogenation. There are nine kilocalories in each gram

of fat. Fatty acids such as conjugated linoleic acid, catalpic acid, eleostearic acid and

PU11lCIC acid, In addition to providing energy, represent potent Immune modulatory

• molecules.

Saturated fats (typically from animal sources) have been a staple in many world

• cultures for millennia. Unsaturated fats (e. g., vegetable oil) are considered healthier,

while trans fats are to be avoided. Saturated and some trans fats are typically solid at

.. room temperature (such as butter or lard), while unsaturated fats are typically liquids

28 • ..

•

• •

•

, ..

•

•

•

•

\

• ..

(such as olive oil or flaxseed oil). Trans fats are very rare in nature, and have been shown

to be highly detrimental to human health, but have properties useful in the food

processing industry, such as rancidity resistance.

Essential fatty acids

Most fatty acids are non-essential, meaning the body can produce them as needed,

generally from other fatty acids and always by expending energy to do so. However, in

humans, at least two fatty acids are essential and must be included in the diet. An

appropriate balance of essential fatty acids-omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids-

important for health, although definitive experimental demonstration has been elusive.

1.4.6 Protein

Proteins are the basis of many animal body stnlctures (e.g. muscles, skin, and

hair). They also form the enzymes that control chemical reactions throughout the body.

Each molecule is composed of amino acids, which are characterized by inclusion of

nitrogen and sometimes sulphur (these components are responsible for the distinctive

smell of burning protein, such as the keratin in hair). The body requires amino acids to

produce new proteins (protein retention) and to replace damaged proteins (maintenance).

As there is no protein or amino acid storage provision, amino acids must be present in the

diet. Excess amino acids arc discarded, typically in the urine. For all animals, some

amino acids are essential (an animal cannot produce thelll internally) and some are non-

essential (the animal can produce them from other nitrogen-containing compounds).

About twenty amino acids are found in the human body, and about ten of these are

essential and, therefore, must be included in the diet. A diet that contains adequate

amounts of amino acids (especially those that are essential) is particularly important in

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• •

,

•

•

, •

• •

some situations: during early development and maturation, pregnancy, lactation, or injury

(a bum, for instance), A complete protein source contains all the essential amino acids; an

incomplete protein source lacks one or more of the essential amino acids.

1.4.7 Minerals

Dietary minerals are the chemical clements required by living organisms, other

than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen that are present in nearly

all organic molecules. The term "mineral" is archaic, since the intent is to describe simply

the less common elements in the diet. minerals categorised into two categories namely

Macrominerals and Trace minerals.

1.4.8 Vitamins

As with the minerals discussed above, some vitamins are recognized as essential

nutrients, necessary in the diet for good health. (Vitamin D is the exception: it can be

synthesized in the skin, in the presence of UVB radiation.) Certain vitamin-like

compounds that are recommended in the diet, such as camitine, are thought useful for

survival and health, but these are not "essential" dietary nutrients because the human

body has some capacity to produce them from other compounds. Moreover, thousands of

different phytochemicals have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh

vegetables), which may have desirable properties including antioxidant activity (see

below); however, experimental demonstration has been suggestive but inconclusive.

Other essential nutrients that are not classified as vitamins include essential amino acids,

choline, essential fatty acids and the minerals.

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•

•

•

, ..

•

•

•

• •

1.4.9 Water

Water is excreted from the body in multiple forms; including urine and feces,

sweating, and by watcr vapour in the exhaled breath. Therefore it is necessary to

adequately rehydrate to replace lost fluids.

Early recommendations for the quantity of water required for maintenance of good health

suggested that 6-8 glasses of water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration.

However the notion that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot

be traced to a credible scientific source. About 80% of our daily water requirement comes

from the beverages we drink, with the remaining 20% coming from food. Water content

varies depending on the type of food consumed, with fruit and vegetables containing

more than cereals.

1.4.10 Other Ilutriellts

Other micronutrients include antioxidants and phytochemicals. These substances

are generally more recent discoveries that have not yet been recognized as vitamins or as

required. Phytochemicals may act as antioxidants, but not all phytochemicals are

antioxidants.

1.4.11 llltestillal bacterial flora

It is now also known that animal intestines contain a large population of gut flora.

In humans, these include species such as Bacteroides, L. acidophilus and E. coli, among

many others. They are essential to digestion, and are also affected by the food we eat.

Bacteria in the gut perfonn many important functions for humans, including breaking

down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food; stimulating cell growth;

repressing the growth of hannful bacteria, training the immune system to respond only to

pathogens; producing vitamin B 12, and defending against some infectious diseases.

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